Module 7 - Chapter 13

Preliminary findings indicate that genetics may account for around _____________ of the variance in leadership style and emergence in leadership roles, but the majority still comes from development.

a third

A major goal of the GLOBE project was to develop societal and organizational measures of culture and leader attributes that were appropriate to use across _____________________________.

all cultures

The GLOBE research indicated nine dimensions of cultures that differentiate societies and organizations. These identified cultural dimensions are:

1. Power distance, or the degree to which members of a collective expect power to be distributed equally 2. Uncertainty avoidance, which is the extent a society, organization, or groups rely on norms, rules, and procedures to alleviate the unpredictability of future events 3. Humane orientation, reflected in the degree to which a collective encourages and rewards individuals for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring, and kind to others 4. Institutional Collectivism, described as the degree to which organizational and societal institutional practices encourage and reward the collective distribution of resources and collective actions 5. In-Group Collectivism, which is the degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their organizations or families 6. Assertiveness, defined as the degree to which individuals are assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in their relationships with others 7. Gender egalitarianism, expressed as the degree a collective minimizes gender inequality 8. Future orientation, or the extent to which individuals engage in future-oriented behaviors such as delaying gratification, planning, and investing in the future 9. Performance orientation, suggested by the degree to which a collective encourages and rewards group members for performance improvement and excellence

under the general direction of Robert House, called Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness, or GLOBE, started publishing its findings.The meta-goal of the GLOBE program is to ?

develop, over time, an empirically based theory to describe, understand, and predict the impact of cultural variables on leadership, organizational processes, and the effectiveness of the leader and the processes.

The personal values held by a manager shape his or her ____________________________________, and affect the ultimate decision made by the leader. At the same time, the personal values of followers influence their leader, and these values are different across cultures.

perception of a situation, influence the analysis of alternative solutions to a problem

Rensis Likert, the one-time director of the Institute for Social Research of the University of Michigan, presented the results of the years of similar research in his books and became best known for his ______________________________.

"System 4" (democratic) leadership style.

Charismatic leadership is a throwback to the old conception of leaders as being those who ?

"by the force of their personal abilities are capable of having profound and extraordinary effects on followers."

More recently, the "charisma" characteristic of transformational leadership has been changed to ______________________.

"idealized influence"

Over time, the LMX leader will develop an _________________________________________ and treat them accordingly

"in-group" of associates and an "out-group" of associates

One alternative approach that received attention proposed that there may be certain _______________________ for leadership that make leader behavior unnecessary and redundant, and _______________________ that prevent the leader from behaving in a certain way or that counteract the behavior. These ___________________________ can be found in subordinate, task, and organization characteristics.

"substitutes" / "neutralizers"

Avolio, Luthans, and colleagues have put more focus on authentic leaders, which means:

"to know oneself, to be consistent with oneself, and to have positive and strength-based orientations toward one's development and the development of others. Such leaders are transparent with their values and beliefs. They are honest with themselves and with others. They exhibit a higher level of moral reasoning capacity, allowing them to judge between gray and shades of gray."

One analysis concluded that leaders will be perceived most favorably by their associates, and succeed in exerting most influence over them, when they behave in ways that closely match:

(1) the needs and values of associates (2) the requirements of a specific work situation. In other words, the path-goal theory, like the expectancy theory in work motivation, can help in understanding the complexities of the leadership process.

Unethical Charismatic Leader

- Uses power only for personal gain or impact - Promotes own personal vision - Censures critical or opposing views - Demands own decisions be accepted without question - One-way communication - Insensitive to followers' needs - Relies on convenient, external moral standards to satisfy self-interests

Characteristics and Approaches of Transactional Leaders

1. Contingent reward: Contracts the exchange of rewards for effort; promises rewards for good performance; recognizes accomplishments. 2. Management by exception (active): Watches and searches for deviations from rules and standards; takes corrective action. 3. Management by exception (passive): Intervenes only if standards are not met. 4. Laissez-faire: Abdicates responsibilities; avoids making decisions.

In the path-goal theory, House version of the theory incorporates four major types, or styles, of leadership. what are they?

1. Directive leadership. This style is similar to that of the Lippitt and White authoritarian leader. Associates know exactly what is expected of them, and the leader gives specific directions. There is no participation by subordinates. 2. Supportive leadership. The leader is friendly and approachable and shows a genuine concern for associates. 3. Participative leadership. The leader asks for and uses suggestions from associates but still makes the decisions. 4. Achievement-oriented leadership. The leader sets challenging goals for associates and shows confidence that they will attain these goals and perform well.

