MKT 6309 Exam 1

Growth of the need for marketing research:

- Industrial Revolution led to manufacturers producing goods for distant markets - manufacturers needed to know about faraway consumers - this led to the growing need for marketing research

Primary Scales of Measurement: Nominal Scale

- Numbers are assigned to objects or classes of objects solely for the purpose of identification • The numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and classifying objects. • When used for identification, there is a strict one-to-one correspondence between the numbers and the objects. • The numbers do not reflect the amount of the characteristic possessed by the objects. • The only permissible operation on the numbers in a nominal scale is counting. • Only a limited number of statistics, all of which are based on frequency counts, are permissible, e.g., percentages and mode.

Limited Service Suppliers

- Specialize in one or, at most, a few marketing research activities such as eye testing (eye tracking), mystery shopping, field services (data collection), or market segment specialists

Disadvantages of Focus Groups

1. Misuse 2. Misjudge 3. Moderation 4. Messy 5. Misrepresentation

The Marketing Research Process

1: Establish the need for Marketing Research 2: Define the Problem 3: Establish research objectives 4: Determine research design 5: Identify information types and sources 6: Determine methods of accessing data 7: Design data collection forms 8: Determine the sample plan and size 9: Collect data 10: Analyze data 11: Prepare and present the final research report

Cross-sectional Design

A fixed sample (or samples) of population elements is measured at one point in time.

Dual-moderator group

A focus group conducted by two moderators: One moderator is responsible for the smooth flow of the session, and the other ensures that specific issues are discussed.

Ratio data

Can be put into categories What is your annual household income? $ ________________

Client-participant groups

Client personnel are identified and made part of the discussion group

Problem-Solving Research

Determines basis of segmentation Establish market potential and responsiveness for various segments Select target markets and create lifestyle profiles, demograpy, media, and product image characteristics

Data display

Develop a visual interpretation of the data with the use of such tools as a diagram, chart, or matrix. The display helps to illuminate patterns and interrelationships in the data

Exploratory Methods

Expert surveys • Pilot surveys • Case studies • Secondary data: qualitative analysis • Qualitative research

Telesession groups

Focus group sessions by phone using the conference call technique.

Advantages of Cross-Sectional Designs

Representative sampling Response bias

Hypotheses

Since hypotheses are essentially statements of the decision alternative's assumed consequences, they can be very helpful in determining the research objective.

Quantity of Data

The ability to collect large amounts of data.

Control of Field Force

The ability to control the interviewers and supervisors involved in data collection.

Mini groups

These groups consist of a moderator and only 4 or 5 respondents

Two-way focus group

This allows one target group to listen to and learn from a related group. For example, a focus group of physicians viewed a focus group of arthritis patients discussing the treatment they desired.

Response error

arises when respondents give inaccurate answers or their answers are misrecorded or misanalyzed.

Casual methods

experiments

Origin

means that the scale has a unique or fixed beginning or true zero point.

Question Flow

pertains to the sequencing of questions or blocks of questions, including any instructions, on the questionnaire

Directory databases

provide information on individuals, organizations, and services

Use of Physical Stimuli

such as the product, a product prototype, commercials, or promotional displays during the interview

Distance

the absolute differences between the scale descriptors

Depth Interview: Hidden Issue Questioning

the focus is not on socially shared values but rather on personal "sore spots;" not on general lifestyles but on deeply felt personal concerns.

undisguised observation

the respondents are aware that they are under observation.

disguised observation

the respondents are unaware that they are being observed. Disguise may be accomplished by using one-way mirrors, hidden cameras, or inconspicuous mechanical devices. Observers may be disguised as shoppers or sales clerks.

Description

the unique labels or descriptors that are used to designate each value of the scale.

Random sampling error

the variation between the true mean value for the population and the true mean value for the original sample.

Total error

the variation between the true mean value in the population of the variable of interest and the observed mean value obtained in the marketing research project.

Observation Forms

used to collect data in observation studies

Survey Questionnaires

used when collecting responses to surveys

Performing the Pretest of the Questionnaire

• A pretest involves conducting a dry run of the survey on a small, representative set of respondents in order to reveal questionnaire errors before the survey is launched. • It is important to pretest on respondents that are representative of the target population to be studied.

Research Design Definition

• A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the marketing research project. • It details the procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed to solve marketing research problems.

Personal Observation

• A researcher observes actual behavior as it occurs. • The observer does not attempt to manipulate the phenomenon being observed but merely records what takes place. • For example, a researcher might record traffic counts and observe traffic flows in a department store.

Nonsymmetric Synthetic Scales

• A symmetric scale is sometimes called "balanced," as it has equal amounts of positive and negative positions • Not all constructs that researchers deal with have counteropposing ends - The one-way labeled scale is one where the researcher is measuring some construct attribute with the use of labels that restrict the measure to the "positive" side

Scales and Social Media

• All the primary scales and all the comparative scales can be easily implemented in social media. • An analysis of social media content can shed light on the level of measurement that is appropriate in a given project and provide guidance on the type of scaling techniques to use. • Specific measures have been developed to evaluate social media sites based on information that is publicly available, e.g., longevity, output (frequency, quantity), inbound links, technorati, bloglines or blogpulse rankings, number of friends or followers, number of comments, and media citations.

Choice of scales in International Marketing Research

• In developing countries, the respondents might have difficulty using interval and ratio scales. Consumer preferences in these countries are best measured with ordinal scales. • The primary scales should be matched to the profile of the target respondents.

Causal characteristics

• Information needed is clearly defined. • Manipulation of one or more independent variables to measure the effect on dependent variables. • Research process is formal and structured. • Sample is large and representative. • Data analysis is quantitative.

Step 2: Determine Probable Causes of symptoms

• It is important to determine all possible causes. If only a partial list of causes is made, it is possible that the real cause will be overlooked and we will specify the incorrect decision to be made. • After listing all possible causes, the researcher should narrow down the possible causes to a small set of probable causes, defined as the most likely factors giving rise to the symptom.

Advantages of Mobile Marketing Research

• MMR has the potential to reach a broader audience, get results faster, lower costs, and elicit higher quality responses. • Global Positioning System (GPS) and other location technologies can deliver surveys to the target audience based on their current or past locations. • MMR is appealing in many developing economies, where the mobile phone is often the most frequently used information gathering, computing, and communication device for consumers and businesses.

Marketing Research & Social Media

• Social media should be used as an additional domain in which to conduct marketing research to supplement and complement, but not to replace, the traditional ways in which research is conducted. • Social media are marked by user-generated content. • Users are able to rate, rank, comment on, review and respond to the new world of media. • Social communities open up new avenues for understanding, explaining, influencing, and predicting the behaviors of consumers in the marketplace.

Limited Service Suppliers: Field Service Firms

• Specialize in collecting data • Typically operate in a particular area conducting telephone surveys, focus group interviews, mall-intercept surveys and door-to-door surveys - Some firms, such as Mktg Inc., are known as phone banks because they specialize in telephone surveying

Full Service Suppliers: Online Research Service Firms

• Specialize in providing services online - to assist in any phase of the marketing research process including development of the problem, research design, data gathering, analysis, and report distribution

Response Rate

• broadly defined as the percentage of the total attempted interviews that are completed.

Step 10: Analyze Data

• This includes basic descriptive analysis to summarize your data • Also involves generalization of values generated from sample data to the population, and how to test hypotheses

Descriptive Methods

• Secondary data: quantitative analysis • Surveys • Panels • Observation and other data

Bibliographic databases

composed of citations to articles

Numeric databases

contain numerical and statistical information

Step 2: The Role of Symptoms in Problem recognition

"Sales are down" - Managers must be careful to avoid confusing symptoms with problems. - Managers must be aware that the symptoms are not the problem but "signals" that alert us of the problem. - the problem may be found among all those factors that are causing lower sales • Symptoms are changes in the level of some key monitor that measures the achievement of an objective. • Symptoms: Sales are falling; market share is down; customer satisfaction is down; product returns are up; complaint letters are up.... • The role of the symptom is to alert management to a problem; there is a gap between what should be happening and what is happening.

