Module 3: Learning and Development

On-the-Job (OJT) Training

based on the idea that while an employee is actively working, they can simultaneously learn the job

Democratic leadership style

most appropriate when employees are highly skilled and can take an active role in decision-making processes.

Laissez-faire leadership style

most appropriate when employees are independently motivated. Leader provides little direction and mostly allow reports to operate on their own.

Simulation training

provides employees with the opportunity to confront new challenges or develop new skills in a setting that is safe and does not present the same risks that would be present in the actual workplace. Case studies, roleplaying, vestibule training.

Graphic rating scale

rates employees according to a statement or question about a particular aspect of an individual's job performance. A wide array of performance dimensions can be efficiently tapped with various rating scales on the same form but it is not personalized to each EE so it measures performance relative to general traits, behaviors, or attitudes.

Psychomotor domain (Bloom's Taxonomy)

requires the development of a student's ability to function physically and manipulate instruments. Perception. Involves the use of the student's senses to guide physical activity. Set. A measure of a student's readiness to act. Guided responses. Requires practice, and then the mechanism requires responses to become habitual and practice of them to be confident. Complex overt responses. Requires a student to be capable of complex movement, patterns, and adaptation, and that the student can modify these complex patterns to adapt to certain special requirements and circumstances. Origination. Ability to create new patterns to accommodate new problems and situations.

Deming's ideas of modern quality management

1) Quality is determined by the consumer. 2) 14-Point System for quality management- idea that quality control is, in the final analysis, the responsibility of a company's top management.

Creativity vs innovation

the generation of new ideas by individuals and teams vs the process of converting those ideas into new products, business practices, and strategies that create value

Crosby's Zero Defects

the idea that managers should strive to produce a product with no flaws, rather than simply meeting an acceptable level of quality.

S shaped or sigmoid learning curve

the increase in learning is slow at first, then picks up very rapidly, before finally leveling off or plateauing.

Organizational climate

the mood of the organization, or the way employees experience and react to the prevailing culture.

Fair use doctrine

A limited amount of a copyrighted work can be used without permission under certain circumstances, usually when it is used for purposes of commentary, criticism, news reporting, or educational activities. Applies most often to relatively brief quotations or passages from a work used in a journalistic or academic context.

What HR should consider in their TNA process

A review of current training An analysis of tasks (of new or modified system or process) Identification of any training gaps A statement of training requirement An assessment of training options (for example, face-to-face, video, online, etc.) Cost-benefit analysis of options

Leniency error evaluation bias

Evaluators may be reticent to evaluate employees or applicants harshly, so they may rationalize giving better evaluations than an individual deserves.

Work-For-Hire Exceptions

FTEs/freelancers paid/commissioned to produce original work - copyright belongs to the employer/person who paid /commissioned for the work to be done. Copyright lasts for 95 years from the first date of publication or 120 years from the date of creation, whichever is shorter.

Learning Organizations

Facilitates continual learning to adapt quickly to changing business circumstances

Exploration career stage

First traditional career stage. Involves identifying interests/opportunities (low performance.)

Classical conditioning

the process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses. Describes the phenomenon in which a stimulus that is "neutral" becomes linked to a response that the stimulus did not initially produce.

Groupthink

the striving for unanimity trumps the expression of dissenting individual viewpoints. Diversity is less likely to promote groupthink.

Organization Development

the systematic examination of an organization's structure and processes. The ultimate goal is to develop strategies for change that will improve overall performance.

Assessment phase of developing training programs

to determine what the organization's training and development needs are. Look at available resources and costs to see if benefits outweigh costs. Include a specification of the training program's objectives to determine success when complete.

Bloom's Taxonomy

tool that helps trainers and educators organize learning activities by the type of thought they ask of students. Three distinct learning domains: Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor.

Career development tools

training, formal/subsidized education, job rotation, promotions, overseas assignments, mentoring, networking, volunteer work, formal career planning

Organizational culture

values and beliefs that are shared by members of an organization, and the behaviors that arise from those values and beliefs.