Closely related to the skills approach is the study of leader "competencies." One stream of research has identified several such competencies (7) that are related to leadership effectiveness both in the United States and other cultures. What are they?

1. Drive, or the inner motivation to pursue goals 2. Leadership motivation, which is the use of socialized power to influence others tosucceed 3. Integrity, which includes truthfulness and the will to translate words into deeds 4. Self-confidence that leads others to feel confidence, usually exhibited through various forms of impression management directed at employees 5. Intelligence, which is usually focused in the ability to process information, analyze alternatives, and discover opportunities 6. Knowledge of the business, so that ideas that are generated help the company to survive and thrive 7. Emotional intelligence, based on a self-monitoring personality, making quality leaders strong in situation sensitivity and the ability to adapt to circumstances as needed

Overall, few would argue that Fiedler provided one of the major breakthroughs for leadership theory, research, and practice. Although some of the criticism cannot be ignored, there are several reasons that Fiedler's model made a historically important contribution:

1. It was the first highly visible leadership theory to present the contingency approach, thus giving widespread attention to the important role that the situation or context plays in leadership. 2. It also emphasized the importance of the interaction between the situation and the leader's characteristics in determining leader effectiveness. 3. It stimulated a great deal of research, including tests of its predictions and attempts to improve on the model, and inspired the formulation of alternative contingency theories

Avolio, Luthans and our colleagues, believe that authentic leadership is a needed approach. Authenticity has its roots in ancient Greek philosophy ("To thine own self be true") and descriptive words include genuine, transparent, reliable, trustworthy, real, and veritable. Positive psychologists refer to authenticity as both owning one's personal experiences (thoughts, emotions, or beliefs, "the real me inside") and acting in accord with the true self (behaving and expressing what you really think and believe). We specifically define authentic leadership in organizations as:

A process that draws from both positive psychological capacities and a highly developed organizational context, which results in both greater self-awareness and self-regulated positive behaviors on the part of leaders and associates, fostering positive self-development. The authentic leader is confident, hopeful, optimistic, resilient, transparent, moral/ethical, future-oriented, and gives priority to developing associates to be leaders

A Fortune article humorously describes a manager with charisma as follows:

He attended some middling college. Doesn't have an MBA. But he has an aura. He persuades people, subordinates, peers, customers, even the S.O.B. you both work for—to do things they'd rather not. People charge over the hill for him. Run through fire. Walk barefoot on broken glass. He doesn't demand attention, he commands it.

Barry Posner, makes the following observations about the needed change in how business leadership is viewed:

In the past, business believed that a leader was like the captain of a ship: cool, calm, collected. Now, we see that leaders need to be human. They need to be in touch, they need to be empathetic, and they need to be with people. Leaders need to be a part of what's going on, not apart from what's going on.

Why is the task-directed leader successful in very favorable situations? Fiedler offered the following explanation:

In the very favorable conditions in which the leader has power, informal backing, and a relatively well-structured task, the group is ready to be directed, and the group expects to be told what to do. Consider the captain of an airliner in its final landing approach. We would hardly want him to turn to his crew for a discussion on how to land.

this social exchange view of leadership has been summarized by Yammarino and Dansereau as follows:

In work organizations, the key partners involved in exchange relationships of investments and returns are superiors and subordinates. Superiors make investments (e.g., salary, office space) in and receive returns (e.g., performance) from subordinates; subordinates make investments in and receive returns from superiors; and the investments and returns occur on a one-to-one basis in each superior-subordinate dyad

The extremely turbulent, adverse environment facing organizational leaders in recent years has led Bennis and Thomas to conclude:

One of the most reliable indicators and predictors of true leadership is an individual's ability to find meaning in negative events and to learn from even the most trying circumstances. Put another way, the skills required to conquer adversity and emerge stronger and more committed than ever are the same ones that make for extraordinary leaders

In three separate organizations it was found that for employees performing ambiguous, nonrepetitive tasks, the higher the ___________________________________leader, the more associates were confident that their efforts would pay off in effective performance.

achievement orientation of the

In the initial studies, hobby clubs for ten-year-old boys were formed. Each club was submitted to all three different styles of leadership— authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire.The laissez-faire leadership climate actually produced the greatest number of __________________________________.

aggressive acts from the group

Perhaps as good a simple definition of leadership as any comes from a Fortune article, which states: "When you boil it all down, contemporary leadership seems to be a matter of ___________________________________ needed to reach them."

aligning people toward common goals and empowering them to take the actions

The substitutes theory tries to point out that some things __________________________________ ; leaders do not have mystical powers over people.

are beyond leaders' control

As the CEO of Commerce Union Corporation noted in a Wall Street Journal article: "Part of a subordinate's responsibility is to make the ___________________________.

boss look good."