Primary Scales of Measurement: Ordinal Scale

- Measurement in which numbers are assigned to data on the basis of some order (e.g., more than, greater than) of objects - Also take on the properties of nominal scale (identification) ▪ Brand Preference: Rank the following mascara brands (1=Most preferred, 4=Least preferred) __ Clinique __ Cover Girl __ Estee Lauder __ Maybelline ▪ Average: Median (midpoint), Mode • A ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate the relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristic. • Can determine whether an object has more or less of a characteristic than some other object, but not how much more or less. • Any series of numbers can be assigned that preserves the ordered relationships between the objects. • In addition to the counting operation allowable for nominal scale data, ordinal scales permit the use of statistics based on centiles, e.g., percentile, quartile, median.

Primary Scales of Measurement: Interval Scale

- Measurement in which the assigned numbers legitimately allow the comparison of the size of the differences among and between numbers - Also take on the properties of nominal (identification) and ordinal (rank order) scales • Numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal values in the characteristic being measured. • It permits comparison of the differences between objects. • The location of the zero point is not fixed. Both the zero point and the units of measurement are arbitrary. • Any positive linear transformation of the form y = a + bx will preserve the properties of the scale. • It is not meaningful to take ratios of scale values. • Statistical techniques that may be used include all of those that can be applied to nominal and ordinal data, and in addition the arithmetic mean, standard deviation, and other statistics commonly used in marketing research.

Primary Scales of Measurement: Ratio Scale

- Measurement that has a natural, or absolute, zero and therefore allows the comparison of absolute magnitudes of the numbers - Also take on the properties of nominal (identification), ordinal (rank order), and interval (rating) scales Average: Geometric & Harmonic Means, Mean, Median, Mode • Possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal, and interval scales. • It has an absolute zero point. • It is meaningful to compute ratios of scale values. • Only proportionate transformations of the form y = bx, where b is a positive constant, are allowed. • All statistical techniques can be applied to ratio data.

Ratio Scale

- Zero has an absolute meaning - Zero = Absence of the property being measured - What is your credit card balance?

Interval Scale

- Zero is just another scale position - Zero = the scale point between -1 and 1 - What is your attitude toward credit cards?

Full-text databases

contain the complete text of the source documents comprising the database

Key Qualifications of Focus Group Moderators

1. Kindness with firmness: must combine a disciplined detachment with empathy so as to generate the necessary interaction. 2. Permissiveness: must be permissive yet alert to signs that the group's cordiality or purpose is disintegrating. 3. Involvement: must encourage and stimulate intense personal involvement. 4. Incomplete understanding: must encourage respondents to be more specific about generalized comments by exhibiting incomplete understanding. 5. Encouragement: moderator must encourage unresponsive members to participate. 6. Flexibility: must be able to improvise and alter the planned outline amid the distractions of the group process. 7. Sensitivity: must be sensitive enough to guide the group discussion at an intellectual as well as emotional level.

Advantages of Focus Groups

1. Synergism 2. Snowballing 3. Stimulation 4. Security 5. Spontaneity 6. Serendipity 7. Specialization 8. Scientific scrutiny 9. Structure

Four "Do's" of Question Wording

1. The question should be focused on a single issue or topic. - "What type of hotel do you usually stay in when on a trip?", "Is it a business or pleasure trip?", "Is the hotel at a place en route or at the final destination?" 2. The question should be brief. - Brevity will help the respondent to comprehend the central question and reduce the distraction or wordiness 3. The question should be grammatically simple, if possible. - The more complex the sentence, the greater the potential for respondent error 4. The question should be crystal clear. - All respondents should see the question identically - "How many children do you have?" - is unclear because it can be interpreted in various ways. One respondent might think of only those children living at home, whereas another might include children from a previous marriage. A better question is "How many children under the age of 18 live with you in your home?"

Marketing Research Associations Online (Domestic)

American Association for Public Opinion Research, American Marketing Association, The Advertising Research Foundation, Insights Association, Qualitative Research Consultants Association, Mobile Marketing Research Association

Ordinal data

Cannot determine the exact amount (to the dollar) What is your annual household income? ▪ $0-15,000 ▪ $15,001-30,000 ▪ $30,001-45,000

Conclusion drawing and verification

Consider the meaning of analyzed data and assess its implications for the research question at hand

Trace Analysis

Data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of past behavior. Data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of past behavior. Number of different fingerprints on a page to gauge the readership of various ads a magazine. Erosion of tiles in a museum indexed by the replacement rate to determine the relative popularity of exhibits Data collection is based on physical traces, or evidence, of past behavior. Position of radio dials in cars brought in for service to estimate share of listening audience of radio stations.

Descriptive Objective

Describe market characteristics or functions

Advantages of Longitudinal Designs

Detecting change Large amount of data collection Accuracy

Disadvantages of Cross-Sectional Designs

Detecting change Large amount of data collection Accuracy

Exploratory Objective

Discovery of ideas and insights

Mechanical Observation

Do not require respondents' direct participation. • Turnstiles that record the number of people entering or leaving a building • On-site cameras (still, or video) • Optical scanners in supermarkets Require respondent involvement. • Eye-tracking monitors • Pupilometers • Psychogalvanometers • Voice pitch analyzers • Devices measuring response latency

Evolution of the Marketing Research Industry

Earliest questionnaire surveys began around 1824 Charles Coolidge Parlin conducted the first continuous and organized marketing research in 1911 for the Curtis Publishing Company The purpose of Parlin's research was to increase advertising for The Saturday Evening Post magazine AC Nielsen started his firm in 1922 Robert Merton introduced focus groups

Marketing Research Associations Online (International)

European Society for Opinion and Marketing Research, The Market Research Society (UK), The Australian Market & Social Research Society, The Marketing Research and Intelligence Association (Canada)

Online focus groups

Focus groups conducted online over the Internet.

Advantages of Online Focus Groups

Geographical constraints are removed and time constraints are lessened. • Unique opportunity to re-contact group participants at a later date. • Can recruit people not interested in traditional focus groups: doctors, lawyers, etc. • Moderators can carry on side conversations with individual respondents. • There is no travel, videotaping, or facilities to arrange so the cost is much lower

Overview of Ethical Issues in Marketing Research

I. Problem Definition • Using surveys as a guise for selling or fundraising • Personal agendas of the researcher or client • Conducting unnecessary research II. Developing an Approach • Using findings and models developed for specific clients or projects for other projects • Soliciting proposals to gain research expertise without pay III. Research Design • Formulating a research design more suited to the researcher's rather than the client's needs • Using secondary data that are not applicable or have been gathered through questionable means • Disguising the purpose of the research • Soliciting unfair concessions from the researcher • Not maintaining anonymity of respondents • Disrespecting privacy of respondents • Misleading respondents • Disguising observation of respondents • Embarrassing or putting stress on respondents • Using measurement scales of questionable reliability and validity • Designing overly long questionnaires, overly sensitive questions • Using inappropriate sampling procedures and sample size IV. Fieldwork • Pressurizing respondents • Using questionable fieldwork procedures V. Data Preparation and Analysis • Identifying and discarding unsatisfactory respondents • Using statistical techniques when the underlying assumptions are violated • Interpreting the results and making incorrect conclusions and recommendations VI. Report Preparation and Presentation • Incomplete reporting • Biased reporting • Inaccurate reporting

Depth Interview Techniques: Laddering

In laddering, the line of questioning proceeds from product characteristics to user characteristics. This technique allows the researcher to tap into the consumer's network of meanings.

InfoUSA

InfoUSA markets subsets of its data in a number of forms, including the professional online services (LEXIS-NEXIS and DIALOG), and general online services (CompuServe and Microsoft Network). • The underlying database on which all these products are based contains information on over 115 million residential listings and 14 million business listings. These are verified annually. • The products derived from these databases include sales leads, mailing lists, business directories, mapping products, and also delivery of data on the Internet.