Contrast error evaluation bias

when an evaluator compares all candidates or employees to a single individual. The sequencing effect is a type- where the order may impact how candidates are rated.

Training needs analysis

Identifies specific training goals for employees by examining areas in the company that could be improved. Begins with an understanding of the core competency needed by the org, then task analysis, KSAs needed, and needs assessment to surface gaps between current skills and those required. Should be done at org and individual level.

How a team leader can encourage a constructive debate

Identifying differences within the team to achieve a common understanding of all perspectives embodied by the team. Having team members paraphrase each others' ideas. Inviting constructive face-to-face feedback.

knowledge management

ensure that all members of an organization possess the knowledge and information they need to do their jobs—and that knowledge is properly shared and managed to make sure that workers in different departments of the organization are not mistakenly performing the same tasks.

5 disciplines that characterize learning organizations

Personal Mastery (individual expertise) Mental Models. (The assumptions and deep-seated beliefs that affect how individuals perceive the world, and how they act on those assumptions and beliefs.) Shared Vision (plan for future/achieve common goal) Team Learning (Free and open exchange of ideas to achieve stated goals) Systems Thinking. (individuals and teams look for patterns; they see problems as parts of larger systems and try to project how specific changes can affect those systems.)

McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

Two distinct approaches to management: Theory X Managers view their reports as essentially uninterested in work, motivation is job security. Use top down approaches for management. Theory Y Managers view their reports as essentially interested in taking on interesting work and assuming responsibility for that work. Allow EEs to be more involved in decision making.

3 stages of lewins theory of change

Unfreeze - eliminate barriers of change Moving - keeping it going through uncertainty Refreezing- if change produces desired result, new process is accepted as a normal part of the organization's procedures and a new mindset forms. If not, the process repeats itself, and new changes are adopted.

Patent

a license granted by the government to an inventor, which gives the inventor the exclusive right to use or sell an invention for a set time.

Pilot test

a small "focus group" of workers take the training program themselves to see how it works and how effectively it teaches needed skills. Evaluates the training program and recommends any needed changes before the program is fully implemented.

Transactional leadership style

focus on making exchanges with employees that will bring about desired outcomes. Rewards are offered in exchange for objectives that are met.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

focuses on gradually replacing negative behavior patterns to particular stimuli with intentional, positive behaviors, thus gradually transforming the conditioning of the person's habituated response to stimulus.

Individual analysis

focuses on the performance of particular employees to identify employees who need additional skills or abilities to perform their jobs well.

Implementation theory

focuses on the specific strategies and processes that can be used to bring about change successfully. Concerned with finding the proper tools to initiate and manage the stages of unfreezing, moving, and refreezing.

Ishikawa's quality circle

formalized the idea of soliciting input and advice about quality control from the workers who are directly involved in production. Advocated the use of charts and diagrams to assess quality (invented fishbone diagram.)

Halo effect- evaluation bias

occurs when an evaluator bases the entire evaluation of an employee on a single characteristic.

Lewin's change process theory

organizations can change either because of the environment—that is, because of external factors—or because of specific internal needs.

expectancy theory (Victor Vroom)

people are motivated by the expectation of a reward. After assessing a situation to determine whether they are capable of handling it, a person then determines whether the anticipated reward justifies taking on the task.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization

Pedagogy vs. Andragogy

practice of teaching children vs adult learning.

Rating scales

define categories of employee performance and assign a value to each category that is reviewed.

Techno-Structural Interventions

designed to change the way that work is performed within an organization. Interventions include organizational structure, organization systems, innovation and design thinking, job design/enrichment, competency-based management, knowledge management, organizational learning, work design (such as job rotation), and socio-technical systems.

Human Process Interventions

designed to change the way the individual members of an organization interact. Management by objectives and work simplification are examples.

Strategic interventions

designed to implement changes to the organization's vision or mission, as part of a strategic planning process. Change management is a type.