In the initial studies, hobby clubs for ten-year-old boys were formed. Each club was submitted to all three different styles of leadership— authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire.The laissez-faire leader gave?

complete freedom to the group; this leader essentially provided no leadership.

In recent years, many theorists and practitioners have emphasized the difference between managers and leaders. For example, as Bennis has noted: "To survive in the twenty-first century, we are going to need a new generation of leaders—leaders, not managers. The distinction is an important one. Leaders ______________________________________________________________________—while managers surrender to it."

conquer the context—the volatile, turbulent, ambiguous surroundings that sometimes seem to conspire against us and will surely suffocate us if we let them

In the Ohio State Leadership Studies, In the first step, the LBDQ was administered in a wide variety of situations. In order to examine how the leader was described, the answers to the questionnaire were then subjected to factor analysis. The outcome was amazingly consistent. The same two dimensions of leadership continually emerged from the questionnaire data. They were

consideration and initiating structure.

Yukl includes leadership skills such as ?

creativity, organization, persuasiveness, diplomacy and tactfulness, knowledge of the task, and the ability to speak well. These skills have become very important in the application of leadership theory

Charismatic leaders tend to be portrayed as wonderful heroes, there can also be unethical characteristics associated with charismatic leaders. With regard to meeting the challenge of being ethical, it has been noted that charismatic leaders:

deserve this label only if they create transformations in their organizations so that members are motivated to follow them and to seek organization objectives not simply because they are ordered to do so, and not merely because they calculate that such compliance is in their self-interest, but because they voluntarily identify with the organization, its standards of conduct and willingly seek to fulfill its purpose.

Authentic leadership has been used in the practitioner-oriented popular literature, this proposed theory is the first to treat leadership as both a _______________________________________on authenticity.

developmental process and product centered

Although there are a number of contrasts between the two theories, the major differentiators are how followers are treated. Key to transformational leaders is that they seek to __________________________________________ while charismatic leaders may try to keep followers __________________________________________.

empower and elevate followers (i.e., develop followers into leaders) / weak and dependent on them (i.e., instill personal loyalty to the leader rather than developing them to attain ideals).

In the initial studies, hobby clubs for ten-year-old boys were formed. Each club was submitted to all three different styles of leadership— authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire.The democratic leader?

encouraged group discussion and decision making. This leader tried to be "objective" in giving praise or criticism and to be one of the group in spirit.

The transactional leadership styles did not ________________________________________, and this more positive impact of transformational over transactional leadership has held through the years.

enhance leadership effectiveness

The other widely recognized theoretical development from a contingency approach is the path-goal theory derived from the expectancy framework of motivation theory.In essence, the path-goal theory attempts to

explain the impact that leader behavior has on associate motivation, satisfaction, and performance.

In the initial studies, hobby clubs for ten-year-old boys were formed. Each club was submitted to all three different styles of leadership— authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire. The democratically led group?

fell between the one extremely aggressive group and the four apathetic groups under the autocratic leaders.

In the Early Michigan Leadership Studies, Nondirective interviews were conducted with the 24 section supervisors and 419 clerical workers. Results showed that supervisors of high-producing sections were significantly more likely to be _____________ rather than close in their supervisory styles and be employee-centered (have a genuine concern for their people).

general

Besides influence, leadership has been defined in terms of ____________________________________________________________ , and combinations of two or more of these

group processes, personality, compliance, particular behaviors, persuasion, power, goal achievement, interaction, role differentiation, initiation of structure

Through the analysis of research findings from all types of situations, Fiedler found when the situation was only moderately favorable or unfavorable (the intermediate range of favorableness), the _________________________________type of leader was most effective.

human-oriented or democratic

An example of such situations is the typical committee or unit. In these situations, the leader may not be wholly accepted by the other members of the group, the task may not be completely structured, and some authority and power may be granted to the leader. Under such a relatively but not extremely unfavorable situation, the model predicts that a _____________________________ type of leader will be most effective.

human-oriented, democratic

the great person approach became associated with the trait theory of leadership. The trait approach is concerned mainly with ___________________________________________.

