MSM 6640

surgency

includes dominance, extraversion, and high energy with determination.

distributed leadership

multiple leaders take complementary leadership roles in rotation within the same SMT, according to their area of expertise or interest.

Charisma

a social construct between the leader and follower, in which the leader offers a transformative vision or ideal that exceeds the status quo and then convinces followers to accept this course of action not because of its rational likelihood of success, but because of their implicit belief in the extraordinary qualities of the leader.

Leadership traits within the Big Five

a. Dominance b. Extroversion c. Energy/Determination d. Sociability/Sensitivity e. Emotional intelligence f. Emotional Stability and Narcissism g. Self-confidence h. Dependability i. Integrity j. Flexibility k. Intelligence l. Locus of control

5 Types of followers Robert Kelley

alienated passive conformist pragmatic effective

Key Terms

alienated follower, 242 conformist follower, 241 delegation, 249 delegation model, 252 dyad, 232 dyadic theory, 232 effective follower, 242 follower, 240 followership, 240 impressions management, 237 ingratiation, 237 in-group, 232 leader-member exchange (LMX), 234 locus of control, 247 organizational citizenship behavior, 236 out-group, 233 passive follower, 241 pragmatic follower, 242 self-efficacy, 243 self-promotion, 237 social capital, 238 social identity 236

The message-receiving process

includes listening, analyzing, and checking under standing.

consientiousness

includes traits of dependability and integrity.

360-degree feedback

is based on receiving performance evalua- tions from many people.

glass ceiling

is defined as an invisible barrier that separate women and minorities from top leadership positions.

Organizational citizenship behavior

is defined as individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization.3

dyad

is defined as the individualized relationship between a leader and each follower in a work unit.

2 Personal power

is derived from the followers based on the leader's behavior. Charismatic leaders have personal power.

7 types of power: 1 Position power

is derived from top management, and it is delegated down the chain of command. Position status can give you power.8

conformist follower

is someone who is high on involvement but low on critical thinking. conformists are the "yes people" of the organization.

alienated follower

is someone who is low on involvement, yet is high on critical thinking. is someone who feels cheated, or unappreciated, by his or her organization for exemplary work. Often cynical in their behavior; are capable but unwilling to participate in developing solutions to problems. They are just happy to dwell on the negatives and ignore the positives as far as organizational life goes.

Vision

is the ability to imagine different and better conditions and the ways to achieve them.

follower

someone who is under the direct influence and authority of a leader.

A mediator

is a neutral third party who helps resolve a conflict.

servant leadership`

- earning and keeping others' trust - service over self-interest - effective listening

The following variables may substitute or neutralize leadership by providing task- oriented direction and/or people-oriented support rather than a leader.

1. Characteristics of followers. Ability, knowledge, experience, training. Need for inde- pendence. Professional orientation. Indifference toward organizational rewards. 2.Characteristics of the task. Clarity and routine. Invariant methodology. Provision of own feedback concerning accomplishment. Intrinsic satisfaction for completing the task. 3. Characteristics of the organization. Formalization (explicit plans, goals, and areas of responsibility). Inflexibility (rigid, unbending rules and procedures). Highly speci- fied and active advisory and staff functions. Closely knit, cohesive work groups. Organizational rewards not within the leader's control. Spatial distance between leader and followers.

Improving performance with the coaching model

1. describe current performance 2 describe desired performance 3 get a commitment to the change 4 follow-up

the Coaching Model for employees Who are performing Below Standard

Coaching is needed when performance falls below expected levels.4

affiliation (pg. 43)

Effective leaders have a lower need for affiliation than power, so that relationships don't get in the way of influencing followers. If the achievement score is lower than that for affiliation, the probability of the following problems occurring may be increased. Lead- ers with high n Aff tend to have a lower need for power and are thus reluctant to play the bad-guy role, such as disciplining and influencing followers to do things they would rather not do—like change. However, recall that effective leaders do have concern for followers—socialized power.

comparison of content motivation theories

HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY (MASLOW) Self-Actualization Esteem Belongingness Safety Physiological Needs must be met in a hierarchical order. TWO-FACTOR THEORY (HERZBERG) Motivators Motivators Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance factors will not motivate employees. ALSO CALLED MOTIVATION HYGIENE THEORY OR MAINTENANCE ACQUIRED NEEDS THEORY (MCCLELLAND) Achievement and Power Achievement and Power Affiliation Not classified Not classified Employees must be motivated differently based on their acquired needs.

Chaleff discussed (ref. followership)

He identifies the five behaviors as: courage to accept responsibility, courage to serve, courage to ques- tion, courage to be part of necessary change, and courage to take a moral stand when necessary.6

National Culture Identities— Hofstede's Value Dimensions

Individualism: is a psychological state in which people see themselves first as individuals and believe their own interest and values are primary. Other names for the individualistic culture are the autonomy culture or the self-expression culture. Collectivism: is the state of mind wherein the values and goals of the group—whether extended family, ethnic group, company, or community—are primary.

The negotiation process

Plan. Step 1. Research the other party(ies) Step 2. Set objectives Step 3. Try to develop options and trade-offs Step 4. Anticipate questions and objections, and prepare answers Negotiations. Step 1. Develop rapport and focus on obstacles, not the person Step 2. Let the other party make the first offer Step 3. Listen and ask questions to focus on meeting the other party's needs. Step 4. Don't be too quick to give in, and ask for something in return. Postponement.

Leaders born or made?

Researchers estimate that 30 percent of leadership is heritable, whereas 70 percent is de- veloped.

Leadership Actions for Shaping Culture

Substantive Actions and Symbolic Actions

5 Identify the path-goal leadership model styles and variables.

The path-goal leadership model styles include direc- tive, supportive, participative, and achievement-oriented. Variables used to determine the leadership style are the subordinate and the environment.

Coalitions

Using coalitions as an influencing tactic is political behavior. Each party helps the others get what they want.

attitudes

are positive or negative feelings about people, things, and issues. W

behavioral leadership theories

attempt to explain distinctive styles used by effective leaders, or to define the nature of their work.

schedules of reinforcement

continuous reinforcement intermittent reinforcement

leader-member exchange (LMX)

defined as the quality of the exchange relationship between a leader and a follower. LMX takes a relationship-based approach to leadership, focusing on social dimensions of trust, loyalty, honesty, support, and respect that help define the nature of the dyadic rela- tionship between a leader and a follower.

social capital

defined as the set of resources that inheres in the structure of relations between members of the group, which helps them get ahead.

The BCF model

describes a conflict in terms of behavior, consequences, and feelings. W

difference between leader and manager

differences between a manager (formal position of authority) and a leader (has the ability to influence others), because the over- arching paradigm has shifted from management to leadership. Some of the differences identified between managers and leaders are as follows: Managers focus on doing things right, and leaders focus on doing the right thing. (pg. 17) Managers are concerned with stability and the best way to get the job done, and leaders place greater concern on innovation and change. (pg. 17) going from the management to the leadership theory paradigm is a shift from the older autocratic management style to the newer participative leadership style of management. (pg. 17)

conflict

exists whenever people are in disagreement and opposition. C

The performance formula

explains performance as a function of ability, motivation, and resources. M

Content (satisfied) motivation theories (3)

focus on explaining and predicting behavior based on people's needs. 1. hierarchy of Needs theory 2. two-factor theory 3. acquired needs theory

normative leadership model

has a time-driven and development-driven decision tree that enables the user to select one of five leadership styles (decide, consult individually, consult group, facilitate, and delegate) appropriate for the situation to maximize decision outcomes.