Operant Conditioning and Behavioral Reinforcement (BF Skinner)

desirable behavior can be encouraged via positive reinforcement- rewarding wanted behavior when it occurs. Unwanted behavior discouraged through punishment.

Solomon four-group design

dividing participants into four randomly assigned groups. Two of the groups are given a pre-test. One of the groups given a pre-test, and one of the groups that is not, are given the training program. All four groups are then observed and/or post-tested.

Vestibule training

done in a separate area from the actual work area so that the worker is sheltered from the pressure of the regular work.

Paired comparison ranking method

each employee is compared with every other individual employee. Can show how employees working at the same level compare to one another and how they compare to the manager who organizes them but no reasoning/little feedback.

Training and development phase

encompasses both the design of the training regimen that was outlined based on the needs identified in the assessment phase.

Key performance evaluation characteristics

Fairness, Honesty, Sensitivity, Vision

Pareto Analysis System

80/20 rule, which holds that 80 percent of the problems in an organization result from 20 percent of the possible causes.

Copyright Act of 1976

A federal statute that (1) establishes the requirements for obtaining a copyright and (2) protects copyrighted works from infringement.

ADDIE- Instructional Design Process

Analysis(Identify the goal) Design (ID target audience, develop objectives and content) Development (Translate design to presentation format) Implementation (select facility, hire trainers) Evaluation (formative/summative)

Performance management process is when an organization

Articulates the specific actions and behaviors that are necessary for achievement of its goals Periodically performs a structured assessment of whether the people responsible for those actions and behaviors are functioning as desired Takes the necessary steps to alter or sustain current actions and behaviors

Comparison method of performance appraisal

Compare the performance of individual employees to each other. Ranking, Paired Comparison, Forced Distribution (bell curve) and Factor Comparisons (based on individual factors of performance)

Summative evaluations

Conducted on finished training programs to assess their overall effectiveness; they include reaction evaluations, learning evaluations, behavior evaluations, and results evaluations.

Formative Evaluations

Conducted throughout the ADDIE process to inform design and development; they include needs assessment, jobs analysis, pilot testing, and pre-testing

Crosby's Doing It Right the First Time (DIRFT), which gave rise to his Four Absolutes of Quality:

Conformance to Requirements: Management needs to define what is required in a product, both by the customer and by the company, and quality can then be determined by whether the product meets those requirements. Prevention: Management should strive to prevent errors, by "Doing it right the first time." Performance Standards: The quality standard should be "Zero Defects," relative to the requirements management has identified. Measurement: Quality can be measured by calculating the additional cost of not doing it right the first time—that is, the cost of having to manufacture new products to replace those that had defects.

Performance Management Cycle

Define performance expectations, Measure and evaluate performance, provide feedback, adjust or continue behavior, repeat.

Rating method of performance appraisal

Employ numerical ratings or rankings. Includes rating scales and checklists (statements to describe aspects of performance)

Elements of performance management systems

Goals, Structure (using rating scale, requirement, MBO, 365 degree feedback), Course corrections, Self assessment.

Evaluation phase of developing training programs

Have the objectives identified in the assessment phase been met? Were there ways the training exceeded expectations? Were there ways it fell short? Survey employees, measuring outcomes based on job performance. Helps w/ next assessment phase

Numbers fetish- evaluation bias

In an attempt to be as objective as possible, reviewers may sometimes develop a numbers fetish, obsessing over attempts to quantify performance and measure even very small differences in the numbers that result.

360 degree feedback

Includes multiple raters who interact with the person being reviewed. Provides more detailed performance information and ensures that managers do not mistreat their peers or subordinates while acting respectfully to their superiors.

McClelland's Theory of Acquired Needs

Individuals are motivated by four needs: affiliation, the need for achievement, the need for power, and the need for avoidance. Experience dictates which of the four needs is most motivating for any particular person.

The Six Is of Innovation - Ways to Encourage

Inspiration- Establish an organizational culture of openness, risk-taking, and playfulness. Imagination- Expose the organization to external thinking and different creative stimuli. Ideas- Avoid negativity; celebrate originality. Insight- Develop multiple ways of problem-solving: brainstorming, reverse engineering, etc. Invention- Remove organizational barriers to rapid prototyping and product development. Implementation- Focus on the launch of new products with ample organizational support.