Mobile Marketing Research - Social Media

MMR firms have created Software Development Kits for app publishers to integrate the survey tool into their apps. Alternatively, the sample of mobile users is sent a SMS containing a survey invitation. • Mobile surveys share many of the features of other selfadministered surveys (mail, mail panel, email, and Internet). These include control of the data collection environment, control of the field force, potential for interviewer bias, and all the respondent factors (perceived anonymity, social desirability, obtaining sensitive information, low incidence rate and respondent control). In terms of speed, they are similar (or better) than Internet surveys but can cost more. The main disadvantages of mobile surveys lie in the task factors. The diversity of questions and flexibility are low given the limited size of the mobile device, especially smart phones. The use of physical stimuli is low to moderate. • Sample control is low to moderate. Sample representativeness may be another serious issue. • The quantity of data is low. Surveys must be kept short and simple. The norm is to ask no more than 15 questions and the entire process to take less than 15 minutes. • MMR can be combined with other survey modes, particularly CAPI and CATI.

Level of Measurement: Metric Measurement

Metric measures have: - Order: meaning that responses can be arranged from lesser to greater - Distance: responses can be compared to see how many units separate them

Relative Advantages of Observation

Permits measurement of actual behavior rather than reports of intended or preferred behavior. • No reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the interviewer and the interviewing process is eliminated or reduced. • Certain types of data can be collected only by observation. • If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of short duration, observational methods may be cheaper and faster than survey methods.

Four "Do Not's" of Questionnaire Wording

Questions should not be: - Leading - Loaded - Double-barreled - Overstated 1. Do not "lead" the respondent to a particular answer - A leading question gives the respondent a strong cue or expectation as to how to answer, therefore biasing responses - Questions can be leading based on structure, content, and/or delivery. - Example: Don't you think fast food has too many calories? 2. Do not have "loaded" wording or phrasing. - "Since our founding fathers gave us the right to own guns, are you in favor of proposed laws restricting gun ownership?" - Loaded questions are biased but they differ from leading questions in that they contain wording elements that make reference to universal beliefs or rules of behavior 3. Do not use "double-barreled" questions - A double-barreled question is really two questions posed in one question § "Were you satisfied with the restaurant's food and service?" - Sometimes, double-barreled questions are not obvious § How can someone who is retired and a full-time student answer if they can only choose one? 4. Do not use words to overstate the condition. - An overstated question is one that places undue emphasis on some aspect of the topic. It uses what might be considered "dramatics" to describe the topic - "How much do you think you would pay for a pair of sunglasses that will protect your eyes from the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays, which are known to cause blindness?"

Disadvantages of Longitudinal Design

Representative sampling Response bias

Role playing

Respondents are asked to play the role or assume the behavior of someone else.

Word Association

Respondents are presented with a list of words, one at a time, and asked to respond to each with the first word that comes to mind. The words of interest, called test words, are interspersed throughout the list which also contains some neutral, or filler words to disguise the purpose of the study. Responses are analyzed by calculating: (1) the frequency with which any word is given as a response; (2) the amount of time that elapses before a response is given; and (3) the number of respondents who do not respond at all to a test word within a reasonable period of time.

Scaling

Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects are located. Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 10. Each respondent is assigned a number from 1 to 10, with 1 = Extremely Unfavorable, and 10 = Extremely Favorable. Measurement is the actual assignment of a number from 1 to 10 to each respondent. Scaling is the process of placing the respondents on a continuum with respect to their attitude toward department stores.

Data reduction

Select which aspects of the data are to be emphasized, minimized, or set aside for the project at hand.

Surveys

Short surveys can be administered on the social media site itself, e.g., a Facebook page. For longer surveys, a link can be provided on the site that directs the user to the survey site.

Social Desirability/Sensitive Information

Social desirability is the tendency of the respondents to give answers that are socially acceptable, whether or not they are true. With some exceptions, obtaining sensitive information is inversely related to social desirability.

Market Research

Specifies the information necessary to address these issues Manages and implements the data collection process Analyzes the results Communications the findings and their implications Helps managers use this information to make decisions

Causal Objective

Test specific hypotheses and examine relationships

Control of the Data Collection Environment

The degree of control a researcher has over the environment in which the respondent answers the questionnaire

Respondent-moderator group

The moderator asks selected participants to play the role of moderator temporarily to improve group dynamics.

Paired Comparison

The most common method of taste testing is paired comparison. The consumer is asked to sample two different products and select the one with the most appealing taste. The test is done in private and a minimum of 1,000 responses is considered an adequate sample. A blind taste test for a soft drink, where imagery, self-perception and brand reputation are very important factors in the consumer's purchasing decision, may not be a good indicator of performance in the marketplace. The introduction of New Coke illustrates this point. New Coke was heavily favored in blind paired comparison taste tests, but its introduction was less than successful, because image plays a major role in the purchase of Coke.

Content Analysis

The objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of a communication. • The unit of analysis may be words, characters (individuals or objects), themes (propositions), space and time measures (length or duration of the message), or topics (subject of the message). • Analytical categories for classifying the units are developed and the communication is broken down according to prescribed rules.

Third-person technique

The respondent is presented with a verbal or visual situation and the respondent is asked to relate the beliefs and attitudes of a third person rather than directly expressing personal beliefs and attitudes. This third person may be a friend, neighbor, colleague, or a "typical" person.

Speed

The total time taken for administering the survey to the entire sample.

Step 4: Determine Research Design

There are three widely recognized research designs: - Exploratory - Descriptive - Causal

Dueling-moderator group

There are two moderators, but they deliberately take opposite positions on the issues to be discussed.

A Process for Defining the Problem and the Research Objective

There is no one universally agreed upon process for defining the problem and the research objective.

Qualitative Research

To gain a qualitative understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations Small number of nonrepresentative cases Unstructured data collection Nonstatistical Data analysis Develop an initial understanding

Quantitative Research

To quantify the data and generalize the results from the sample to the population of interest Large number of representative cases Structured data collection Statistical data analysis Recommend a final course of action

Errors in Marketing Research

Total error Random sampling error Non-sampling errors Non-response error Response error

Information

Used to identify and define market opportunities and problems Generate, regine, and evaluate marketing performance Monitor marketing performance Improve understanding of marketing as a process

Commonly Used Synthetic Metric Scales

We measure - Objective properties, which are physically verifiable characteristics such as age, gender, number of bottles purchased, or last store visited - Subjective properties, which cannot be directly observed because they are mental constructs such as a person's attitudes, opinions, or intentions ▪ The marketing researcher must ask a respondent to translate his or her mental constructs onto an intensity continuum

When is Marketing Research not needed?

When the information is already available- When the information is already available. - When the timing is wrong to conduct marketing research...must react now! - When Funds are not available for marketing research. - When Costs outweigh the value of marketing research.

Classification Questions

almost always include demographic questions used to classify respondents into various groups for purposes of analysis - The placement of classification questions at the end of the questionnaire is useful because some respondents will consider certain demographic questions "personal"

Internal Suppliers

an entity within the firm supplies marketing research Most large firms have research departments of their own Smaller firms may assign a single individual or a committee in charge of Marketing Research

Likert Scales

are commonly used by marketing researchers - respondents are asked to indicate their degree or agreement or disagreement on a symmetric agree-disagree scale for each of a series of statements - A statement is made and the respondent is asked to what degree they agree or disagree with the statement

Non-response error

arises when some of the respondents included in the sample do not respond.

Depth Interview Techniques: Symbolic Analysis

attempts to analyze the symbolic meaning of objects by comparing them with their opposites. The logical opposites of a product that are investigated are: non-usage of the product, attributes of an imaginary "non-product," and opposite types of products.

Non-sampling errors

can be attributed to sources other than sampling, and they may be random or nonrandom: including errors in problem definition, approach, scales, questionnaire design, interviewing methods, and data preparation and analysis. Non-sampling errors consist of non-response errors and response errors.