Teams

have become the basic unit of empowerment —large enough for the collective strength and synergy of diverse talents and small enough for effective participation and bonding.

Henry Mintzberg (10 managerial roles)

identified ten managerial roles that leaders perform to accomplish organizational objectives. He grouped these roles into three categories. The managerial role categories are interpersonal, informational, and decisional. Leaders perform the interpersonal role when they act as figurehead, leader, and liaison. Leaders perform the informational role when they act as monitor, disseminator, and spokesperson. Leaders perform the decisional role when they act as entrepreneur, disturbance-handler, resource-allocator, and negotiator.

levels of analysis of leadership theory

individual; group; organizational the individual performance affects the group and organizational performance. the group performance affects the organizational performance. And both the group and organization affect the performance of the individual.

reciprocity

involves creating obligations and developing alliances, and using them to accomplish objectives.

4 reward power

is based on the user's ability to influence others with something of value to them. An important part of reward power is having con- trol over getting and allocating resources.2 To increase reward power, follow these guidelines: • Gain and maintain control over evaluating employees' performance and determining their raises, promotions, and other rewards. • Find out what others value, and try to reward people in that way. • Let people know you control rewards, and state our criteria for giving rewards.

Whistle-blowing

is employee disclosure of illegal or unethical practices within an organization.

Power

is essential to leaders because it is a means of influencing followers. Without power, there is no leadership.

Self-efficacy

is the belief in your own capability to perform in a specific situation, which is based on your self-concept and self-confidence.

ethnocentrism

is the belief that one's own group or subculture is naturally superior to other groups and cultures.

team learning

is the collective acquisition, combination, creation, and sharing of knowledge. Efficient teams enable the organization to achieve its goals with fewer resources.

Leadership style

is the combination of traits, skills, and behaviors leaders use as they interact with followers.

The psychological contract

is the unwritten implicit expectations of each party in a relationship.

servant leadership

leadership that transcends self-interest to serve the needs of others, by helping them grow professionally and personally.

evidence-based management (EBM)

means that decisions and organizational practices are based on the best available scientific evidence. Published research influences what people do in organizations; however, many organi- zations do not practice EBM.86 Our objective is to move you away from making decisions based on personal preference and unsystematic experience toward EBM.

virtual teams

members are geographically dispersed, requiring them to work together through electronic means with minimal face-to-face interaction. provide human resource flexibility, customer service responsiveness, innovation, and speed in project completion. eliminates time and space barriers

Goal-setting theory

proposes that specific, difficult goals motivate people. Goal setting increases commitment, motivation, energy, and persistence toward goals. Criteria for objectives 1. singular result 2. specific 3. measurable 4. target data

Technical skills

technical skills involve the ability to use methods and techniques to perform a task. This includes knowledge about methods, processes, procedures, and techniques, and the ability to use tools and equipment to perform a task. Technical skills can also be called busi- ness skills, or can include them.

transformational vs. transactional leadership

transformational leadership seeks to change the status quo by articulating to followers the problems in the current system and a compelling vision of what a new organization could be, whereas transactional leadership seeks to maintain stability within an organization through regular economic and social exchanges that achieve specific goals for both leaders and their followers.

moral development

which refers to under- standing right from wrong and choosing to do the right thing with a moral identity.7

Why Executives are Derailed

· They used a bullying style viewed as intimidating, insensitive, and abrasive. · They were viewed as being cold, aloof, and arrogant. · They betrayed personal trust. · They were self-centered and viewed as overly ambitious and thinking of the next job. · They had specific performance problems with the business. · They overmanaged and were unable to delegate or build a team.

An effective evaluation should accomplish three things:

• Describe behavior, performance, and results the leader has observed. • Explain, illustrate, and support the leader's conclusions. • Tell employees clearly what they are doing well and describe what they need to improve.

What to delegate

• Paperwork. Have others prepare reports, memos, letters, and so on. • Routine tasks. Delegate checking inventory, scheduling, ordering, and so on. • Technical matters. Have top employees deal with technical questions and problems. • Tasks with developmental potential. Give employees the opportunity to learn new things. Prepare them for advancement by enriching their jobs. • Employees' problems. Train employees to solve their own problems; don't solve problems for them, unless their capability is low.

Summary (CH 9)

