Module 3
Anthropocentric
(human-centered) world view
International trade
(limited at this point to the Mediterranean basin), e.g. with Italy, Asia Minor, north Africa, Egypt, etc.
Architecture
- "Colosseum": is an example of an amphitheater, a Roman invention; name derives from a giant ("colossal") statue of Nero in front, which has since vanished; begun by Emperor Vespasian in 69-79 C.E. and was completed in 80 C.E. by his successor, Titus - "Forum Romanum": Augustus also started the tradition that each emperor built a forum to commemorate the greatness of his rule - "Arch of Titus": emperors sought to commemorate their military victories with such structures, so each arch is associated with the rule of a specific emperor and his conquests; depict Emperor Titus returning from his conquest of Jerusalem with the spoils of the Jewish Wars (66-70) - "Column of Trajan": was sponsored by Emperor Trajan to celebrate his two successful campaigns against the Dacians, annexing today's Hungary and Rumania to the Roman Empire; low relief carved out of marble forms a continuous spiral band telling in 150 episodes the Dacian War - "Pantheon": built during rule of Emperor Hadrian, 117-138; dedicated to all gods ("pan" meaning all or every, and "theon" meaning "gods"); temple features "ca" offered ceiling (with decorative, sunken panels), an "oculus" (round opening in the ceiling) and a slightly convex floor to allow for drainage of water - "Baths of Caracalla": a giant complex of public baths, named after Emperor Caracalla; monumentality of later Roman art and architecture with the extensive use of vaults, originally decorated with mosaics; heights reached up to 140 feet; made up of a succession of cold-water pools ("frigidarium"), a central room with smaller warm-water pool ("tepidarium"), a circular hot-water pool in the domed rotunda ("caldarium"); steam baths, dressing rooms, lounges, exercise rooms ("palestrae"), and even a public library were part of it - Rome, Pompeii, and almost any other city had running water and a sewer system (the first ever) - Roman water supply systems depended on system of "aqueducts" (another Roman invention) - "Pont du Garde": example (one of the best preserved) of an aqueduct dates from the Republican period and was built for Roman city in France, Nîmes
Minions
- "Cycladic idols": They are remote descendants of fertility figures from the Neolithic period in our previous module; human figure into triangles, rectangles, cylinders, etc - most significant architectural site of the Minoans is found on the island of Crete, the so-called "Palace of Knossos", which is dated between 1600-1400 B.C.E.; the bulbous columns, in particular, are seen as quite authentic. - Other examples of Minoan fresco paintings are found on the island of Thera. Thera, which today is modern Santorini, is an island some 60 miles north of Crete that was part of Minoan culture; a volcanic eruption there around 1500 B.C.E. destroyed the settlement - "Snake Goddess": Archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans reconstructed the figurine with both arms holding snakes and placed another fragment of faience found in the same area forming a cat atop a hat on her head - "Octopus Jar": was excavated from the ruins at Palaikastro on the far eastern coast of Crete. The jar was hand-painted in the "Marine Style" with an octopus decoration inspired by the sea and designed to hold a valuable liquid, such as oil of some kind. - Minoan culture declined after 1400 B.C.E. for a variety of reasons. "Two hypothetical reasons for the destruction have been advanced: a volcanic eruption on Thera, or incursions of Mycenaean people from the mainland."
Provinces and Decline of the Roman Empire
- "Diocletian built": Diocletian was the first Roman ruler to divide the Roman Empire into a Western and Eastern half in order to facilitate its administration. . The Empire will be unified again one more time under Emperor Constantine, only to be divided permanently thereafter; the military aspect runs strong: we find fortification walls and tower-flanked gates - "Porta Nigra": Constantius Chlorus was the "caesar" of the Western hemisphere and father of Constantine the Great. He established a new residence in the German city of Trier (Augusta Trevirorum); acked by the Franks and Alemanni (German tribes), the city was rebuilt with a large defensive wall, pierced by the "Black Gate" (Porta Nigra); Porta Nigra is an excellent example of a Roman city gate and military architecture in general - In the relief, we see Constantine the Great, surrounded by his entourage; he stands on a rostrum (a platform), addressing the people; advent of medieval art: these figures possess a rigid formality; they are repetitive and lack awareness for three dimensions; the composition is static, and there is little awareness of proportions - classical ideals will continue to live on in Byzantine Art.