Picture-Response Technique

can be implemented by analyzing photos posted on photo sharing sites including Instagram, Flickr, PhotoBucket, Shutterfly, Smugmug, Snapfish etc. When analyzing these photos, look for tags, descriptive labels applied by photographers to their own work as well as the work of others. Role Playing can be implemented by asking consumers to play various roles, e.g., to play the role of a TV commercial producer and post the commercials they have created.

cartoon tests

cartoon characters are shown in a specific situation related to the problem. The respondents are asked to indicate what one cartoon character might say in response to the comments of another character. Cartoon tests are simpler to administer and analyze than picture response techniques.

Secondary data

data that have already been collected for purposes other than the problem at hand

Measurement

determining the description or amount of some element of interest to the researcher; assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according to certain pre-specified rules. - We measure properties (sometimes called attributes or qualities) of objects - Objects include consumers, brands, stores, advertisements, or other constructs of interest to the researcher working with a particular manager - Properties are the specific features or characteristics of an object that can be used to distinguish it from another object

noncomparative scales

each object is scaled independently of the others in the stimulus set. The resulting data are generally assumed to be interval or ratio scaled.

Primary data

originated by a researcher for the specific purpose of addressing the problem at hand

Comparative scales

involve the direct comparison of stimulus objects. Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative terms and have only ordinal or rank order properties.

Natural observation

involves observing behavior as it takes places in the environment. For example, one could observe the behavior of respondents eating fast food at a Burger King.

Questionnaire design

is a systematic process in which the researcher: - contemplates various question formats - considers a number of factors characterizing the survey at hand - words the various questions very carefully, and - organizes the questionnaire's layout.

External Suppliers

outside firms hired to fulfill a company's marketing research needs May organize by: - Function - i.e. data analysis, data collection - Type of research application-i.e. customer satisfaction, advertising effectiveness, new-product development - Geography - i.e. domestic vs international - Type of customer - i.e. health care, government, telecommunications

Single-Source Data

provide integrated information on household variables, including media consumption and purchases, and marketing variables, such as product sales, price, advertising, promotion, and in-store marketing effort • Survey households periodically on what they read • Grocery purchases are tracked by UPC scanners • Track retail data, such as sales, advertising, and promotion

Special-purpose databases

provide specialized information

Incidence Rate

refers to rate of occurrence of persons eligible to participate in the study.

Coding the Questionnaire

refers to the use of numbers associated with question response options to facilitate data analysis after the survey has been conducted

Criteria for Selecting a Research Supplier

reputation of the supplier • do they complete projects on schedule? • are they known for maintaining ethical standards? • are they flexible? • are their research projects of high quality? • what kind and how much experience does the supplier have? • Has the firm had experience with projects similar to this one? • Do the supplier's personnel have both technical and non-technical expertise? • Can they communicate well with the client? • Are competitive bids comparable on the basis of quality as well as price.

Scale Development

requires the marketing researcher to develop response formats that are very clear and that are used identically by the various respondents so that the respondents translate their mental constructs onto an intensity continuum

sentence completion

respondents are given incomplete sentences and asked to complete them. Generally, they are asked to use the first word or phrase that comes to mind. A variation of sentence completion is paragraph completion, in which the respondent completes a paragraph beginning with the stimulus phrase.

story completion

respondents are given part of a story - enough to direct attention to a particular topic but not to hint at the ending. They are required to give the conclusion in their own words.

expressive techniques

respondents are presented with a verbal or visual situation and asked to relate the feelings and attitudes of other people to the situation

contrived observation

respondents' behavior is observed in an artificial environment, such as a test kitchen.

AMA definition of marketing

the function that links the customers and the public to the marketer through information

unstructured observation

the observer monitors all aspects of the phenomenon that seem relevant to the problem at hand, e.g., observing children playing with new toys.

Question development

the practice of selecting appropriate response formats and wording questions so that they are understandable, unambiguous, and unbiased.

Order

the relative sizes or positions of the descriptors. Denoted by descriptors such as greater than, less than, and equal to.

structured observation

the researcher specifies in detail what is to be observed and how the measurements are to be recorded, e.g., an auditor performing inventory analysis in a store.

picture response

the respondents are asked to describe a series of pictures of ordinary as well as unusual events. The respondent's interpretation of the pictures gives indications of that individual's personality

Marketing Research

the systematic and objective identification, collection, analysis, dissemination, and use of information for the purpose of improving decision making related to the identification and solution of problems and opportunities in marketing

Longitudinal Designs

• A fixed sample (or samples) of population elements is measured repeatedly on the same variables • A longitudinal design differs from a cross-sectional design in that the sample or samples remain the same over time

Step 7: Design Data Collection Forms

• The survey or questionnaire must be worded objectively, clearly, and without bias in order to communicate with respondents.

Step 8: Determine Sample Plan and Size

• A population consists of the entire group that the researcher wishes to make inferences about • A sample is a subset of the population. • Sample plans describe how each sample element, or unit, is to be drawn from the total population. • The size of the sample determines how accurately your sample results reflect values in the population.

Comparative Scaling Techniques: Paired Comparison Scaling

• A respondent is presented with two objects and asked to select one according to some criterion. • The data obtained are ordinal in nature. • Paired comparison scaling is the most widely used comparative scaling technique. • With n brands, [n(n − 1) /2] paired comparisons are required. • Under the assumption of transitivity, it is possible to convert paired comparison data to a rank order.

The Impact of Cultural and Environmental Factors on the Selection of Survey Methods

• A survey that takes 20 minutes in the United States could take more than twice as long in Germany. The German language is not as concise as English, and Germans like to talk more than Americans do. For similar reasons, the interviewing time could be longer in other countries as well, such as in Brazil. • Telephone directories are unreliable in some countries (e.g., some African nations, such as Sierra Leone), because they are updated infrequently. • The incidence of unlisted telephones can vary widely across countries and across segments. For example, in Colombia, the numbers of some members of the elite and upper classes are never listed. • In some countries, such as Japan, China, Thailand, Malaysia, and those in Southeast Asia, telephone interviews are considered rude. In contrast, in some South American countries, such as Argentina and Peru, the response rates to telephone surveys is high given the low levels of telemarketing and the element of surprise in receiving an unexpected long-distance or local call. • Traditional personal interviewing methods remain popular in some European countries (e.g., Switzerland, Sweden, France), Asian countries (e.g., China, India, Hong Kong), African countries (e.g., Nigeria, Kenya), and South American countries (e.g., Colombia, Mexico) due to the prevalence of face-to-culture. • Low literacy rates and/or the lack of a reliable postal system in rural areas might make mail surveys infeasible in some countries (e.g., Ghana, Ivory Coast, El Salvador, Uruguay, Paraguay). • Mall interviews are limited due to the lack of shopping malls in many developing countries and some developed countries (e.g., Germany). In addition, domestic laws might prohibit or make it more difficult to interview people while shopping. • Telephone penetration is low in some countries, particularly in rural areas. In some countries, such as Cambodia, multiple families might share a phone line because of high phone rates. • In countries with high cellular/mobile phone penetration and low hard/wired-line penetration (e.g., Thailand, Malaysia), the use of traditional phone surveys is unappealing. • Poor access to computers and the Internet makes the use of electronic interviewing infeasible in some countries (e.g., rural populations in Africa, Asia, and South America).

Scales and Mobile Marketing Research

• All the primary scales can be implemented in mobile marketing research (MMR). • However, the smaller screen sizes of mobile devices do impose limitations on comparative scaling. • For example, rank order scaling of many brands may be confusing as respondents would have to scroll vertically and may not be able to see all the brands on the screen simultaneously. This limitation would also apply to constant sum scaling and paired comparisons.

Step 3: Action Standards

• An Action Standard is the pre-designation of some quantity of a measured attribute or characteristic that must be achieved for a research objective in order for a predetermined action to take place. - The purpose of the action standard is to define what action will be taken given the results of the research findings - Action standards require you to make important decisions before you collect your information and serve as clear guidelines for action once the research is over. • Example: - Tenants who are likely to rent if offered free premium cable channels versus standard cable channels on a scale of 1 - 5.