1 Briefly explain Max Weber's conceptualization of charisma. Weber used the term charisma to explain a form of influence based on follower perceptions that the leader is endowed with the gift of divine inspiration, not a traditional or legal mandate of authority. This gift of divine inspiration is the force behind a charismatic leader's ability to focus society's attention on both the crisis it faces and the leader's vision for a new and better future. According to Weber, charismatic individuals emerge as leaders during times of great social crisis and inspire people to do more than they would under normal circumstances. 2 Explain what is meant by the "locus of charismatic leadership." The question scholars have entertained since Weber's conceptualization of charisma is whether charisma is a function of the prevailing social climate, the leader's extraordinary qualities, or the confluence of the two. Supporters of the view that charismatic leadership could not take place unless the society were in a tumultuous, unstable situation argue that without a crisis and followers' need for change, a leader's charismatic qualities would be hard to notice or appreciate. Therefore, for proponents of this viewpoint, the locus of charismatic leadership is external from the leader. Others argue that charismatic leadership is primarily the result of leader attributes (internal), not the situation. They maintain that leader characteristics such as vision, exceptional communication skills, trustworthiness, self-confidence, and focus on empowering others are what qualify someone as a charismatic leader regardless of the external situation. Finally, there is an emerging view that charismatic leadership is a convergence of follower perceptions and reactions influenced by leader characteristics and the prevailing social situation. 3 Discuss the effects of charismatic leadership on followers. Charismatic leaders tend to have a strong emotional bond with their followers. The effects of such a bond are that followers are inspired to give unconditional loyalty, devotion, obedience, and commitment to the leader and to the cause the leader represents. A sense of fulfillment and satisfaction is derived from the pursuit of worthwhile activities and goals and having positive beliefs and values about life as presented by the charismatic leader. Implicitly, the charismatic leader is seen as an object of identification by which a follower emulates his or her behavior; thus, followers model their behavior, values, and cognitions after the leader. For example, followers are more likely to set or accept higher goals and have greater confidence in their ability to contribute to the achievement of such goals. By observing the leader display self-confidence, followers develop self- confidence as well. 4 Discuss how one can acquire charismatic qualities. There are suggested strategies for acquiring or enhancing charismatic qualities. Through training and education, people can enhance their communication skills and learn techniques of crafting visionary statements, as well as how to empower followers. Through practice and self-discipline, an individual can build his or her self-confidence and develop a personality profile that is warm, positive, enthusiastic, and optimistic. 5 Distinguish between socialized and personalized charismatic leader types. The charismatic leader seeks to achieve the unconditional commitment and devotion of followers to his or her vision. However, negative charismatic leaders emphasize devotion to themselves more than to ideals, and positive charismatic leaders seek the opposite. Negative charismatics are said to have a personalized power orientation and positive charismatics have a socialized power orientation. In the former, ideological appeals are only a ploy to gain power and manipulate and control followers. In the latter, ideological appeals are organization-driven and seek to empower followers to achieve the vision and mission of the organization. Personalized (negative) charismatic leaders seek self- glorification, and socialized (positive) charismatic leaders seek organizational transformation through empowerment of followers. 6 explain the four stages of the transformation process A transformational leader who is brought into an organization facing a serious crisis or approaching total collapse has to institute a turnaround strategy. Turnaround strategies are often radical transformations that put the organization on a different path for future growth and prosperity. The magnitude of the task and the high risk of failure require that it be approached in a systematic fashion. Thus, the transformation process is a four stage approach that starts with the recognition of the need for change. This provides the opportunity for the leader to formulate and introduce a new vision for the organization that promises a better and brighter future than the present. Once there is acceptance of the leader's vision, the third stage involves implementing the new vision and effectively managing the transition. Here, instilling in managers a sense of urgency for change, raising followers' self-confidence and optimism, and recognizing and dealing with resistance will greatly increase the chances of a successful transformation. The last stage is institutionalizing the change so that it is not a short-lived transformation. Effective strategies for institutionalizing change are outlined in the text. 7 List the qualities of effective charismatic and transformational leaders. The qualities that effective charismatic and transformational leader share are vision, superb communication skills, self-confidence and moral conviction, ability to inspire trust, high risk orientation, high energy and action orientation, relational power base, minimum internal conflict, ability to empower others, self- promoting personality, selflessness, and having an activist mind-set. 8 Describe the four behavior dimensions associated with transformational and charismatic leaders. The four behavior dimensions, also known as the "four is" are idealized influence, inspirational motivation, individual consideration, and intellectual stimulation. Idealized Influence—behavior that conveys an ideal future that is much better than the present. The leader's behavior is aimed at inspiring followers to share in his or her vision. Inspirational Motivation—passionate communications of better days ahead that motivates followers to buy into the leader's vision. Individual Consideration—behavior that employs an indi- vidualized developmental model that responds to follower needs and concerns. Intellectual Stimulation—behavior that challenges followers to think "outside of the box" and reexamine old ways and methods. it implores followers to be creative and innovate. 9 Distinguish between charismatic and transformational leadership. The two leadership types are similar in that charisma and vision are central concepts in both of them. Also, both leadership types share the ability to influence followers to believe in their vision. They are different in many ways: · Charismatic leaders are by nature transformational (regardless of the kind of transformation they seek), but not all transformational leaders are charismatic. How one achieves the label of charisma or transformation is different for the two. Charisma is attributed to an individual by followers who believe he or she possesses charismatic qualities. Transformational is an earned title based on past accomplishments. · Charismatic leaders tend to have a more activist mind-set than transformational leaders. They use political and social causes as opportunities to influence change and provide a better life for their followers. Transformational leaders are more strategic in their approach. · Charismatic leaders tend to have a sense of their purpose or personal meaning much earlier in life than transformational leaders. Transformational lead- ers follow a career path that brings them to the point of leadership where they then display their transformational abilities. · The level of resistance and conflict toward charismatic leaders are more extreme than those toward transformational leaders. This may explain why more charismatic leaders have met with violent deaths than have transformational leaders. 10 explain the basis of stewardship and servant leadership. Both leadership types are based on placing others ahead of oneself. Servant leadership and stewardship have their roots in ethics, virtues, and morality. Stewardship and servant leadership describe leaders who lead from positions of moral influence, not power, and who are very follower-centric. Both leadership styles call for empathy, kindness, honesty, humility, equality, moral integrity, empowerment, and respect for others, especially the less powerful or influential.

Chapter Summary

1 Discuss the benefits and limitations of working in teams. Benefits: In a team situation it is possible to achieve synergy, whereby the team's total output exceeds the sum of individual member contributions. Team mem- bers often evaluate and add to one another's thinking, so there are fewer chances of errors and the quality of the decisions is improved.a team atmosphere contrib- utes well toward effective problem solving, continuous improvement, and innovation. also, being a team mem- ber makes it possible for someone to satisfy more needs than working alone; among these are the need for affilia- tion, security, self-esteem, and self-fulfillment. Limitations: Some teams have the unhealthy practice of pressuring members to conform to lower group standards of performance and conduct. for example, a team member may be ostracized for being more pro- ductive than his or her coworkers. Shirking of individual responsibility, or social loafing, is another problem fre- quently noted in teams. another well-known problem common in teams is the practice of groupthink, which happens when the team values getting along so much that dissenting views are quickly suppressed in favor of group consensus. 2 Identify and explain the ten characteristics of highly effective teams. See Exhibit 8.1 and the ensuing discussion of each char- acteristic in the text. 3 What role can a team leader play in creating an effective team? The team leader's role in creating an effective team in- clude being the (1) chief motivator, (2) team coach and mentor, (3) role model, (4) team culture enforcer, (5) cheerleader, and (6) resource person. 4 Describe how organizational culture can influ- ence team creativity. Creating the right organizational culture is the respon- sibility of top management. Creativity does not work in hierarchical command-and-control environments.Top management has the responsibility to create the ap- propriate setting and support systems that foster and nourish creativity. Creating an organizational culture that supports and encourages creativity provides the protection that team members need to take creative risks.another organizational factor that influences team creativity is a commitment to team diversity. Diverse teams feature differences in thinking styles, knowledge, skills, values, and beliefs among individual team members, which enhances creativity. 5 Outline the three parts of conducting effective Each meeting should cover the following: 1. Identify objectives. Begin the meeting on time. Begin by reviewing progress to date, the group's objectives, and the purpose/objective for the specific meeting. If min- utes are recorded, they are usually approved at the beginning of the next meeting. 2. Cover agenda items. Be sure to cover agenda items in priority order.Try to keep to the approximate times, but be flexible. If the discussion is constructive and members need more time, give it to them; however, if the discussion is more of a destructive argument, move ahead. 3. Summarize and review assignments. End the meet- ing on time.The leader should summarize what took place during the meeting.Were the meeting's objec- tives achieved? Review all of the assignments given during the meeting. Get a commitment to the task that each member should perform for the next or a specific future meeting.The secretary and/or leader should record all assignments. 6 explain the differences between conventional and self-managed teams. SMTs differ from traditional teams in a number of ways. In SMTs, roles interchange frequently as members learn to be followers as well as leaders. rather than function- ing in their specialized units, SMT members develop multi-skilled capabilities that make them very flexible in performing various tasks within the team.The nature of SMTs is one of team empowerment and accountability rather than individual empowerment and accountability. Team accountability is a significant responsibility, espe- cially because SMT members determine how they will organize themselves to get the work done and are re- sponsible not only for their own performance but for that of other team members as well. See Exhibit 8.3. 7 Describe the benefits of using self-managed teams in organizations. SMTs (1) create a stronger sense of commitment to the work effort among team members; (2) improve quality, speed, and innovation; (3) have more satisfied employees and lower turnover and absenteeism; (4) facilitate faster new-product development; (5) allow cross-trained team members greater flexibility in dealing with personnel shortages due to illness or turnover; and (6) keep opera- tional costs down because of reductions in managerial ranks and increased efficiencies. 8 Describe top management's role in improving the success rate of self-managed teams. Senior management has the principal responsibility to create the right environment in which SMTs can grow and thrive.This involves undertaking activities to ensure that there is organization-wide support and acceptance of the SMT concept, appoint a champion to support and defend the SMT from opponents who are threatened by the new concept and what it represents, allow adequate time for training so team members can bond with one another and form team skills, carefully and judiciously se- lect team members so their skills and experiences match task requirements, provide specific goals and incentives, insure the availability of adequate resources, and avoid overreacting at the first sign of a crisis. 9 Describe the challenges of implementing effective self-managed teams. Many of the challenges of implementing SMTs stem from the difficulties of transitioning from a traditional command- and-control work environment to SMTs. Managers who have become accustomed to traditional, autocratic man- agement and jaded by management fads that come and go may resist or undermine a team approach. Even among members of the non-managerial ranks, the transition to SMTs has as much potential for frustrations and problems as it does for managers.This is usually due to unfamiliar- ity with the new structure and new routines and adjusting to team responsibilities.The greatest challenge may lie in setting and enforcing new behavioral expectations, made necessary by the absence of a traditional leader and the presence of new employee rights and responsibilities.