identifying the personality traits of the leader

In simple terms, the Ohio State factors are task or goal orientation (__________________) and recognition of individual needs and relationships (_________________). The two dimensions are separate and distinct

initiating structure / consideration

a recent cover story on leadership in Fortune declares, "Your competition can copy every advantage you've got—except one. That's why the best companies are realizing that no matter what business they're in, their real business ________________________________.

is building leaders

Fiedler developed what he called a contingency model of leadership effectiveness. This model contained the relationship between?

leadership style and the favorableness of the situation

In a major study in a manufacturing organization, it was found that in nonrepetitive, ego-involving tasks, employees were more satisfied under participative leaders than under _____________________ leaders.

nonparticipative

This authentic leadership is considered a root construct that is considered necessary, but ______________________, for other types of leadership.

not sufficient

the statelike (situationally based capacities, those open to development and change, as opposed to the dispositional, relatively fixed traits) positive organizational behavior (POB) constructs have potential for understanding and developing leadership. Specifically, both intuitive and beginning research evidence indicate that ________________________________

optimism, hope, resiliency, emotional intelligence, and especially self-efficacy are related to effective leaders

The situational approach was initially called Zeitgeist (a German word meaning "spirit of the time"); the leader is viewed as a _____________________________________.

product of the times and the situation. The person with the particular qualities or traits that a situation requires will emerge as the leader.

In the Early Michigan Leadership Studies, The low-producing-section supervisors had essentially opposite characteristics and techniques. They were found to be close, _____________________________________.

production-centered supervisors. Another important, but sometimes overlooked, finding was that employee satisfaction was not directly related to productivity, the type of supervision was the key to their performance

On the basis of the analysis of political and religious leaders, House suggests that charismatic leaders are characterized by

self-confidence and confidence in their associates, high expectations for associates, ideological vision, and the use of personal example. Followers of charismatic leaders identify with the leader and the mission of the leader, exhibit extreme loyalty to and confidence in the leader, emulate the leader's values and behavior, and derive self-esteem from their relationship with the leader.

Leader traits that foster charismatic attributions include ?

self-confidence, impression-management skills, social sensitivity, empathy. Situations that promote charismatic leadership include a crisis requiring dramatic change or followers who are very dissatisfied with the status quo.

Bill George says, authentic leaders "bring people together around a __________________________________, in order to serve their customers while creating value for all their stakeholders

shared mission and values and empower them to lead

The group theories of leadership have their roots in ____________________________.

social psychology

The Ohio State studies certainly have value for the study of leadership. They were the first to point out and emphasize the importance of both ___________________________________________.

task and human dimensions in assessing leadership

A growing number of research studies indicate that followers/associates may actually affect leaders as much as leaders affect followers/associates. For example, one study found that when associates were not performing very well, the leaders tended to emphasize the ______________________, but when associates were doing a good job, leaders increased emphasis on their people or consideration.

task or initiating structure

Through the analysis of research findings from all types of situations, Fiedler was able to discover that under very favorable and very unfavorable situations, the ______________________________ type of leader was most effective.

task-directed, or hard-nosed and authoritarian,

Ethical Charismatic Leader

• Uses power to serve others • Aligns vision with followers' needs and aspirations - Considers and learns from criticism - Stimulates followers to think independently and to question the leader's view - Open, two-way communication - Coaches, develops, and supports followers; shares recognition with others - Relies on internal moral standards to satisfy organizational and societal interests

in the path-goal theory, Using one of the four styles contingent on the situational factors as outlined, the leader attempts to influence associates' perceptions and motivate them, which in turn leads to their role clarity, goal expectancies, satisfaction, and performance. This is specifically accomplished by the leader as follows:

1. Recognizing and/or arousing associates' needs for outcomes over which the leader has some control 2. Increasing personal payoffs to associates for work-goal attainment 3. Making the path to those payoffs easier to travel by coaching and direction 4. Helping associates clarify expectancies 5. Reducing frustrating barriers 6. Increasing the opportunities for personal satisfaction contingent on effective performance70

The contingency model of leadership effectiveness. This model contained the relationship between leadership style and the favorableness of the situation. Situational favorableness was described by Fiedler in terms of three empirically derived dimensions:

1. The leader-member relationship, which is the most critical variable in determining the situation's favorableness 2. The degree of task structure, which is the second most important input into the favorableness of the situation 3. The leader's position power obtained through formal authority, which is the third most critical dimension of the situation

interviews with top executives of major companies conducted by Tichy and Devanna. They found that effective transformational leaders share the following characteristics:

1. They identify themselves as change agents. 2. They are courageous. 3. They believe in people. 4. They are value driven. 5. They are lifelong learners. 6. They have the ability to deal with complexity, ambiguity, and uncertainty. 7. They are visionaries.