Guides

• An excellent source of standard or recurring information • Helpful in identifying other important sources of directories, trade associations, and trade publications • One of the first sources a researcher should consult • Examples: Qualtrics, etc

Projective Techniques

• An unstructured, indirect form of questioning that encourages respondents to project their underlying motivations, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings regarding the issues of concern. Sentence Completion can be implemented by asking community members to complete sentences like, "When you talk to yourself, you refer to yourself as .........

Full Service Suppliers: Syndicated Data Service Firms

• Collect information that is available to multiple firms - The information is provided in a standardized form (not tailored to any one company) to a large number of companies, known as a syndicate Example, Nielsen collects information on what is sold in supermarkets by SKU. This information is sold to manufacturers of those products who wish to know how their products are selling as well as the sales of competitors' products.

Full Service Suppliers: Standardized Service Firms

• Data collected for each firm is different but the method to collect data is standardized - Standardized services include: test marketing; selecting brand names for new products; measuring advertising effectiveness, etc. - Burke's Customer Satisfaction Associates provide the service of measuring customer satisfaction. - Maritz offers a service to help firms develop customer loyalty programs

Components of a Research Design

• Define the information needed • Design the exploratory, descriptive, and/or causal phases of the research • Specify the measurement and scaling procedures • Construct and pretest a questionnaire or an appropriate form for data collection • Specify the sampling process and sample size • Develop a plan of data analysis

Type of Individual/Household Level Data Available from Syndicated Firms

• Demographic Data - Identification (name, address, email, telephone) - Gender - Marital status - Names of family members - Age (including ages of family members) - Income - Occupation - Number of children present - Home ownership - Length of residence - Number and make of cars owned • Psychographic Lifestyle Data - Interest in golf - Interest in snow skiing - Interest in book reading - Interest in running - Interest in bicycling - Interest in pets - Interest in fishing - Interest in electronics - Interest in cable television There are also firms such as Dun & Bradstreet and American Business Information which collect demographic data on businesses.

Step 9: Collect Data

• Errors in collecting data may be attributed to fieldworkers or respondents and they may be either intentional or unintentional. • It is important that the researcher knows the sources of these errors and implements controls to minimize them

Uses of Secondary Data

• Identify the problem • Better define the problem • Develop an approach to the problem • Formulate an appropriate research design (for example, by identifying the key variables) • Answer certain research questions and test some hypotheses • Interpret primary data more insightfully

Ethical Issues

• Ethical issues related to the respondents and the general public are of primary concern. • Disguise can violate the respondents' right to know and result in psychological harm. • In debriefing sessions, respondents should be informed about the true purpose and given opportunities to ask questions. • The use of qualitative research results for questionable purposes raises ethical concerns. • Deceptive procedures that violate respondents' right to privacy and informed consent should be avoided. • Video or audio recording the respondents without their prior knowledge or consent raises ethical concerns. • The comfort level of the respondents should be addressed.

Basic Rules of Question Coding

• Every closed-ended question should have a code number associated with every possible response • Use single-digit code numbers, beginning with 1, incrementing them by one and using the logical direction of the response scale • Use the same coding system for questions with identical response options regardless of where these questions are positioned in the questionnaire • When possible, set up the coding system before the questionnaire is finalized • Remember that a "check all that apply" question is simply a special case of "yes" or "no" question, so use a 1 (yes) and 0 (no) coding system. You will want to consider each concept being tested as a separate question

Uses of Exploratory Research

• Formulate a problem or define a problem more precisely • Identify alternative courses of action • Develop hypotheses • Isolate key variables and relationships for further examination • Gain insights for developing an approach to the problem • Establish priorities for further research

Step 3: Criteria for Research Objectives

• From whom are we gathering information? • The research objective should not only specify who is to provide the information sought, but also state how these persons are to be included in the sample • What constructs do we wish to measure? - Memory, relevance, believability, understandability, likeability, attitude, and intention to purchase are examples of constructs. • What is the unit of measurement? - The construct "intention to buy" may be measured on a scale ranging from either 1 to 5 or 1 to 7 or 1 to 10 points. - Researchers can access sources of information that provide them with operational definitions needed to measure many constructs. • When formulating research objectives, the information requested of respondents must be worded in the respondent's frame of reference - Every industry has its own jargon and this jargon is to be avoided

Step 2: Problem vs Opportunity

• Gap between what was supposed to happen and what did happen, i.e., failure to meet an objective. - This is what we normally think of when we think of "a problem" • Gap between what did happen and what could have happened - This is called an opportunity because the situation represents a favorable circumstance or chance for progress or advancement

Issues in International Marketing Research

• Given environmental and cultural differences, a research design appropriate for one country might not be suitable for another. • In developing countries, consumer panels often are not available, which makes it difficult to conduct descriptive longitudinal research. • In many countries, the marketing support infrastructure - retailing, wholesaling, advertising, and promotion development - is often lacking, which makes it difficult to implement a causal design involving a field experiment. • In formulating a research design, considerable effort is required to ensure the equivalence and comparability of secondary and primary data obtained from different countries.

International Observation Research

• Given the differences in the economic, structural, informational, technological, and sociocultural environments, the feasibility and popularity of the different interviewing methods vary widely across countries. • In the United States and Canada, nearly all households have telephones and telephone interviewing is the dominant mode of administering questionnaires. This is also true in some European countries, such as Sweden. • In-home personal interviews are the dominant mode of collecting survey data in many European countries, such as Switzerland, and in newly industrialized countries (NICs) or developing countries. • Although mall intercepts are being conducted in some European countries, such as Sweden, they are not popular in other European countries or in developing countries. • Central location/street interviews constitute the dominant method of collecting survey data in France and the Netherlands. • Due to their low cost, mail surveys continue to be used in most developed countries where literacy is high and the postal system is well developed. In Africa, Asia, and South America, however, the use of mail surveys and mail panels is low because of illiteracy and the large proportion of the population living in rural areas. • Access to the Web or email is limited in many countries, particularly developing countries. Hence, the use of electronic surveys is not feasible, especially for interviewing households in rural areas. • Different incentives are more or less effective in improving response rates in different countries. In Japan, it is more appropriate to use gifts with business surveys rather than cash as incentives. The same is true for household surveys in Mexico. • When collecting data from different countries, it is desirable to use survey methods with equivalent levels of reliability rather than necessarily using the identical method.

Full Service Suppliers

• Have the ability to conduct the entire marketing research project for the buyer • Most of the firms listed in the AMA Gold 25 would qualify as Full service research firms • Although many companies specialize, they are large enough to offer a full range of services

Directories

• Helpful for identifying individuals or organizations that collect specific data • Examples: Consultants and Consulting Organizations Directory, Encyclopedia of Associations, FINDEX: The Directory of Market Research Reports, Studies and Surveys, and Research Services Directory

Indices

• Helpful in locating information on a particular topic in several different publications

Whether to Use a Symmetric or a Nonsymmetric Scale

• Ideally, when a synthetic scale is used in a survey, the researcher wants respondents to use all of the scale positions • If the researcher believes there will be very few respondents who will make use of the negative side of a symmetric scale, the researcher should opt for a nonsymmetric scale - When in doubt, a researcher can pretest both the twosided and one-sided versions to see whether the negative side will be used by respondents

Natural Metric Scales

• Respondents provide a number that is appropriate or natural to the property being measured • Examples: - Number of times you have purchased Brand A - $ you spend in restaurants per month - Age in years

Questionnaire Introduction

• If the introduction is written to accompany a mail survey or online survey, it is normally referred to as a cover letter • If the introduction is to be verbally presented, as in the case of a personal interview, it may be referred to as the "opening comments"

Step 1: Establish the Need for Marketing Research

• Inadequate information signals the need for marketing research • company policy: - not conducting marketing research - conducting different types of studies on a continuous basis at specified intervals - certain types of studies being used whenever a particular situation occurs - marketing research conducted on an "as needed" basis - preference for a type of marketing research, i.e. focus groups - Can the information be obtained from the internal report systems, the marketing intelligence system, or the decision support system? - When the information is not available, the researcher should consider conducting marketing research

International Marketing Research

• International marketing research should be sensitive to differences in customs, communication, and culture. • The environment in the countries or international markets that are being researched influences the way the steps of the marketing research process should be performed. • These environmental factors include laws and regulations, economic, structural, informational, technological, and sociocultural factors. • Problems with data compatibility are even more pronounced when dealing with secondary data from international sources. • Differences in units of measurement for such common economic statistics as personal disposable income make comparisons between two countries difficult. • The accuracy of secondary data might also vary with the level of industrialization in a country. • The taxation structure and the extent of tax evasion affect reported business and income statistics. • The measurement frequency of population census data varies considerably. • For companies considering expansion internationally or managing existing international ventures, one of the first steps toward understanding and monitoring these markets can be through syndicated sources. • Many of the same major syndicated firms operating in the United States, e.g., Gallup, have invested heavily in creating data collection systems to support their internationally operating clients. - Nielsen has made huge investments in European markets over the past 30-plus years, introducing scanner and tracking services at the retail level.