3 Identify the contingency leadership model styles and variables.

The contingency leadership model styles are task and relationship.The variables include (1) the leader- follower relationship, (2) the leadership styles—task or relationship, and (3) the situation—task structure and position power.

2 Describe the contingency leadership theory variables.

The contingency leadership variables used to explain the appropriate leadership style are the leader, followers, and situation.The leader factor is based on personality traits, behavior, and experience.The followers factor is based on capability and motivation.The situational factor is based on task, structure, and environment.

Democratic leadership style.

The democratic leader encourages participation in deci- sions, works with employees to determine what to do, and does not closely supervise employees.

Employee-Centered Leadership Style.

The employee-centered style has scales measuring two employee-oriented behaviors of supportive leadership and interaction facilitation. Employee-centered behavior refers to the extent to which the leader focuses on meeting the human needs of employees while developing relationships. The leader is sensitive to subordinates and communicates to develop trust, support, and respect while looking out for their welfare. Examples: 2. I spend time talking to my employees to get to know them personally during work hours. 4. I allow employees to come in late or leave early to take care of personal issues. 6. I get involved with employee conflicts to help resolve them.

6 State the normative leadership model styles and the number of variables.

The five normative leadership model styles are decide, consult individually, consult group, facilitate, and delegate. The model has seven variables.

Provide modeling and training

The job instructional training (JIt) steps include (1) trainee receives preparation; (2) trainer presents the task; (3) trainee performs the task; (4) trainer follows up. Remember that tasks we know well seem very simple, but they are usually difficult for the new trainee.

Job-Centered Leadership Style.

The job-centered style has scales measuring two job- oriented behaviors of goal emphasis and work facilitation. Job-centered behavior refers to the extent to which the leader takes charge to get the job done. The leader closely directs subordinates with clear roles and goals, whereas the manager tells them what to do and how to do. examples: 1. I let my employees know that they should not be doing things during work hours that are not directly related to getting their jobs done. 3. I have a clearly writ- ten agenda of things to accomplish during department meetings. 5. I set clear goals so employees know what needs to be done. 7. I spend much of my time directing employees to ensure that they meet department goals.

Networking

The networking process 1. Perform a self-assessment and set goals. 2. Create your one-minute self-sell. 3. Develop your network. 4. Conduct networking interviews. 5. Maintain your network.

7 Discuss the major similarities and differences between the behavioral and contingency leader- ship theories.

The primary similarity between these theories is that their leadership styles are all based on the same two leadership concepts, although they have different names. The major difference is that the contingency leadership models identify contingency variables on which to select the most appropriate behavioral leadership style for a given situation.

5 Discuss the major similarities and differences among the three process motivation theories.

The similarity among the three process motivation theories includes their focus on understanding how employees choose behaviors to fulfill their needs. However, they are very different in their perceptions of how employees are motivated. Equity theory proposes that employees are motivated when their perceived inputs equal outputs. Expectancy theory proposes that employees are motivated when they believe they can accomplish the task and the rewards for doing so are worth the effort. Goal-setting theory proposes that achievable, difficult goals motivate employees.

4 State the leadership continuum model major styles and variables.

The two major continuum leadership model styles are boss centered and subordinate centered.The variables include (1) the boss, (2) the subordinates, and (3) the situation (time).

5 coercive power

The use of coercive power involves punishment and withholding of rewards to influ- ence compliance. To increase coercive power, follow these guidelines. • Gain authority to use punishment and withhold rewards. • Don't make rash threats; do not use coercion to manipulate others or to gain personal benefits. • Be persistent. If we request that followers do something, we need to follow up to make sure it is done.

Benefits of Using Teams

There are several benefits of teamwork: 1. Teams offer synergistic benefits that non-team arrangements fail to offer.23 Synergy is when a team's total output exceeds the sum of the various members' contributions. It involves the creative cooperation of people working together to achieve something beyond the capacities of individuals working alone. 2. Team members can help each other avoid major errors. This tendency of mutual support and peer review of ideas helps teams make better decisions and can provide immunity for an organization against disruptive surprises. 3. Teams offer more opportunities for new ideas that advance innovation. Teams offer a work environment in which people feel empowered and satisfied with their jobs. Job satisfaction is important because it is associated with other positive organizational outcomes. For example, employees who are satisfied with their jobs are said to be less likely to quit their jobs, are absent less, and are more likely to display organizational citizenship behavior. Being a member of a team makes it possible to satisfy one's social need for affiliation. Team members develop trust for each other and come to see the team as a social network that fulfills other needs.

achievement

To be effective, leaders generally need to have a moderate need for achievement. They have high energy, self-confidence, and openness-to-experience traits, and they are dependable—conscientious (Big Five dimension). The reason for a moderate, rather than a high, need for achievement, which would include a lower need for power, is the danger of personalized power.

integration (ethical behavior) three ethical behavior factors

To tie the three factors affecting ethical behavior together, we need to realize that personality traits and attitudes and moral development interact with the situation to determine if a person will use ethical or unethical behavior.

the stakeholder approach to ethics.

Under the stakeholder approach to ethics, the leader (or follower) creates a win-win situation for relevant parties affected by the decision. If you are proud to tell relevant stakeholders your decision, it is probably ethical. If you are not proud to tell others your decision, or you keep justifying it, the decision may not be ethical.

8 Compare and contrast four major differences among the four contingency leadership models.

Using Exhibit 4.12 on page 130, note that the first difference is in the number of leadership styles used in the four models, which ranges from 2 (contingency) to 7 (continuum). The second difference is in the number of contingency variables used to select the appropriate leadership style, which ranges from 2 (path-goal) to 7 (normative). The third difference is what is changed when using the model. When using the contingency as example for emulation or use in a given model, the leader changes the situation; with the other three models, the leader changes behavior (leadership style). The last difference is the desired outcome. Contingency and continuum leadership models focus on performance, and the path-goal model adds job satisfaction.The normative model focuses on decisions.

Benefits of Delegation

When managers delegate, they have more time to perform high-priority tasks. Delegation gets tasks accomplished and increases productivity. Delegation can empower followers and give them more confidence. 88 Delegating both responsibility and authority pushes decision making down the ladder, encourages input from operational employees who are closest to problems, and promotes a participative work environment.