Greek Pottery
- "The Geometric Krater" shown below dates from the Geometric Period, ca. 900-700 B.C.E. It is described as "geometric" because of the type of decoration found on pottery from this period: meander, wedge-shaped, and checkerboard patterns are prevalent. The decoration of this vessel features multiple bands of figures forming a funerary procession, consisting of geometrically rendered, simplified figures. A "krater" is a term for a vessel used for mixing wine and water. This krater would have been kept on the cemetery, where relatives would taken meals to honor the dead; we will retrace the evolution from archaic to classical and finally to later Greek, or Hellenistic, art through ceramics, sculpture and architecture - Black figure pottery--> "Dionysos in a Sailboat": was signed by the name of its potter-painter, named Exekias. The Greek term for a drinking cup is "kylix" -- a flat, dish-like vessel mounted on a "foot," which is held, when used, by the handles on the sides. The design features the god of drunkenness and wine, Dionysos, on a sailboat, whose mast turns into a wine. This object is an example of Greek black-figure pottery, in which an "engobe", or slip of finely sifted clay, is applied to the exterior wall where the figures appear. A coarser clay was used the paint the background of the kylix. The body of a drinking cups like this (and other vessels) would have been thrown on a wheel using wet clay. The design and its colors are made permanent through a three-step firing process in a kiln, where oxygen is first let in the furnace, then shut off, and finally re-introduced again (these "three steps are known as oxidizing, reducing, reoxidizing") - Red Figure Pottery(was obtained by scraping outlines with a syringe-like instrument, and later applying an engobe slip for the parts that appear in black. Thus, the process is the reverse of the black figure painting) --> "Euphronious Krater": idealized bodies of the classical period, but also engage literary and mythological texts in all their complexity; Sarpedon's body (Sarpedon was the son of Zeus) carried by Hypnos and Thanatos (Sleep and Death), while Hermes watches
High Classical Architecture
- Acropolis is an ensemble of structures built during the Classical period on a plateau overlooking Athens. The oldest and largest of the buildings on the Acropolis was the Parthenon and it represents the epitome of the Classical ideals of architecture. The Parthenon was a temple dedicated to Athena-Parthenos (Athena = Deity associated with Athens, Athenians - "naos" (enclosed, inner temple sanctuary) of the Parthenon was subdivided; one half contained a giant cult statue of Athena-Parthenon, and the other one housed the treasury of the Delian League, or the war chest of this military alliance over which Athens presided - The architects introduced subtle, optical "corrections" to the structure, which were necessary, in part, due to the irregularities of the land. As a result, the stylobate (foundation) is "convex"; it curves slightly and the columns tilt slightly inward to adjust for the bend of the plot of land on which the Parthenon sits - Elgin collected the marbles and gave them to the British Museum in London, including this example, "Three Goddesses", which shows elaborate drapery typical not only for the Classical period but also for the Phidian inspiration of the figures. The fragments housed in London are often referred to as "Elgin marbles." Modern-day Greece is insisting that they be returned to their country of origin - The "Lapith" and "Centaur relief" from the metope from the Parthenon depicts a "centauromachy", in which centaurs (half-man, half-horse creatures) and Lapiths, gods and giants, Greeks and Amazons are engaged in battle - "Horsemen": metope panels set between the triglyphs on the outer façade; ceremonial procession the offering of a "peplos", or robe, to the Archaic statue of Athena kept, ultimately, in the "Erechtheum" - Propylaea: is the entry gate to the complex, reached after climbing a steep, winding slope;he path of the Panathenaic Procession carrying the new robe for Athenia; first picture gallery (Pinakotheke, or museum) in history - "The Temple of Athena Nike": "ionic order", influenced stylistically from regions to the east of Greece, in Asia Minor; Note that the Parthenon still featured the "Doric order"; the Ionian order was dominant in eastern Greece and on the islands; because of Athens's dominant position in the Delian League, these influences could migrate westward and now emerged in Athens - "Erechteum": was named after a mythical Athenian hero, Erechtheus; Architecturally, the "Porch of the Maidens" of the Erechtheum represents the first use of figurative columns, called "Caryatid figures".