Cross-Sectional Designs

• Involve the collection of information from any given sample of population elements only once. • In single cross-sectional designs, there is only one sample of respondents and information is obtained from this sample only once. • In multiple cross-sectional designs, there are two or more samples of respondents, and information from each sample is obtained only once.

Step 2: Recognizing the Problem

• It has been said that the only thing worse than having a problem is to have a problem and not be aware that you have it!

Research has greater value when

• It helps clarify problems or opportunities? • it identifies changes that are occurring in the marketplace among consumers and/or competitors? • it identifies the best alternative to pursue among a set of proposed alternatives? • it helps your brand gain a competitive advantage?

6 Functions of a Questionnaire

• It translates research objectives into specific questions. • It standardizes those questions and response categories. • It fosters cooperation and keeps respondents motivated. • serves as permanent record of the research. • may speed up the process of data analysis. • may be used in reliability assessments and respondent participation validation.

Focus Groups and Depth Interviews

• Just being a part of different types of social media and analyzing what people are talking about can yield a basic understanding of customers. • Companies are creating private online communities, which can play the role of extended focus groups. The members are carefully recruited and membership is only by invitation. • Another way to conduct focus group type of research involves participant blogs. The general approach is to define a specific topic and then recruit participants to blog about that topic. Each participant is given his/her own blog to maintain. The number of participants typically range from 8 to 60. Blog projects tend to last from one to four weeks. • Depth interviews can be conducted by engaging individual respondents in one-on-one conversations.

Ethics and Scale Development

• Knowingly using inappropriate scales raises ethical questions. • It is the obligation of the researcher to obtain the data that are most appropriate given the research questions. • Researchers face an ethical dilemma in scale development - Most marketing researcher practitioners do not have the time and their clients are unwilling to supply the monetary resources necessary to thoroughly develop scales - Consequently, the vast majority of marketing researchers are forced to design their measures by relying on face validity alone, meaning that the researcher simply judges that the question developed to measure the marketing construct at hand "looks like" an adequate measure - A conscientious market researcher will devote as much time and energy as possible to ensure the reliability and validity of the research throughout the entire process

Step 2: When To Conduct a Situation Analysis

• Managers may call researchers when they sense that something is wrong and they need help in diagnosing the situation. - Here the researcher's task is more involved and the researcher should undertake a situation analysis • When management has previously defined the problem, marketing researchers should conduct a situation analysis to ensure the problem has been properly defined

Symmetric Synthetic Scales

• Many scales are designed to measure psychological properties that exist on a continuum ranging from one extreme to another in the mind of the respondents - The neutral point is not considered zero or an origin; instead, it is considered a midpoint along the continuum

Limited Service Suppliers: Other Types

• Market Segment Specialists - specialize in collecting data from specific market segments such as Hispanics or children • Sample Design and Distribution Firms-firms such as Survey Sampling Inc. and Scientific Telephone Samples • Data Analysis Firms-provide assistance needed to analyze and interpret data using sophisticated techniques • Specialized Research Technique Firms-provide assistance through expertise in special techniques

Respondent Control

• Methods that allow respondents control over the interviewing process will solicit greater cooperation and are therefore desirable.

Mobile Marketing Research

• Mobile marketing research (MMR) can be conducted to implement any of the basic research designs. • Internet-based search for secondary data can be conducted on mobile devices. • Research firms maintaining mobile panels are equipped to provide panel-based syndicated services. Mobile diaries can richly supplement paper-based diaries. • MMR is particularly appropriate for conducting audits of point of sale, shelf displays, and promotional material as it can capture visual proof to support the other parameters being collected. • can be appropriate for certain types of qualitative research including focus groups, depth interviews, and many of the projective techniques. The online versions of these techniques can, in a similar manner, be implemented on the mobile web. • Respondents can be invited to become research collaborators by using their phone or other mobile device to record and send photos, audio recordings, and videos of interest. • Mobile qualitative research does lead to challenges in the area of analysis, as it generates great amounts of data that can be time consuming and difficult to process and analyze.

Unanchored N-point Scales

• Occasionally, a researcher will opt to not provide the anchors, in which case it will be an unanchored n-point scale - An example is, "On a scale of 1 - 5, how do you rate the friendliness of Olive Garden's wait staff?" - As a general rule, anchors are desirable as they stipulate concrete ends of the scale to respondents, but anchors are not mandatory

Full Service Suppliers: Customized Service Firms

• Offer a variety of research services tailored to meet the client's specific needs

Exploratory characteristics

• Often the front end of total research design • Flexible, versatile • Information needed is defined only loosely. • Sample is small and nonrepresentative. • Analysis of primary data is qualitative.

Marketing Research & Social Networks

• One reason why social networks can be suitable for conducting marketing research is that they eliminate the cost of building and maintaining traditional panels. • The key is to analyze the characteristics of each social network and choose the network that most closely matches your research objectives. • Social network communities can be used to recruit marketing research panels and are distinguished by some key characteristics. - Membership is voluntary and reputations are earned by winning the trust of other members. The community's mission and governance is defined by the community's members themselves. • These social network communities are in contrast to traditional marketing research panels in which users' roles are determined by the researcher and governed by well-defined regulations. • Online communities range from being open to the public to completely private, closed, by invitation-only. • Private communities are primarily built for discovery and insight purposes and are called MROCs (Marketing Research Online Communities). • Unlike public communities with no limit on the number of members, MROCs generally restrict membership. • Disney set up the Walt Disney Moms Panel featuring moms who answer questions about the company's theme parks and vacation resorts from prospective visitors.

Disadvantages of Online Focus Groups

• Only people that have access to the Internet can participate. • Verifying that a respondent is a member of a target group is difficult. • There is lack of general control over the respondent's environment. • Only audio and visual stimuli can be tested. Products can not be touched (e.g., clothing) or smelled (e.g., perfumes).

Level of Measurement: Open-Ended Measurement

• Open-ended measures are not standardized, each respondent's response is unique - Example: why did you buy a drone? • Used when conducting exploratory research

Relative Disadvantages of Comparative Scales

• Ordinal nature of the data • Inability to generalize beyond the stimulus objects scaled

Perceived Anonymity

• Perceived anonymity refers to the respondents' perceptions that their identities will not be discerned by the interviewer or the researcher.

Step 11: Presenting the Final Research Report

• Preparing and presenting the marketing research report is very important because, often, this is the only record of the research project for the client. • Reports follow a fairly standard report-writing format, which is illustrated later.

Descriptive Characteristics:

• Preplanned and structured design • Information needed is clearly defined. • Marked by the prior formulation of specific hypotheses

International Marketing Research - Qualitative

• Qualitative research is crucial. • The moderator should be familiar with the language, culture, and patterns of social interaction. • Nonverbal cues (voice intonations, inflections, gestures) are important. • The size of the focus group could vary across cultures. • Focus groups may not be appropriate in some cultures. • Equivalence of meaning of stimuli across cultures should be established. • Line drawings subject to fewer problems of interpretation than photographs.