Written Communication and Writing Tips

Write to communicate, not to impress. Keep the message short and simple. Follow the 1-5-15 rule. Limit each paragraph to a single topic and an average of five sentences. Sen- tences should average 15 words. Vary paragraph and sentence length. Write in the active voice (I recommend ...) rather than the passive voice (it is recommended ...).

AACSB 2013 Business Accreditation Standards

Written and oral communication (able to communicate effectively orally and in writ- ing). Chapter 6 covers communications. • Ethical understanding and reasoning (able to identify ethical issues and address the issues in a socially responsible manner). Chapters 2 and 10 cover ethics, and each chap- ter includes "You Make the Ethical Call" situations • Analytical thinking (able to analyze and frame problems). This general skill is de- veloped throughout the book through multiple applications and skill-development exercises. • Information technology (able to use current technologies in business and management contexts). This is not normally a topic of a leadership course. • Interpersonal relations and teamwork (able to work effectively with others and in team environments). Chapter 8 focuses on team leadership. • Diverse and multicultural work environments (able to work effectively in diverse en- vironments). Chapter 10 covers these topics. • Reflective thinking (able to understand oneself in the context of society). This general skill is developed throughout the book through multiple applications and skill-develop- ment exercises, especially the self-assessment exercises. • Application of knowledge (able to translate knowledge of business and management into practice). This general skill is developed throughout the book through every ap- plication and skill-development exercise.

team effectiveness

a construct consisting of three components: (1) task performance—the degree to which the team's output (product or service) meets the needs and expectations of those who use it; (2) group process—the degree to which members interact or relate in ways that allow the team to work increasingly well together over time; and (3) individual satisfaction—the degree to which the group experience, on balance, is more satisfying than frustrating to team members.

functional team

a group of employees belonging to the same functional department, such as marketing, R&D, production, human resources, or information systems, who have a common objective. The structure of the functional team is generally more hierarchical, with the functional leader making all the decisions and expecting followers to implement them.

team The leadership style in a group tends to be boss-centered, whereas in a team it is more participative or empowerment-oriented.

a unit of interdependent individuals with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose and set of performance outcomes and to common expectations, for which they hold themselves accountable. Kozlowski and Bell describe teams as "collectives who exist to perform orga- nizationally-relevant tasks, share one or more common goals, interact socially, exhibit WOrK task interdependencies, maintain and manage boundaries and are embedded in an organizational context that sets boundaries, constrains the team and influences exchanges with other units in the broader entity." Whereas groups focus on individual performance and goals, and reliance on individ- ual abilities, teams have a collective mentality that focuses on the following: (1) shared mission; (2) common objectives; (3) sharing information, insights, and perspectives; (4) making decisions that support each individual to do his or her own job better; and (5) reinforcing each other's efforts.2

Guidelines to Becoming an Effective Follower

a. Offer support to leader. b. Take initiative. c. Play counseling and coaching roles to leader when appropriate. d. Raise issues and/or concerns when necessary. e. Seek and encourage honest feedback from the leader. f. Clarify your role and expectations. g. Show appreciation. h. Keep the leader informed. i. Resist inappropriate influence of leader.

four major classifications of leadership theory

also called research approaches, used to explain leadership. Leadership theory classifications include trait behavioral contingency integrative the similarity between the trait and behavioral leadership theories is that they are both universal theories, or they are seeking one best leadership style for all situations.the difference is the approach to determining leadership effectiveness. Trait theory attempts to explain personal characteristics of effective leaders, whereas behavioral theory attempts to explain what leaders actually do on the job.

stewardship leadership

an employee-focused form of leadership that empowers followers to make decisions and have control over their jobs. Attributes of effective stewardship: - Strong team orientation - Decentralized decision making power - Equality - Reward

Dyadic theory

approaches leadership as an exchange relationship that develops between a leader and a follower over time during role-making activities.

team norms

are acceptable standards of behavior that are shared by team members.

Decision Making Skills

are based on the ability to conceptualize situations and select al- ternatives to solve problems and take advantage of opportunities. It's about how we reason and made decisions. It involves critical thinking, using a rational process, analyzing alternatives, and attempting to maximize positive outcomes for the organization. based on several other skills, including conceptual, diagnostic, analytical, critical thinking, quantitative reasoning, and time management skills, as well as the ability to be creative, perceive trends, anticipate changes, and recognize problems and opportunities.

traits

are distinguishing personal characteristics. The image we project is based largely on our character traits.

ethics

are the standards of right and wrong that influence behavior.

ethics

are the standards of right and wrong that influence behavior. Right behavior is considered ethical, and wrong behavior is considered unethical.

integrative leadership theories

attempt to combine the trait, behavioral, and contingency theories to explain successful, influencing leader-follower relationships. the theory explores why the same behavior by the leader may have a different effect on followers, depending on the situation. The integrative leadership theory paradigm is emphasized in our definition of leadership and thus influences this entire book, especially Chapters 6 through 12. ^^^ Note: highlights the need for adaptability (my note)

theory X and theory Y

attempt to explain and predict leadership behavior and performance based on the leader's attitude about followers. Douglas McGregor classified attitudes or belief systems, which he called assumptions, as Theory X and Theory Y. People with Theory X attitudes hold that employees dislike work and must be closely supervised in order to do their work. Theory Y attitudes hold that employees like to work and do not need to be closely supervised in order to do their work.

Leadership trait theories

attempt to explain distinctive characteristics accounting for leadership effectiveness. Researchers analyzed physical and psychological traits, or qualities, such as high energy level, appearance, aggressiveness, self-reliance, persuasiveness, and dominance, in an effort to identify a set of traits that all successful leaders possessed.

Contingency leadership theories

attempt to explain the appropriate leadership style based on the leader, followers, and situation.

achievement Motivation theory

attempts to explain and predict behavior and performance based on a person's need for achievement, power, and affiliation.

Leader Motive profile theory

attempts to explain and predict leadership success based on a person's need for achievement, power, and affiliation.

University of Iowa Leadership Styles

autocratic and democratic leadership styles (Kurt Lewin and associates) The Iowa studies contributed to the behavioral movement and led to an era of behavioral, rather than trait, research.

Team leader's role in creating effective teams

chief motivator coach and mentor role model culture enforcer cheerleader resource person - needs attended to in timely fashion

5 Types of followers Barbara Kellerman

classifies followers into five categories based on their level of engagement: isolates bystanders participants activists diehards

cross-functional team

composed of members from different functional departments of an organization who are brought together to perform unique tasks to create new and non-routine products or services. Cross-functional teams are often an organization's first step toward greater employee participation and empowerment. These teams may gradually evolve into virtual or self- managed teams, depending on the type of environmental challenges or opportunities the organization faces.

pragmatic follower

exhibits a little of all four styles—depending on which style fits the prevailing situation. Because it is difficult to discern just where they stand on issues, they present an ambiguous image, with positive and negative sides. On the positive side, when an organization is going through desperate times, the pragmatic follower knows how to "work the system to get things done." On the negative side, this same behavior can be interpreted as "playing political games," or adjusting to maximize self-interest.