Intro to Ancient Greece
- Art and Architecture of Pre-Classical Greece: Minoan culture (ca. 2500-1400 B.C.E.), Mycenaean culture (ca. 1400-1200 B.C.E.) - Art and Architecture of Classical Greece:Archaic Period (ca. 700-480 B.C.E.), Classical Period (ca. 480-323 B.C.E.) - The rise of Alexander the Great concludes the transition from the Classical to the Hellenistic Period: Hellenistic Period (ca. 323-30 B.C.E.)
Greek Architecture
- Classical Greek architecture, the Doric (3 columns left) and Ionic orders (3 columns in center) are dominant, but there is also a third order, the Corinthian order (2 columns to the right) - "Doric order": Associated with mainland Greece. It is simpler, massive, older, rustic; distinctive features: plain, cushion-like capitals, triglyph and metope on alternative on the frieze - "Triglyphs" are the "striped" blocks above the capitals whose ends mimick wooden crossbeams; triglyphs are reminders of the roof beams in early wooden Greek temples, which in their wooden form have not survived - "Metopes" are the "blank" blocks above the capitals, which alternate with the triglyphs - "Ionic order". Imported from Asia Minor (today's Turkey); decorative, recent, seems lighter, sophisticated; distinctive feature: volutes mimicking acanthus leaves - geometry and proportional relations were used as guiding aesthetic principles for temple architecture - cushion-like capitals and the triglyphs and metopes on the frieze, which define this structure as a construction in the Doric order
Classical Greek Sculpture
- Contributing to this "naturalism" in sculpture was the knowledge of the principles governing weight shift, or "contrapposto" (shifting of the main parts of the body around the vertical, but flexible, axis of the spine), in free-standing sculpture. This contrapposto pose is seen in statues throughout the Classical period (and later the Renaissance). The development of a formulaic, idealized canon of human proportions - one which also saw the expansion of the ancient Olympic Games (from which the modern Olympic games are derived) -- so many sculptures depicted idealized warriors and athletes. Athens emerged as the foremost power within a group of independent Greek city states, since it took a leadership position in a military coalition against the Persians - Classical sculpture puts primacy on the naturalistic depiction of the human figure, rendered in terms of idealized proportion - The lifelikeness of the "Kritios Boy" finds it logical culmination in the dynamic movement of the "Discobolos", or Discus Thrower, the quintessential image of a Greek athlete and of the Classical Period in Greek sculpture. The Kritios Boy is a summary of correctly rendered human proportions and anatomy in the art of the Early Classical Period, and yet it also suggests an idealized canon of the human figure. The contrapposto pose is very convincing. The sculpture's creation was contemporary with the Persian Wars (497-479 B.C.E.), when Athens emerged as the powerhouse of Greece. The Kritios Boy was excavated on the very grounds of the Acropolis in Athens - A telltale sign of a Roman is the "struts" and "trunks" that are meant to support and stabilize the base of the sculptures. The Discobolos and the Doryphoros shown here have only come down to us, like many other such as works, as Roman copies. The Riace Warriors (below right) are an exception because they were on board of a ship that sank off the coast of Italy and they survived on the bottom of the sea, until they were discovered on the seabed in 1972 - The Riace Warriors are distant relatives of the Kouros figures previously discussed, and they mark the transition to High Classical sculpture. The influential classical scholar Johann Joachim Winckelmann named the style of such transitional art the "severe style." These bronzes were produced using the "lost-wax casting method"
Pre-Classical Greece
- Cycladic culture: refers to Greek islands - Helladic culture: refers to Greek mainland - Minoan culture: located on the island of Crete (so-called after legendary King Minos), ca. 2800-1450 B.C.E. - Mycenaean culture: culture of the Greek mainland associated with Mycenae (on the Peloponnesus, that is on the peninsula with Sparta at its southernmost end), ca. 1550-1100 B.C.E.