Step 3: Establish Research Objectives

• Research objectives tell the researcher exactly how to obtain the information necessary to allow the manager to choose between the decision alternatives • Research objectives are totally dependent on the problem but they are different in that they state what the researcher must do • Research objectives state specifically what information must be produced by the researcher so that the manager can choose the correct decision alternative to solve the problem • A research objective should be very specific and should satisfy four criteria: - Specify from whom the information is to be gathered - Specify what information is needed - Specify the unit of measurement used to gather information - Word questions used to gather the information, in the respondents‟ frame of reference"

Comparative Scaling Techniques Constant Sum Scaling

• Respondents allocate a constant sum of units, such as 100 points to attributes of a product to reflect their importance. • If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent assigns it zero points. • If an attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it receives twice as many points. • The sum of all the points is 100. Hence, the name of the scale

Comparative Scaling Techniques Rank Order Scaling

• Respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or rank them according to some criterion. • It is possible that the respondent may dislike the brand ranked 1 in an absolute sense. • Furthermore, rank order scaling also results in ordinal data. • Only (n − 1) scaling decisions need be made in rank order scaling

Guidelines for Using Projective Techniques

• Should be used when the required information cannot be accurately obtained by direct methods. • Should be used for exploratory research to gain initial insights and understanding. • Given their complexity, should not be used naively.

Step 5: Identify Information Types and Sources

• Since research provides information to help solve problems, researchers must identify the type and sources of information they will use - Primary information: information collected specifically for the problem at hand - Secondary information: information already collected

Relative Advantages of Comparative Scales

• Small differences between stimulus objects can be detected. • Same known reference points for all respondents. • Easily understood and can be applied. • Involve fewer theoretical assumptions. • Tend to reduce halo or carryover effects from one judgment to another.

Marketing Research & Social Media

• Social media can be a rich source of both internal as well as external secondary data • Blogs, Facebook pages, or Twitter accounts can generate rich secondary data. • Social media tools and sites provide a valuable database that researchers can sieve through in a bid to analyze relevant consumer information. • The archival information and posts from social media such as blogs or Facebook "fan" pages give an informative account of consumer perception and preference with regard to the problem at hand. • Social media are relevant to marketing research in that audiences all over the world can be reached, in a real-time, controlled, multi-media setting. • Information gathered from social media is used by syndicated firms to understand the market, answer clients' concerns, connect to consumers, as well as to conduct online research and publicize their reports and company information.

Criteria for Evaluating Secondary Data

• Specifications: Methodology Used to Collect the Data • Error: Accuracy of the Data • Currency: When the Data Were Collected • Objective(s): The Purpose for Which the Data Were Collected • Nature: The Content of the Data • Dependability: Overall, How Dependable Are the Data?

Step 2: Specification of the Decision

• Specify decision alternatives to alleviate the symptom - Decision alternatives include any marketing action that the marketing manager thinks may resolve the problem • Consequences of the alternatives - Consequences are the results of marketing actions. What are the most likely consequences we can anticipate with each decision alternative? - If we do not know these consequences, marketing research can help us by providing information that allows us to predict the consequences • Identify the manager's assumptions about the consequences of the alternatives • Decision makers make assumptions when they assign consequences to decision alternatives. Assumptions are assertions that certain conditions exist or that certain reactions will take place if the considered alternatives are implemented • the manager's assumptions must be analyzed for validity • If we do not feel that information is adequate to make certain assumptions, then we will likely need new information-information gathered by conducting marketing research

Disadvantages of Projective Techniques

• Suffer from many of the disadvantages of unstructured direct techniques, but to a greater extent. • Require highly-trained interviewers. • Skilled interpreters are also required to analyze the responses. • risk of interpretation bias. • tend to be expensive. • May require respondents to engage in unusual behavior.

Disadvantages of Social Media for Conducting Surveys

• Surveys do not address the responses from nonusers of social media, especially the older consumers. • Survey administration is difficult to control and content may be accessible to competitors. • Response rate may be low because of the clutter involved through the use of virtual communities. Surveys may be dismissed as spam. • Confidentiality is an issue to consumers because of the relatively insecure features of virtual media, thus discouraging the release of sensitive information.

Disadvantages of Mobile Marketing Research

• Surveys must be kept short, succinct, and simple. The norm is to ask no more than 15 questions and the entire process to take less than 15 minutes. • The questions that can be asked are definitely more limited than those suitable on web sites accessed by PC or other modes of survey administration. • Another serious limitation is the use of video due to bad streaming and other technical difficulties. • Sample representativeness may be another serious issue.

Ethics in Marketing Research - Surveys

• Surveys often are used as a cover for a targeted sales effort. This practice, called "sugging" in the trade language, is unethical. • A similar unethical practice is "frugging" and involves fundraising under the guise of research. • Respondents' anonymity, discussed in the context of qualitative research, is an important issue also in survey as well as observational search. • The researcher has the responsibility to use an appropriate survey method in an ethical and legal way. • Researchers often observe people's behavior without their consent, arguing that informing the respondents might alter their behavior. This can be considered an invasion of the respondents' privacy. Such observation should only be conducted in places where people would expect to be observed by the public. After observing their behavior, the researcher is still obligated to obtain the necessary permission from the subjects. • The common practice of placing cookies on devices raises ethical concerns.

Mobile Marketing Research (MMR)

• Surveys that are conducted or administered to potential respondents on their mobile devices. • The mobile user base is huge and is only expected to continue growing. • Mobile internet usage has eclipsed desktop. • MMR can be conducted via international survey platforms such as Confirmit, through mobile services of access panels such as Research Now, or through a specialist provider such as Locately

Stapel Scales

• The basis of the Stapel scale format is numerical rather than verbal or visual - It has numbers that range from a minus end to a corresponding plus end, and typically include "0" as the midpoint. - The respondent circles the number that best corresponds to his or her feelings on the topic - Using a Stapel scale, a respondent would be asked to rate his or her feelings toward Best Buy on "competitive prices" on the following scale: ▪ -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3

Semantic Differential Scales

• The semantic differential scale is a symmetric scale - The semantic differential scale contains a series of bipolar adjectives for the various properties of the object under study, and respondents indicate their impressions of each property by indicating locations along its continuum

Ethics in Marketing Research

• The choice of a research design has ethical overtones for both the client and the research firm. • Researchers must ensure that the research design will provide the information needed to address the marketing research problem. • The client should have the integrity not to misrepresent the project, should describe the constraints under which the researcher must operate, and should not make unreasonable demands. • It would be unethical for a client to extract details from a proposal submitted by one research firm and pass them to another who actually would do the project for the client. • The client should not take advantage of the research firm by making false promises of future research contracts in order to solicit concessions for the current project. • The research firm has the ethical responsibility to use only secondary data that are relevant and appropriate to the problem. • evaluate quality and completeness • Data collection might be unethical if the data are generated without the respondents' knowledge or consent and if their use raises ethical questions. • When generating primary data, researchers and syndicated firms should not engage in any questionable or unethical practices, such as abuse of respondents' privacy. • After a detailed analysis of secondary data has been conducted, the researcher should reexamine the collection of primary data stipulated in the proposal to see if it is still appropriate. • Respondents' rights, particularly their privacy, are a salient issue. Obtaining data from respondents without their full knowledge or consent is an invasion of privacy. • Researchers have the ethical responsibility to avoid both uninformed and misinformed participation by respondents in market research projects. • Syndicated firms are playing a significant role in researching ethical issues and sensitizing marketing firms, the marketing research industry, and the general public about these concerns

Why Scales are important

• The choice of the level of measurement for a scale affects which analyses should or should not be performed • The analysis, in turn, greatly affects what may or may not be said about the property being measured • Examples - If you wish to calculate an average, you must use a metric scale - If you use a categorical scale, you must summarize the results with a percent or frequency distribution

Social Media Observation

• The comments, photos, videos, audio, and other stimuli posted voluntarily by consumers on their social media sites are traces of their behaviors. An analysis of these constitutes a form of observation known as trace analysis. • Some researchers consider participant blogs and online research communities to be examples of e-ethnography or netnography (ethnographic research online). • It is also possible to more directly observe the behavior of interest to the researcher in the virtual world, e.g., Second Life.