Bass concludes that in many instances, transactional leadership is a prescription for ______________________ and that transformational leadership leads to _____________________________ facing demands for renewal and change. He suggests that fostering transformational leadership through policies of recruitment, selection, promotion, training, and development will pay off in the health, well-being, and effective performance of today's organizations.

mediocrity / superior performance in organizations

Social psychologists began the search for situational variables that affect leadership roles, skills, behavior, and followers' performance and satisfaction. Numerous situational variables were identified, but no overall theory pulled it all together until Fred Fiedler proposed the now ?

classic situation-based, or contingency, theory for leadership effectiveness

What are the three domains of leadership?

Leader based Follower Based Relationship Based

Most of the research on transformational leadership to date has relied on Bass and Avolio's ________________________________or qualitative research that simply describes leaders through interviews.

MLQ (Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire)

Initiating structure and consideration are very similar to the time-honored

military commander's functions of mission and concern with the welfare of the troops. In simple terms, the Ohio State factors are task or goal orientation (initiating structure) and recognition of individual needs and relationships (consideration). The two dimensions are separate and distinct from each other.

the Iowa studies are too often automatically discounted or at least marginalized because they are hard to generalize to __________________________

modern organizational leadership.

leadership is recognized as both multidimensional, as first pointed out by the Ohio State studies, and _____________________.

multilevel (person, dyad, group, and collective/community)

leadership is affected by both ?

nature (genetics) and nurture (development)

The fourth stage of the LMX recognizes the ?

new cross-functional or network emphasis in organizations and even external relations with customers, suppliers, and other organizational stakeholders.

The concept of authentic leadership is more on a _____________________, rather than just being dichotomous

continuum

leadership guru Warren Bennis gives the title "The End of Leadership" to make the point that effective leadership cannot exist without the full inclusion, initiatives, and the cooperation of employees. In other words, one cannot be a great leader without _____________________________.

great followers

in, The Iowa Leadership Studies, Lewin is recognized as the father of _____________________and as an important cognitive theorist.

group dynamics

In other words, this developmental approach to leadership focuses on the positive (both personal and contextual) in getting to know and regulate one's self. The outcomes of authentic leadership are ?

positive psychological capital (confidence, hope, optimism, and resiliency) and transparency, moral/ethical behavior, future-orientation, and building associates

from the social cognitive perspective taken by this text, it should be remembered that leader-member exchanges are a _____________________________.

reciprocal process

The implication is that in general the human-oriented, democratic style of leadership would be most effective in managing human resources in the ___________________________.

large majority of organizational situations.

Studies of seven organizations found that ___________________________ was (a) positively related to satisfactions and expectancies of associates engaged in ambiguous tasks and (b) negatively related to satisfactions and expectancies of associates engaged in clear tasks.

leader directiveness

Relevant to the exchange view of leadership is the vertical dyad linkage (VDL) approach, is now commonly called

leader-member exchange (LMX)

Research indicates that the impact of such charismatic leaders will be enhanced when the followers exhibit higher levels of _______________________________ , especially when observing the charismatic leaders' behaviors and activities and when operating in a social network

self-awareness and self-monitoring

The more traditional transactional leadership involves an exchange relationship between ________________________, but transformational leadership is based more on leaders' shifting the ____________________________________________.

leaders and followers / values, beliefs, and needs of their followers

In addition to developing the POB states, another departure from the trait approach that still focuses on leaders themselves is their ______________________________.

skill development

authentic leadership is considered to be __________ and thus open to development and change.

statelike

Studies involving 10 different samples of employees found that _______________________ had its most positive effect on satisfaction for associates who work on stressful, frustrating, or dissatisfying tasks.

supportive leadership

what Fiedler's model suggests is that in highly unfavorable situations, the effective leader ______________________________________

takes charge and makes the decisions that need to be made to accomplish the task without asking for input or trying to keep everyone happy.