Hallenistic Period:
- Departure from the Classical canon of idealized human beauty - Drama, violence, suffering, age, physical decay became the focus of interest of Hellenistic artists - Emergence of nude female figures as a subject for sculpture - Late Greek art and architecture is hence called "Hellenistic". An early hotbed of Hellenistic art and culture became the kingdom of Pergamon, a Greek settlement in Asia Minor (today: Turkey). This settlement experienced belligerent incursions of "barbarian" Gauls that were successfully repelled by Attalus I of Pergamon. The sculpture, Dying Gaul, celebrates Attalus's triumph. It is a highly realistic work with a brutal and violent edge to it that is distinctly Hellenistic - "Venus of Milo": human-scale proportions are abandoned. The figure assumes a twisting stance with an oddly advanced knees, which point to the Hellenistic context of sculpture - "Nike of Samothrace": a work from the School of Rhodes, where many Hellenistic sculptures originated - "Laocöon group": is the pinnacle of late classical Greek (=Hellenistic) sculpture - in Hellenistic art, a new cast of characters enters the scene: barbarians (e.g. non-Greeks), old folk, and children
Introduction to Ancient Rome and the Etruscans
- Elaborate funerary rituals provide evidence for Etruscan culture. Some exceptional terracotta and bronze sculptures survive from Etruria (=the place where the Etruscans lived) - Tumulus (earth mount) tomb structures are characteristic for Etruscan culture - iinteriors were excavated from tufa rock, a soft stone originally formed through volcanic eruptions. The interiors of Etruscan rock-cut tumulus tombs feature brightly painted plaster reliefs representing weapons, tools, kitchen utensils, etc. They represent the full range of objects used on a daily basis in ancient Etruria. Notice the niches which would have held the bodies of the deceased, but the human remains have now become completely disintegrated. - During social events, both Greeks and Etruscans reclined on couches, such as this one. Drinking would have been part of the entertainment. These sculptures were modeled from clay rather than carved out of stone, like marble - "Capitoline She-Wolf": known to be Etruscan but the bronze figures of the suckling infants below date from the Renaissance - "Chimera": bestiary potentially points to Egyptian or Mesopotamian influences
Republican Rome
- Greece was conquered by Rome, and shiploads of Greek marble and bronze sculptures arrived in Italy, later followed by Greek artists and scholars. Afterwards, Roman craftsmen began reproducing Greek art on large scale - conservative and socially stratified into "plebeians" (common people) and "patricians" (aristocratic leadership class) - "Head of a Roman": a bust which almost certainly depicts a patrician. This is not an idealized portrait in the Greek tradition, but one that expresses the Roman values of "veritas", (meaning "truth") and "severitas" (meaning "severity"). The sitter's face is portrayed with absolute "verism" (unflattering truthfulness)—notice the wrinkles in this very naturalistic rendering; his severe seriousness instills respect in the viewer - "Roman Patrician with Busts of his Ancestors (The Barberini Statue)": each household had niches or shrines to receive the busts of the "ancestors: (penates, also known as household gods). In this statue, the same extreme naturalism in the depiction of the wrinkles ("verism") is applied to all of the portrait busts and highlights the importance of the sitter's connection to his ancestors - Roman Temple of "Fortuna Virilis": high podium, large "cellae" (in Greek, naos, or enclosed chamber inside a temple) with a deep porch, engaged columns (columns that are inserted into the wall proper, not freestanding), which alludes to a possible Etruscan influence. The Temple is now believed to be dedicated to Portunus, god of the harbor "Temple of Vesta": a semicircular "tholos" temple with an axial alignment. Note that the outer appearance of the temple remains Greek, but the columns are in the Corinthian order; has an Etruscan-type podium, monolithic columns (all in one piece, not assembled from drum segments, as in Greece), walls made out of concrete (a Roman invention), and a frieze with a decoration of garlands held up by heads of oxen (a typically Roman decorative combination) - "Santuary of Fortuna Primigenia": expansive temple structure on the site where oracular lots were cast; techniques that define architecture to the present day: the use of concrete (opus caementicium = made of lime mortar, water, and volcanic dust), combined with use of arches and vaults - configurations of concrete used by the Romans, such as walls made of rubble filled with a concrete mix inside and decorative sheathing made of marble slabs, plaster, or ornamental brick or stonework outside (opus incertum, opus reticulatum, etc.) - arch is another major Roman innovation in building techniques. If several arches are placed next to each other, they form an arcade; if several arches are stacked up, one behind the other, they form a vault. Combinations of arches and vaults are used throughout Roman architecture