Step 3: Example of a Research Objective

• The example below fulfills the four criteria of a research objective. • This research objective provides information to the management of Betty Crocker to help them decide which alternative to select • Research Objective: Conduct a taste test of 400 persons who have purchased cookies within the last month. Conduct a taste test of new cookie recipes A, B,C and, following consumption of each, ask: "If given a choice, which brand (A, B, or C) would you most likely buy the next time you made a decision to buy cookies?" The latter is to be measured on a 7-point scale ranging from 1=Very Unlikely to 7=Very Likely

Potential for Interviewer Bias

• The extent of the interviewer's role determines the potential for bias.

The Marketing Research Proposal

• The marketing research proposal serves several functions: - It states the problem - It specifies the research objectives - It details the research method proposed by the researcher to accomplish the research objectives - It contains a time table - It contains a budget

Step 2: Problem definition

• The most important step • a problem well defined is a problem half solved • if the problem is incorrectly defined, all else is wasted effort. • In defining the problem, managers must first determine what decisions they must make. • Secondly, they must ask if they have adequate information already available to them to make the decision. • Managers should not conduct marketing research "just to know something" because marketing research takes times and money to conduct • Regardless of the source, when managers recognize there is a problem, they must define the problem by identifying the decision alternatives • Whether management defines the problem independently and then calls upon marketing research, or management calls upon marketing research to help define the problem, in both cases the researcher plays an important role • If the "Problem Is Confirmed" and the decision to be made is stated, we are now ready to proceed to the "Specification of the Decision" which includes "Specify Decision Alternatives" • However, if the researcher cannot confirm the problem as stated by management, the researcher must discuss the situation with management • If the researcher cannot convince the manager to abandon an ill-defined problem, the researcher is confronted with an ethical dilemma.

N-point Scale

• The n-point scale, meaning a 5-point, 7-point, or 10-point scale format, is a popular choice for researchers measuring constructs on nonsymmetric attributes - Remember that synthetic numbers have meaning only in the context of the scale in which they are used

Relative Disadvantages of Observation

• The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined since little is known about the underlying motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences. • Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can bias the data. • Observational data are often time-consuming and expensive, and it is difficult to observe certain forms of behavior. • In some cases, the use of observational methods may be unethical, as in observing people without their knowledge or consent. • It is best to view observation as a complement to survey methods, rather than as being in competition with them.

Audit

• The researcher collects data by examining physical records or performing inventory analysis. • Data are collected personally by the researcher. • The data are based upon counts, usually of physical objects. • Retail and wholesale audits conducted by marketing research suppliers were discussed in the context of syndicated data.

Step 3: Information Gaps

• The researcher should ask questions about the current information state and determine the desired information state. • The researcher seeks to identify information gaps, which are discrepancies between the current information level and the desired information level of information at which the manager feels comfortable resolving the problem at hand. • Ultimately, information gaps are the basis for establishing research objectives • Exactly what information is needed in order to close the information gap? This question leads us to the next step, creating research objectives

Step 2: Validate the Symptoms of the Problem

• The researcher should clarify or validate the symptoms. - Are we certain we can place faith in the symptoms? - Are symptoms true? - Can the symptoms be corroborated by other factors identified in the situation analysis? - Are the symptoms aberrant? Are they likely to appear again? • It is the researchers role to explore and question the problem!

Use of Descriptive Research

• To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as consumers, salespeople, organizations, or market areas • To estimate the percentage of units in a specified population exhibiting a certain behavior • To determine the perceptions of product characteristics • To determine the degree to which marketing variables are associated • To make specific predictions

Uses of Causal Research

• To understand which variables are the cause (independent variables) and which variables are the effect (dependent variables) of a phenomenon • To determine the nature of the relationship between the causal variables and the effect to be predicted

Cost

• Total cost of administering the survey and collecting the data

Goals of Scale Development

• Two goals of scale development: reliability and validity • A reliable scale is one in which a respondent responds in the same or in a very similar manner to an identical or nearly identical question • A valid scale is one that truly measures the construct under study

Synthetic Metric Measure

• Utilizes artificial descriptors or numbers to indicate the amount of a property possessed by an object - Synthetic number scales: use of number range, such as 1-5 - Synthetic label metric scale: uses words to indicate different gradations or levels or respondent's opinion such as "poor", "good", or "excellent"

The Role of the Researcher in Problem Definition

• When management defines the problem in terms of a decision to be made - Researchers should ensure managers are defining the problem correctly. • Gibson wrote: - "researchers must resist the temptation to go along with the first definition suggested." - "They should take time to conduct their own investigation and to develop and consider alternative definitions"

Step 6: Determining Methods of Accessing Data

• When obtaining data, there are 4 main choices: - a person asks questions - Use computer assisted questioning - Allow respondents to answer questions themselves without computer assistance - Use a combination of the above three methods

Limitations of Social Media

• While the standard for objectivity is high for journalists, expectations about objectivity among bloggers and other social media users are lower. • Social media users may not be representative of the target population in many marketing research applications. • Social media as a source of samples suffers from at least two biases: from self-selection and from advocacy. • Yet, as long as these limitations are understood, insights from social media analysis can uncover useful information that can inform marketing decisions.

Advantages of Social Media for Conducting Surveys

• Wider coverage through virtual nature of outreach • Simplicity in implementing surveys due to easy to use social media tools • Ability to field more complex questions with aid from interactive multimedia computing • Responses are more candid due to the veil of anonymity and lack of physical interaction thus encouraging honest feedback • Improved accessibility - Nature of Internet allows tags and URLS to be linked to other sites of interest, thus content of surveys are more accessible. • Lower cost of research - no need to maintain large field force of interviewers and supervisors • Ability to use multiple survey methods. For example, social media worlds such as Second Life allow one-to-one internet phone surveys to be made. • No interviewer bias • Low social desirability • High-speed, instantaneous results of polling

Screening Questions

• are used to ferret out respondents who do not meet research study qualifications. • Research objectives should specify who should and should not be included in the research study.

Syndicated Services

• companies that collect and sell common pools of data of known commercial value designed to serve a number of clients • Syndicated sources can be classified based on the unit of measurement (households/consumers or institutions) - Household/consumer data may be obtained from surveys, diary panels, or electronic scanner services - Institutional data may be obtained from retailers, wholesalers, or industrial firms

Flexibility of Data Collection

• determined primarily by the extent to which the respondent can interact with the interviewer and the survey questionnaire

Advantages of Projective Techniques

• may elicit responses that subjects would be unwilling or unable to give if they knew the purpose of the study. • Helpful when the issues to be addressed are personal, sensitive, or subject to strong social norms. • Helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs, and attitudes are operating at a subconscious level.

Skip Questions

• questions whose answer affects which question will be asked next - If the researcher has a great number of transition and skip questions, it may be a good idea to create a flow chart of the questions to ensure that there are no errors in the instructions. Online questionnaires typically have a skip logic function that handles these transitions automatically

Question Evaluation

• refers to scrutinizing the wording of a question to ensure the question is not biased and is worded such that respondents understand it and can respond to it with relative ease

Computer-Assisted Questionnaire Design

• refers to software programs that allow researchers to use computer technology to develop and disseminate questionnaires and, in some cases, to retrieve and analyze data gathered by the questionnaire. • Functions include: - Questionnaire creation - Data collection and creation of data files - Data analysis and graphs

Sample Control

• the ability of the survey mode to reach the units specified in the sample effectively and efficiently

Diversity of Questions

• the degree of interaction the respondent has with the interviewer and the questionnaire, as well as the ability to actually see the questions.

Questionnaire Organization

• the sequence of statements and questions that make up the questionnaire. • It is important because the questionnaire appearance and ease of flow affect the quality of the information gathered.

Level of Measurement: Categorical Measurement

• where the possible responses are categories, meaning that the possible alternatives are labels that represent concrete and very different types of answers • A respondent selects a category (or group) to which he or she belongs - Examples: "male" vs. "female"