Vertical dyadic linkage (VDL) theory

focuses on the notion that the state of the rela- tionship (or linkage) between a leader and a follower can affect the leadership process. VDL theory focuses on the heterogeneity of dyadic relationships, arguing that a single leader will form different relationships with different followers. It is the "similarity- attraction" phenomenon.

Leadership Grid Robert Blake and Jane Mouton, from the University of Texas developed the Managerial Grid® and published it in 1964, updated it in 1978 and 1985, and in 1991 it became the Leadership Grid® with Anne Adams McCanse replacing Mouton, who died in 1987.

identifies five leadership styles: 1,1 impoverished; 9,1 authority compliance; 1,9 country club; 5,5 middle of the road; and 9,9 team leader. The Leadership Grid builds on the Ohio State and Michigan studies; it is based on the same two leadership dimensions, which Blake and Mouton called concern for production and concern for people.

The Ohio State University Leadership Model developed the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ)

identifies four leadership styles: low structure and high consideration high structure and high consideration low structure and low consideration high structure and low consideration Leaders with high structure and low consideration behavior use one-way communications, and decisions are made by the managers leaders with high consideration and low structure use two-way communications and tend to share decision making.

personality profiles

identify individual stronger and weaker traits. Many organizations (including the National Football League) give personality tests to ensure a proper match between the worker and the job. Personality profiles are also used to categorize people as a means of predicting job success, and high conscientiousness is a good predictor of job performance, whereas people who are unstable tend to have poor job performance. People who are high in openness to experience tend to lead innovation to improve organizational performance.1

Leader Motive profile (LMP)

includes a high need for power, which is socialized, that is greater than the need for affiliation and with a moderate need for achievement.

out-group

includes followers with few or no social ties to their leader, in a strictly task-centered relationship characterized by low exchange and top-down influence.

in-group

includes followers with strong social ties to their leader in a supportive relationship characterized by high mutual trust, respect, loyalty, and influence.

Adjustment

includes traits of emotional stability/stability control and narcissism and self-confidence

openness

includes traits of flexibility, intelligence, and internal locus of control. IQ, EQ, and I got a clue. It has been said that to be successful a high IQ is important37 but not enough. We also need strong interpersonal skills, or a high EQ (leading). Plus, we have to have a clue of what we are trying to accomplish (objectives) and how we will get the job done (planning, organizing, and controlling). Can you think of any people who are intelligent but lack people skills or don't seem to have a clue about what to do or how to get things done? Locus of control It is on a continuum between external and internal belief in control over one's destiny/ performance. Externalizers believe that they have no control over their fate and that their behavior has little to do with their performance. Internalizers believe that they control their fate and that their behavior directly affects their performance.

agreeableness

includes traits of sociability/sensitivity and emotional intelligence (ability to work well with people). Emotional intelligence (EI) trait of agreeableness: • Self-awareness relates to being conscious of your emotions and how they affect your personal and professional life. Self-awareness is the cornerstone of all insight. Use your self-awareness (the exercises in this book help) to accurately assess your strengths and limitations; this leads to higher self-confidence. • Social awareness relates to the ability to understand others. Empathy is an ability to put yourself in other people's situations, sense their emotions, and understand things from their perspective. • Self-management relates to the ability to control disruptive emotions, ours and others. Successful leaders are self-motivated and don't let negative emotions (worry, anxiety, fear, anger) interfere with getting things done. • Relationship management relates to the ability to work well with others, which is dependent on the other three EI components. Most of this book focuses on developing relationship management skills.

Interpersonal skills

involve the ability to understand, communicate, and work well with individuals and groups through developing effective relationships. Interpersonal skills are also called human, people, and soft skills. As we interact with others, we are using our in- terpersonal skills. Interpersonal skills are based on several other skills, including communicating, teamwork, power, politics, negotiating, networking, motivating, conflict, diversity, and ethical skills.

group

is a collection of individuals who interact primarily to share information and to make decisions that enable each member to perform within his or her area of responsibility. group performance is merely the sum- mation of each group member's individual contribution. There is no synergy. A team creates synergy. That is, the collective efforts of the members result in a level of perfor- mance that is greater than the sum of the individual inputs. In other words, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts (1+1=3).

Impressions management

is a follower's effort to project a favorable image to gain an immediate benefit or improve a long-term relationship with the leader. two kinds of motives associated with follower feedback-seeking behavior: performance-driven motive and impressions-driven motive. The performance-driven motive is the follower's genuine attempt to seek information from the leader that will help improve work performance impressions-driven motive refers to the desire to control how one appears to the leader.

Mentoring

is a form of coaching in which a more experienced manager helps a less expe- rienced protégé. T

leadership paradigm

is a shared mindset that represents a fundamental way of thinking about, perceiving, studying, researching, and understanding leadership.

ethics ombudsperson

is a single person entrusted with the responsibility of acting as the organization's conscience.

self-managed team champion

is an advocate of the SMT concept whose responsibility is to help the team obtain necessary re- sources, gain political support from top management and other stakeholders of the organi- zation, and defend it from enemy attacks.

leadership theory

is an explanation of some aspect of leadership; theories have practical value because they are used to better understand, predict, and control successful leadership. So, the main purpose of a theory is to inform practice.

teamwork

is an understanding and commitment to a common goal on the part of all team members.

Motivation

is anything that affects behavior in pursuing a certain outcome. Leadership success requires motivating followers, and leadership behavior is used to motivate followers.

Coaching feedback

is based on a good, supportive relationship; it is specific and descriptive; and it is not judgmental criticism.

Information power

is based on the user's data desired by others. Information power involves access to vital information and knowledge and control over its distribution to others. To increase information power, follow these guidelines: • Have information flow through you. • Know what is going on in the organization. Serve on committees because it gives both information and a chance to increase connection power. • Develop a network of information sources, and gather information from them.26 You will learn how to network later in this chapter.

6 referent power

is based on the user's personal relationships with others. It is also called the personal appeals influencing tactic based on loyalty and friendship. To increase referent power, follow these guidelines: • Develop people skills, which are covered in all chapters. Remember that we don't have to be a manager to have referent power. • Work at relationships with managers and peers.

3 Legitimate power

is based on the user's position power, given by the organization. It is also called the legitimization influencing tactic.

Connection power

is based on the user's relationships with influential people. Connection power is also a form of politics, the topic of our next major section. To increase connection power, follow these guidelines: • Expand your network of contacts with important managers who have power. • Join the "in-crowd" and the "right" associations and clubs. Participating in sports like golf may help you meet influential people. • Follow the guidelines for using the coalition influencing tactic. When you want some- thing, identify the people who can help you attain it, make coalitions, and win them over to your side. • Get people to know your name. Get all the publicity you can. Have your accomplish- ments known by the people in power; send them notices without sounding like a bragger.

7 expert power

is based on the user's skill and knowledge. Being an expert makes other people dependent on you. Experts commonly use the rational persuasion influencing tactic because people believe they know what they are saying and that it is correct. To increase expert power, follow these guidelines: • To become an expert, take all the training and educational programs the organization provides. • Attend meetings of your trade or professional associations, and read their publications (magazines and journals) to keep up with current trends in your field. Write articles to be published. Become an officer in the organization. • Keep up with the latest technology. Volunteer to be the first to learn something new. • Project a positive self-concept (Chapter 2),24 and let people know about your expertise by developing a reputation for having expertise.