Mycenaeans
- Heavy fortification walls and a defensive character define the two principle structures of Mycenaean culture, which are seen in the "palaces of Tiryns and Mycenae (both on the Peloponnesian peninsula)". As opposed to the Minoans, the Myceneans feared enemies. - "Citadel of Tiryns": massive "Cyclopean" walls define the structure with corbeled galleries made up of projecting stones forming narrow passages, culminating in triangular points at the top; a ceremonial path leading through a porch and vestibule to a "megaron" (the chief or throne room of the palace), which foreshadows the basic plan of all classical temple sanctuaries in Greece. - "Lion Gate at the Palace of Mycenae": is comprised of a lintel block with relief carving of two lions flanking a column. The head of the animals (today lost) would have been made of stone or metal. Its composition recalls Mesopotamian heraldic iconography, underlining artistic exchanges and cross-cultural influences with eastern Mediterranean cultures (reaching as far east as Mesopotamia) - "The Treasury of Atreus": was part of the grave circle, located within the enclosure of the Palace of Mycenae. It is an example of a beehive tomb, approached by a long passage way ("dromos"), leading into a round tomb chamber ("tholos"). The designation of structure as a "treasury" is a modern convention, which alludes to the mythological figure of Atreus, the father of Agamemnon - funerary rites of the Myceneans, and their use of facial masks, all point to strong contacts with Egyptian culture, possibly channeled through Crete - Mycenaean culture collapsed after 1200 B.C.E. The possible reason was the invasion of Dorian people equipped with iron weapons superior to the softer bronze of the Mycenaeans
Imperial Rome
- There followed a period called "Pax Romana" ("Roman Peace"), which lasted for about for 150 years and during which Rome was ruled by a long line of emperors, the Julio-Claudians - characterized by efforts to glorify the outer aspects of the Empire with an emphasis on building public works, architecture, and infrastructure - Under the emperors Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines, Rome reached its largest geographical expansion, from Britain to Egypt and Mesopotamia - problems were magnified by mentality changes (e.g. emerging anti-materialism) from inside the Empire, brought about by the introduction of Christianity, which had graduated from persecuted mystery cult, to toleration under Constantine the Great in 313, to official state religion in 380 - "The Augustus of Primaporta": also expresses the hope for a Roman cultural renewal and a golden age of Augustan peace; is depicted in a sedate, idealized manner ("august"), fit for Roman taste. His pose shows him proclaiming a diplomatic victory as emperor - "Ara Pacis Augustae": celebrate the pacification of Spain and Gaul and the Empire as a whole ("ara" means "altar"); Throughout the altar, garlands, "bucrania" (oxen heads), and acanthus leaves serve as visual symbols for the Augustan rule
Portraiture
- important aspect of Roman art is portraiture, which comes to us in the form of marble busts - period of Emperor Flavian was noted for the extravagant curly hairdo in which women of the upper class indulged - there were uprisings and incursions of "barbaric" people (Germans, Persians, etc.) in the provinces - Each one of the emperors ("augustus") now had a deputy ("caesar") - "Four Tetrarchs": Together, they form the "Four Tetrarchs", depicted below carved out of porphyry; signals a decline in artistic abilities
Archaic Greek Sculpture
- style of the Archaic period is characterized by stiff, unnatural human figures whose musculature is still (mostly) interpreted in terms of geometric shapes in three dimensions. One can see aesthetic parallels between Archaic sculpture and, for instance, the Geometric Krater we studied previously. Towards the end of the Archaic Period, artists gained a better understanding of anatomy and musculature, which means that the geometric simplification gradually disappears and blends into the canon of classical Greek art with its emphasis on the idealized rendering of human form - "Metropolitan Kouros": a "Kouros" figure is a free-standing statue of a male youth in the nude, examples of which were often found on Greek cemeteries. This work is called "Metropolitan Kouros" after the Metropolitan Museum in New York where it is kept and exhibited - "Kroisos Kouros": When compared to the Metropolitan Kouros, we can observe a great improvements from the early Archaic to the later Archaic periods in terms of the correct rendering of anatomy, musculature, and movement of the body in space, giving it a truly lifelike expression. The "contrapposto" pose of the Kroisos Kouros is more convincing than that of the Metropolitan Kouros
Early Christian Art