The Six Is of Innovation - Characteristics

Inspiration- The creative impulse that drives our imagination and makes it fertile. Imagination- Our capacity to look beyond the current state and envision fresh possibilities. Ideas- formulation of our original thinking Insight- The clear perception of the inner nature of a problem or complex situation. Invention- conversion of our new ideas into tangible new products and services. Implementation- successful introduction of the products of our inventiveness to the marketplace.

Affective Domain (Bloom's Taxonomy)

Involves the development of emotional reactions and skills. Receiving- Requires a student to pay attention. Responding. Requires that the student engage in the learning process in some active way. Valuing. Occurs when a student applies some value to a bit of information. Organizing. Achieved when a student can sort through what he or she has learned and develop a sort of structure or framework for that information. Characterizing. Occurs when the value applied to information affects the student's behavior.

Recency effect - evaluation bias

It is hard for evaluators to weigh events that happened some time ago equally with events that happened recently, as recent events take on a larger role in our minds.

6 levels within cognitive domain (Bloom's Taxonomy)

Knowledge (Remembering). Comprehension (Show Understanding by sorting, comparing, and describing them, and by reducing them to more essential ideas and facts.) Application (Applying use of knowledge in a new way). Analysis (Analyzing/Examining-reduction of ideas and facts to more fundamental ones, or the identification of causes.) Evaluation (Evaluating to present and defend judgments based on the information that has been learned.) Synthesis (Creating/compilation of info in different ways).

Disengagement career stage

Last stage, individual gradually pulls away from work in the org. Prioritizes may change and work becomes less important, performance declines.

Organizational analysis

Looks at how broad systems within the organization are functioning, from workforce planning to the quality of products being produced and the overall culture of the company. Assessing how well these systems are operating involves trying to quantify positive and negative outcomes and identifying variables that influence those outcomes.

Experimental design

Main method for exploring and identifying cause-effect relationships, goal is to test hypotheses between two or more variables.

Coaching vs Mentoring

Mentoring is focused on the long-term personal and career growth of the person being mentored (where mentor is often not his or her superior). Coaching is focused on the short-term development of skills and improvement of performance and is usually provided by the employee's direct supervisor.

Hertzberg's Two-Factor Theory

Motivation/satisfaction factors encourage employees to work when the work is challenging and results in the employee coming to a better realization of his or her potential (L/T). Hygiene/dissatisfaction factors encourage employees to work because they want to avoid uncomfortable or unpleasant experiences (like poverty, discipline, and confrontation) - (S/T.)

Central Tendency evaluation bias

Occurs when an evaluator has a difficult time comparing employees to one another and ends up giving most employees an average rating. May also give employees middling ratings to avoid having to justify or explain more positive or negative evaluations.

independent vs dependent variable

One that the is viewed as the possible cause of change in another dependent variable vs. those that are affected by the independent treatment.

Management by Objectives (MBO)

Performance appraisal system where EEs and their managers agree to specific goals at the beginning of a rating period and periodically evaluate performance against targets

How to create a creative environment

Promote creativity and innovation as key organizational values, be forgiving of creative mistakes, budget time/money for creative efforts, invite outsiders in (training, speakers), hire across industries, discourage negativity, be patient, protect from org's bureaucracy, give rewards, follow-through ideas to completion

Joseph Juran's ideas of quality management

Quality is determined by the consumer but once the customer's views had been taken into consideration, each company needs to develop practices that would accommodate the needs of both the consumer and the company.

Juran Trilogy

Quality planning. The organization identifies customer needs and works to meet those needs during product design and development. Quality control. The organization monitors the quality of products, to make sure they measure up to the goals established during the planning process. Quality improvement. The organization takes steps to address quality problems. These steps can include repair (fixing a process that's broken); refinement (improving a process that isn't broken); renovation (improving quality by introducing an innovative process or new technology); or reinvention (abandoning the old product or process, and starting over completely).