Self-efficacy

is defined as a person's beliefs in his or her capabilities to produce at a certain level of performance.7

team-member exchange (TMX)

is defined as a team member's social exchanges with peers in terms of the mutual exchange of ideas, support, camaraderie, and feedback. High-quality LMX and TMX relations enhance group identification and collective efficacy, which positively contributes to team effectiveness. One model of team effectiveness focused on internal team processes such as group learning, team efficacy, self-leadership, interdependency, and team cohesion. Another model examined three contextual factors—team design, organizational resources and rewards, and process assistance—as determinants of team effectiveness.

Consideration behavior.

is essentially the same as the employee-centered leadership style; it focuses on meeting people's needs and develop- ing relationships.

Initiating structure behavior.

is essentially the same as the job-centered leadership style; it focuses on getting the task done.

Creativity

is generally viewed as the actions of individual employees exchanging ideas and information with each other. In the context of a team-based environment, team creativity entails being able to access and use each member's unique talents to perform effectively.

personalized charismatic leader (PCL)

is one who possesses a dominant, self-centered, self-aggrandizing, and narcissistic personality and uses charisma for self-glorification.

socialized charismatic leader (SCL)

is one who possesses an egalitarian, self-transcendent, and empowering personality and uses charisma for the benefit of others.

team-centered decision-making model

is preferred when (a) relevant information and expertise are scattered among different people, (b) participation is needed to obtain necessary commitment, (c) concentrating power in a single individual hurts the team, and (d) unpopular decisions need to be made. empowers team members to make decisions and follow through. Advocates argue that empowerment results in a more dedicated, energetic, and creative workforce. Further, they maintain that employees can be trusted to make decisions about their work, that they can be trained to acquire the skills and abilities needed to do so, and that organizational effectiveness is enhanced through this approach. The role of the leader is to serve as a consultant, advisor, coach, or facilitator for the team. Some advantages of team-centered decision making include the following: • It can improve decision quality. • Exposure to team decision making has strong positive spillovers on the quality of indi- vidual decisions.133 • It shifts much of the decision-making action away from the leader, thereby freeing him or her to focus on more strategic issues. • It allows responsibility to be diffused among several people, thereby facilitating support for some types of unpopular decisions. • It results in higher commitment by team members to implement decisions as compared to decisions made alone by a leader. Some disadvantages of team-centered decision making include the following: • It can take longer than decisions made alone by a manager. • It can be self-serving and contrary to the best interests of the organization, if team members have objectives and/or priorities that are different from those of the team or organization. • It can end up being a poor compromise rather than an optimal solution when team members cannot agree among themselves. • Leaders who are accustomed to making most or all team decisions may not want to give up this power or fear that if they do, they will appear weak or incompetent. This can lead to confusion and conflict in the team. • Also, resistance may come from team members who prefer to avoid assuming more responsibility for leadership functions in the team.

effective follower

is someone who is high on critical thinking and involvement. are not risk-averse, nor do they shy from conflict. They have the courage to initiate change and put themselves at risk or in conflict with others, even their leaders, to serve the best interest of the organization. proactive

Social identity

is the degree to which members form close social ties with the group and how it subsequently influences interactions within and between group members. Within the work group, members who show a positive social identity to the organization are more likely to exhibit OCB and develop high-quality LMX relationships than members with a negative social identity or a lack of it.

Self-promotion

is the effort to appear competent and dependable.

Ingratiation

is the effort to appear supportive, appreciative, and respectful.

team cohesion

is the extent to which team members band together and remain committed to achieving team goals.

SMT facilitator

is the external leader of an SMT, whose job is to create optimal working conditions so that team members take on responsibilities to work productively and solve complex problems on their own

Diversity

is the inclusion of all groups at all levels in an organization.

Leadership

is the influencing process between leaders and followers to achieve orga- nizational objectives through change.

Delegation

is the process of assigning responsibility and authority for accomplishing objectives.

Communication

is the process of conveying information and meaning. Managers use communications to monitor and reinforce performance standards;6 they share information. Information processing is so important that organizations are designed as a means to meet the information processing requirements generated by interdependent activities.

Networking

is the process of devel- oping relationships for the purpose of socializing and politicking.

politics

is the process of gaining and using power. S

Coaching

is the process of giving motivational feedback to maintain and improve perfor- mance. I

Listening

is the process of giving the speaker your undivided attention. As the speaker sends the message, you should listen by: • Paying attention. When people interrupt, stop what you are doing and give them your complete attention before you begin the conversation. • Avoiding distractions. Keep your eye on the speaker. Avoid distractions; let your phone "take a message." If you are in a noisy or distracting place, suggest moving to a quiet spot. • Staying tuned in. Do not let your mind wander. If it does, gently bring it back or repeat in your mind what the person is saying to force yourself to pay attention. Do not think about what you are going to say in reply; just listen. • Not assuming and interrupting. Do not assume you know what the speaker is going to say, or listen to the beginning and jump to conclusions. Listen to the entire message without interrupting the speaker.

paraphrasing

is the process of having the receiver restate the message in his or her own words.

Feedback

is the process of verifying messages and determining if objectives are being met.

Moral justification

is the thinking process of rationalizing why unethical behavior is used. We rationalize with statements like "this is a widespread business practice," "everybody does it," and "I deserve it." • Higher purpose is rationalizing immoral behavior in terms of a higher purpose. "It's for a greater good."93 People lie, cheat, and steal, claiming it is for the good of the organiza- tion, department, or employees. • Displacement of responsibility is the process of blaming one's unethical behavior on others. "I was only following orders; my boss told me to inflate the figures."94 • Diffusion of responsibility is the process of the group using the unethical behavior with no one person being held responsible. "It isn't my decision."95 Everyone does it."96 "We all take bribes/kickbacks; it's the way we do business," or "We all take merchandise home (steal)." If you hear others are doing something, you will tend to be tempted to be unethical to.97 • Advantageous comparison is the process of comparing oneself to others who are worse. "I call in sick when I'm not sick only a few times a year; Tom and Ellen do it all the time." "We pollute less than our competitors do." I'm only fudging a little."98 • Disregard or distortion of consequences is the process of minimizing the harm caused by the unethical behavior. 99 "If I inflate the figures, no one will be hurt and I will not get caught. And if I do, I'll just get a slap on the wrist anyway." Was this the case at Enron? • Attribution of blame is the process of claiming the unethical behavior was caused by someone else's behavior. "It's my coworker's fault that I hit him. He called me/did xxx, so I had to hit him." • Euphemistic labeling is the process of using "cosmetic" words to make the behavior sound acceptable. Terrorist group sounds bad but freedom fighter sounds justifiable. Misleading or covering up sounds better than lying to others.

pygmalion effect

proposes that leaders' attitudes toward and expectations of followers, and their treatment of them, explain and predict followers' behavior and performance.

two-factor theory

proposes that people are motivated by motivators rather than maintenance factors. Maintenance—Extrinsic Factors Maintenance factors are also called extrinsic motivators because motivation comes from outside the person and the job itself. Motivators—Intrinsic Factors Motivators are called intrinsic motivators because motivation comes from within the person through the work itself. Herzberg's Two-Factor Motivation Model (see graphic)

acquired needs theory

proposes that people are motivated by their need for achieve- ment, power, and affiliation. _____________________says that all people have the need for achievement, power, and affiliation but to varying degrees. McClelland's affiliation need is essentially the same as Maslow's belongingness need; and power and achievement are related to esteem, self- actualization, and growth.