- transition from the classical to the medieval world was gradual and took place over many years - Pagan (pre-Christian) Rome was polytheist; Christianity is monotheist (there is but one God). Constantine the Great recognized Christianity as a tolerated religion, but only his successor, Theodosius, made it the official religion of the state - Empire was divided again into an Eastern (pars orientis) and a Western half (pars occientalis) - Eastern half, with Constantinople (today: Istanbul) as its capital, will take the name of the Byzantine Empire - "flavors" of Christianity to the present day: Eastern Empire = Byzantium = Orthodox faith Western Empire = Rome (mostly) = Roman Catholic faith - mixed Roman civilization with the "orientalizing" influences of the Near East - In the 8th and 9th centuries, there was an iconoclastic controversy ("iconoclasm"=image smashing) in Byzantium, which had theological and political dimensions that most notably led to the wide destruction of visual art. - Icon worshippers (Iconophiles) won out, a lot of artworks were destroyed during these years - "Catacombs": they found refuge in the catacombs, a maze-like system of underground funerary sites, excavated from "granular tufa" (a soft, volcanic rock); alleries connecting to small rooms ("cubicula"), filled with funerary niches ("loculi"). Conditions were unsanitary (dead bodies!); surrounded by figures in "orants" (attitude of prayer, with outstretched arms) poses on the margins - "St. Peter's basilica": design provided a blueprint for Christian builders in centuries to come; components are an entrance through a "propylaea" (gateway bldg.), am "atrium" (open colonnaded court), a "narthex" (entrance hall), a "nave" (central aisle), lower side aisles, an "apse" (semi-circular niche), a "transept" (traverse aisle), and a timber roof - "Mausoleum of Constanza": a building with a central plan (a round or polygonal structure), favored by Byzantine architects in the East; mosaic decoration features birds (peacocks), vegetation, along with vine harvest scenes; it marks the transition between and the mixing of "pagan" Roman and Christian imagery - "The Good Shepherd Sarcophagus": there is extensive appropriation of "pagan" iconography by Christian artists; in "pagan" times, wine was sacred to Bacchus, but in Christian art it came to symbolize the Eucharist (the transubstantiation of Christ's blood in communion ceremony) The pagan erotic connotation of putti as the offspring Venus, the goddess of Love, is exchanged for the asexuality of Christian cherubs. Instead of devising an entirely new visual iconography, Christian artists borrowed and repurposed symbols and themes from "pagan" art
Pompeii
- volcanic eruption preserved both commercial (small shops, offices, taverns, etc.) and residential sections of Pompeii, including a number of upscale private villas like the one below, richly decorated with frescoes - "House of the Veti": typical example of a Pompeian town house with an "atrium" (i.e. an open courtyard), and an opening in the roof (compluvium). The frescoes are an example of the "Pompeian Fourth Style": we find a mixture narrative panels, "trompe-l'oeil" architectural vistas, and stone imitation paneling. A possible influence was Roman theater design. Pompeian fresco paintings can be very sexually explicit: in the entrance foyer of this house, there is the life-size depiction of a Priapus, the god of fertility, protector of horticulture and viticulture - "Villa of the Mysteries": Within these frescos, we see a painted illusionistic ledge with a succession of naturalistically rendered figure groups. This approach is known as the "Pompeian Second Style." - lot of our knowledge about daily life in Republic Rome comes from the town of Pompeii and neighboring Herculaneum, which were preserved under a thick layer of ashes following a major volcanic eruption of Mt. Vesuvius on August 24, 79 C.E
Individuality
Emphasis on individuality and the accomplishments of the individual Peaceful colonization. Mostly peaceful colonization of the Mediterranean basin, especially Italy
Literature
Homer's Iliad and Odyssey become first works in the canon of Western literature; birth of mythology (stories of the ancient Greek gods and their mingling in the affairs of humans); poetry
Political organization
Independent city states, earliest form of democracy, emergence of the Athenian polis (body of full citizens in a Greek city-state with voting rights)
Scientific discoveries
Mathematics and natural science are on the rise, e.g. Pythagoras
Invention of money/currency
The Greeks were the first to mint and circulate coins for payment and financial transactions
Review of Greek and Roman Art
The major stylistic and iconographic characteristics of Greek and Roman art and architecture? Geometric period, abstract figure (animal & people); Archaic period --> more realistic; later idealistic; Helenistic period --> Greek sculpture still made lifelike and more emotion and action How did Greek art and architecture influence Roman art? Roman copy greek sculpture, painting, and agriculture ->true likeness of their subjects, master of the arch and dome
Mastery of ship building
This facilitated commercial exchanges and geographical expansion of Greek culture