BOS (Behavioral Observation Scale)

Rating method developed from critical incidents, but uses substantially more incidents than a BARS to define specifically all the measures necessary for effective performance. Allows managers to rate the frequency with which an individual employee has exhibited exceptionally good or poor behavior during the rating period. More expensive/timely than BARS.

Critical Incident Method

Rating method that relies on instances of especially good or especially poor performance on the part of the employee. Provides employees with ample feedback and assesses performance in clear behavioral terms but by measuring only exceptional behaviors, it becomes difficult to compare one employee to another.

Kirpatricks training evaluation model

Reaction, Learning, Behavior, Results

The appraisal process provides the opportunity to

Reinforce good behavior. Provide constructive criticism. Restate and/or reset expectations (have EE do so) Satisfy the very human need everyone has to "know where I stand."

Absolutely negative curve

Represents an absolute decline in proficiency, over the passage of time. Can be relevant to companies when average costs of production increase over time.

Establishment career stage

Second stage which involves creating a meaningful and relevant role in the org. Performance increases

Six sigma

Seeks to reduce number of defects to 3.4 per million. DMAIC: Define. Customer requirements, and the processes needed to meet those requirements, are defined, and precise quality goals are set. Measure. Data about defects is collected, to help quantify the effectiveness of each manufacturing process. Analyze. The data are analyzed to see if there are any gaps between the stated goals and actual performance, and to determine why those gaps occurred and how they might be remedied. Improve. Solutions, meant to eliminate the gap between goals and performance, are designed and implemented. Control. The overall system is revised to incorporate the improvements implemented in the Improve stage. Workers are trained in the new processes, and the system is monitored to ensure compliance.

Five Assumptions of Adult Learners

Self-concept- more independent and more self-directed than children. Adult Learner Experience- can draw on accumulated life experience as an educational resource. Readiness to Learn- As they mature, adults become more disposed to learn skills and information that relate to their professional or social development. Orientation to Learning- While children do not need to use what they learn in the short term, many adults do; for that reason, they tend to focus more on specific problem-solving, while children focus more on abstract knowledge. Motivation to Learn. Adult learners tend to be more self-motivated.

Four steps of MBO process where employees and their managers agree to a specific set of goals

Set goals (SMART), create action plans (how objectives will be achieved), Review performance, Assess performance and reward meeting objectives

Peter Drucker's Five Step Management by Objective (MBO) Process

Set organizational objectives, cascade objectives to employees, monitor, evaluate performance, reward performance.

Authoritative leadership style

Sets goals and boundaries while establishing clear expectations.

What to avoid in the appraisal process

Surprises Venting Going through the motions (seeing it as another HR task and not taking it seriously)

Quasi-experimental designs

Take place in a natural setting with less control than experimental settings. Experimental changes are still introduced, and data is collected. However, it is not possible to eliminate the possibility that some uncontrolled or undocumented variable may influence the patterns observed.

Healthy conflict

Team is open to and respects other people's ideas, Team members remain objective, Team discussion focuses on the facts, Team seeks consensus around common goal

Dysfunctional conflict

Team won't acknowledge other people's ideas or dismisses them outright, Team members make the discussion personal and respond emotionally, Team discussion focuses on opinions or personalities, Factions on team seek "victory" of their point of view

Instructional design

The development of well structured instructional materials using learning objectives, focused teaching strategies, and feedback and evaluation.

Positively Accelerating Learning Curve

The learner makes slow progress at first, but then makes much more significant gains in proficiency as she masters different parts of the task. These curves are associated with complex tasks that require detailed learning.

Copyright

The legal right to publish, reproduce, or perform a literary, artistic, or musical work. Copyright typically belongs to the author of the work and lasts for the life of the author, plus 70 years. A work that is copyrighted cannot be used without permission of the author or her designated agent; once the copyright has expired, anyone can use the material, without permission.

Maintenance career stage

Third stage, talents are optimized. Performance may reach a plateau/stagnate.