Fiedler explains away, he maintains that the model correctly predicted the correlations that should exist between the leader's style and performance in relation to the identified favorableness of the situation. As predicted, his studies showed that in very unfavorable and very favorable situations, the _______________________leader performs best. In moderately favorable and moderately unfavorable situations, the ______________________leader was more effective.

task-oriented / human-oriented

Classic exchange theory, in particular, serves as an important basis for this approach. Discussed in previous chapters, this means simply that ?

the leader provides more benefits/rewards than burdens/costs for followers. There must be a positive exchange between the leaders and followers in order for group goals to be accomplished.

Fiedler's classic contingency theory, which suggests that leadership styles must fit or match the situation in order ______________________________________.

to be effective, is the best known.

In spite of the seeming discontent, at least with the traditional approaches to leadership theory, practice, and development, throughout history the difference between success and failure, whether in a war, a business, a protest movement, or a basketball game, has been attributed _________________________________.

to leadership

The scientific analysis of leadership started off by concentrating on the ___________________________________.

trait approach to leadership

Many years ago James MacGregor Burns identified two types of political leadership: What are they?

transactional and transformational.

LMX theory says that leaders ?

treat individual followers differently. In particular, leaders and their associates develop dyadic (two-person) relationships that affect the behavior of both. For example, associates who are committed and who expend a lot of effort for the unit are rewarded with more of the leader's positional resources (for example, information, confidence, and concern) than those who do not display these behaviors

In the initial studies, hobby clubs for ten-year-old boys were formed. Each club was submitted to all three different styles of leadership— authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire.The authoritarian leader was

very directive and allowed no participation. This leader tended to give individual attention when praising and criticizing, but tried to be friendly or impersonal rather than openly hostile.

Leadership takes on added significance in a global economy. As leadership guru Warren Bennis noted:

"Given the nature and constancy of change and the transnational challenges facing American business leadership, the key to making the right choices will come from understanding and embodying the leadership qualities necessary to succeed in the volatile and mercurial global economy

An equally good definition of leadership is implied in former hockey great Wayne Gretzky's famous quote: _____________________________________________But, as Bennis points out, "the issue is not just interpreting and envisioning the future, or knowing where the puck is going to be, but being able to create the kind of meaning for people, the values that make sense to them, where there's enough trust in the system so it's going to stick.

"I don't go where the puck is; I go to where the puck is going to be."

In the initial studies, hobby clubs for ten-year-old boys were formed. Each club was submitted to all three different styles of leadership—

authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire.

In contrast to transactional leaders behaviors, Avolio notes that transformational leaders characterized by idealized leadership, inspiring leadership, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration represent a cluster of interrelated styles aimed at the following:

1. Changing situations for the better 2. Developing followers into leaders 3. Overhauling organizations to provide them with new strategic directions 4. Inspiring people by providing an energizing vision and high ideal for moral and ethical conduct

Characteristics and Approaches of Transformational Leaders

1. Charisma: Provides vision and sense of mission; instills pride; gains respect and trust. 2. Inspiration: Communicates high expectations; uses symbols to focus efforts; expresses important purposes in simple ways. 3. Intellectual stimulation: Promotes intelligence; rationality; and careful problem solving. 4. Individual consideration: Gives personal attention; treats each employee individually; coaches; advises

Specifically, the personality trait of extraversion had the highest ______ average correlation with leader emergence and leadership effectiveness, followed by conscientiousness ________, openness to experience ________, neuroticism _______and non-significant agreeableness _______. These results and newly developed traitlike theoretical frameworks such as the motivation to lead (MTL), which has been demonstrated to predict leadership potential, indicate that a dispositional, traitlike approach to leadership is still alive and may have potential for the future.

(.31), (.28), (.24), (.24), (.08).

Graen and Uhl-Bien have emphasized that LMX has evolved through various stages:

(1) the discovery of differentiated dyads; (2) the investigation of characteristics of LMX relationships and their organizational implications/outcomes; (3) the description of dyadic partnership building (4) the aggregation of differentiated dyadic relations to group and network levels

At first, leaders were felt to be born, not made. This so-called great person theory of leadership implied that some individuals are ______________________________________.

born with certain traits that allow them to emerge out of any situation or period of history to become leaders.

In the initial studies, hobby clubs for ten-year-old boys were formed. Each club was submitted to all three different styles of leadership— authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire. researchers found that the boys subjected to the autocratic leaders reacted in one of two ways:

either aggressively or apathetically. Both the aggressive and apathetic behaviors were deemed to be reactions to the frustration caused by the leader.

In the group approach, leadership is viewed more in terms of the leader's behavior and how such behavior affects and is affected by the group of _____________________

followers.