Training and Development Process

Training needs analysis, objectives, selection, implementation and evaluation

Negatively Accelerating Learning Curve

Where the learner makes rapid progress at the beginning, but progress tapers off once the learner becomes more familiar with the task. These curves are associated with relatively routine tasks that are easy to learn.

Public domain

Work that is available for use by the general public - either b/c copyright expired or it never had copyright protection

Narrative method of performance appraisal

Write up a review of each employee's performance. Types: Critical Incident (specific incidents and reactions recorded), Essay review (short essay over a period), Field review (done by HR or someone besides manager)

Blake-Mouton Managerial Grid

X-axis of the grid is a measurement of an individual's concern for production, Y-axis tracks concern for people. May have low both (1,1), high both (9,9), or one or the other.

BARS (behaviorally anchored rating scale)

a specific rating scale that uses pre-established descriptions to rate performance and uses only observable behaviors instead of traits. Represents a combination of the graphic rating scale and the critical incident method. Provides specific behavioral examples to reflect both good and bad behaviors but timely/expensive.

Organization development intervention

a structured set of actions designed to improve an org's performance.

Development

activities aimed at improving the skills of an individual so that he or she will be able to perform better in the future.

Training

activities that seek to expand the knowledge or skills of an individual so that he or she can better accomplish a current job.

Competency gap analysis

aims to identify gaps between the abilities an employee needs and the skills that that employee has. Trainings are tailored to meet those needs.

Chaining Behavior

an operant conditioning method in which sequential behaviors are reinforced by opportunities to engage in the next one

Quality management

any organization-wide management process that is designed to assure a predetermined level of quality or excellence in a company's products or services

Utility patents

apply to the invention of what the U.S. Patent Office calls "a new and useful process, machine, manufacture, or composition of matter, or a new and useful improvement thereof." These are about 90% of recently issued patents and they last for 20 years.

Design patents

apply to what the Patent Office describes as a "new, original, and ornamental design embodied in or applied to an article of manufacture." Design patents issued after May 13, 2015, last for 15 years; those issued before that date last for 14 years.

MBO system (rating method)

goals-based system. Based largely on the extent to which individuals meet their personal performance objectives. Manager/EE meet frequently during the year to discuss the performance, ensuring that the employee is on the right track to completing his or her goals but employee will tend to focus on the goals that have been set and only those goals

Plant patents

granted to those who develop, discover, or invent new varieties of asexually reproduced plants. Last for 20 years.

Learning curve

graph that illustrates the rate at which a person gains experience/skills over time OR the rate at which the average cost of a product changes as total output increases. X axis - time or experience, Y- Learning or Proficiency.

Leadership development

grooming HiPos for corporate leadership positions to ensure they understand how the organization works, how its varying pieces interact, and how to predict and deal with changes in the business environment.

Shaping (successive approximations)

guiding behavior in the desired direction by reinforcing or rewarding responses that are increasingly similar to the target outcome.

Simple ranking method

having the manager rank each member of a work team or department, from best to worst. Easy to implement and give clear and useful information about an employee's performance but do not state the reasoning behind the rankings, and leave little room for feedback to the employees.

HiPos

high-potential employees, seen as likely to advance to high levels of corporate leadership

Forced distribution ranking method

involves grouping employees into predefined frequencies of performance ratings. Presents the employee rankings in a normal distribution in which every employee fits into one predetermined category but forces employees into the distribution, which may not be true to the actual distribution in the organization.

Job instruction training

involves the trainee watching the instructor perform job tasks repeatedly before practicing and then taking on those tasks for themselves.

behavioral performance appraisal method

judge the employee based on his behavior, as it relates to the job.

Transformational leadership style

lead by setting an example for employees/serving as a role model and fostering collaboration.

career development

lifelong process by which a person manages career choices and tries to fulfill his or her professional potential

Apprenticeship

matches new workers with experienced ones who teach them practical and theoretical skills, typically in a one-to-one fashion, usually in a highly skilled occupation/ skilled trades.