hierarchy of Needs theory

proposes that people are motivated through five levels of needs—physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization: is based on four major assumptions. (1) Only unmet needs motivate. (2) People's needs are arranged in order of importance (hierarchy) going from basic to complex needs. (3) People will not be motivated to satisfy a higher-level need unless the lower-level need(s) has been at least minimally satisfied. (4) Maslow assumed that people have five classifications of needs, which are presented here in hierarchical order from low to high level of need.

equity theory

proposes that people are motivated when their perceived inputs equal outputs. When inequity is perceived, employees attempt to correct the balance by reducing input (e.g., put forth less effort) or increasing output (e.g., get a raise).

expectancy theory

proposes that people are motivated when they believe they can accomplish the task, they will get the reward, and the rewards for doing the task are worth the effort. Three Variables All three variable conditions must be met in Vroom's formula for motivation to take place: • Expectancy refers to the person's perception of his or her ability (probability) to accom- plish an objective—self-efficacy.55 Generally, the higher one's expectancy, the better the chance for motivation. When we do not believe that we can accomplish objectives, we will not be motivated to try.56 • Instrumentality refers to belief that the performance will result in getting the reward. If employees are certain to get the reward, they probably will be motivated. When not sure, employees may not be motivated. • Valence refers to the value a person places on the outcome or reward. Generally, the higher the value (importance) of the outcome or reward, the better the chance of motivation.

reinforcement theory

proposes that through the con- sequences for behavior, people will be motivated to behave in predetermined ways. positive reinforcement avoidance/negative reinforcement punishment extinction (ignoring)

followership Kelley and Chaleff: are two early pioneers who brought focus to the role of followers in the leadership process.

refers to the behavior of followers that result from the leader-follower mutual influencing relationship. Good followership is about 'upward influencing.'

Self-Managed Team (SMT)

relatively autonomous teams whose members share or rotate leadership responsibilities and hold one another mutually responsible for a set of performance targets assigned by top management. are praised for bringing about results such as increased productivity, accelerated new product development and process improvements, greater product/service quality, improved worker participation, and better decisions overall.1

team creativity

the creation of something that is valuable, useful, and novel by individuals working together in a complex social system. Diverse teams feature differences in thinking styles, knowledge, skills, values, and beliefs among individual team members, which enhances creativity.

personal meaning

the degree to which people's lives make emotional sense and to which the demands confronted by them are perceived as being worthy of their energy and commitment.

What not to delegate

• Personnel matters. Performance appraisals, counseling, disciplining, firing, resolving conflicts, and so on. • Confidential activities. Unless you have permission to do so. • Crises. There is no time to delegate. • Activities delegated to you personally. For example, if you are assigned to a committee, do not assign someone else without permission.

3 managerial skills

1 decision making skills 2 interpersonal skills 3 technical skills

Chapter 10 Summary

1 explain the power of culture to an organization's effectiveness, both internally and externally. An organization's culture determines the way that it re- sponds to changes in its external and internal environ- ments.The two important functions served by culture are directly tied to this concept: (1) that culture creates internal unity and (2) that culture helps the organization adapt to the external environment. Culture provides a value system in which to operate, and when all employ- ees buy into such a value system, there is internal unity. Culture determines how the organization responds to changes in its external environment. 2 Describe the characteristics of strong versus weak cultures. When there is little or no consensus on a set of values and norms governing member behavior, we describe it as a low-performing or weak cultures. Strong cultures are ones in which core values are widely shared across the organization, from top management to rank-and-file employees. The characteristics of low-performance cul- tures include insular thinking, resistance to change, a highly politicized internal environment, and poorly con- ceived promotion or advancement practices for employ- ees.The characteristics of high-performance cultures include a reputation for valuing their employees, being very results-oriented, and constantly pushing for out- standing performance and excellence. 3 Distinguish between symbolic and substantive leadership actions for shaping organizational culture. Leaders can initiate many different types of policies, programs, and practices to change, modify, or sustain an organization's culture. Some of these actions are sub- stantive, whereas others are simply symbolic; yet taken together, they can shape the culture of an organization according to the expectations of the leader. Substantive actions are explicit and highly visible and are indicative of management's commitment to a particular way of doing things. Symbolic actions are valuable for the signals they send about the kinds of behavior and expectations lead- ers wish to encourage and promote. 4 Identify and briefly describe the four types of culture commonly found in organizations. The cooperative culture emphasizes teamwork amongst its employees. Collaboration is seen as critical to achiev- ing organizational goals.The belief is that empowering, respecting, rewarding, and trusting employees is the key to capitalizing on external opportunities.The adap- tive and cooperative cultures are often referred to as cultures of innovation, for their flexibility and creativ- ity in responding to environmental changes. Competitive cultures are common in mature markets in which the emphasis is on the achievement of specific targets (such as market share, revenue growth, and profitability).The bureaucratic culture emphasizes strict adherence to set rules, procedures, and authority lines. Organizations with bureaucratic cultures are highly structured and efficiency driven. Change is slow in bureaucratic cultures. 5 Describe hofstede's theory on national culture identities. The conceptual framework for understanding global cul- tural differences proposes that national cultures differ by the values they espouse. Researchers have associated different value dimensions with the cultures of different nationalities and/or regions of the world. Leading this effort is the work of Geert Hofstede, whose research identified five value dimensions for understanding global cultural differences. Each value dimension represents a continuum of two opposite ends.The five value dimen- sions making up the framework are the following: a. Individualism-collectivism b. High-low uncertainty avoidance c. High-low power distance d. Long-term-short-term orientation e. Masculinity-femininity 6 Identify organizational practices that do foster an ethical work environment. Organizational practices that can promote an ethical work environment include the following: a jointly de- veloped code of ethics that everyone is well informed of its contents, creating ethics committees to oversee and process ethical violations, making ethical training part of employee development programs, and ensuring that there are available and safe disclosure mechanisms such as a whistle-blowing program for reporting ethical violations. 7 explain how authentic leadership has its roots in moral and ethical theory of leadership. Authenticity is a psychological construct that focuses on knowing, accepting, and acting in accordance with one's core values, beliefs, emotions, and preferences. The au- thentic leader holds him-or herself to a higher moral standard.Authentic leadership theory has an introspec- tive quality that allows leaders to reflect on whether their actions are consistent with who they are, ensuring that their values and ethics take precedence over exter- nal pressures and not vice versa.The authentic leader is driven by a value system that calls for being moral and focusing on what is ethical or the right thing to do. 8 explain the benefits of embracing diversity. The value of diversity is evident in studies that have found, among other things, that a diversified workforce offers an advantage in understanding and meeting the needs of diverse customers; some of the best job candi- dates are found among women and other culturally di- verse groups; embracing and valuing diversity can lower an organization's cost attributed to high turnover and/or absenteeism among minority groups; and diverse work groups are more creative and innovative than homoge- neous work groups. 9 What leadership actions can support and sustain a pro-diversity culture? An organization that has a strong culture of diversity has a commitment to attract, retain, and promote employees of minority backgrounds and a system that rewards diversity initiatives throughout the organization. The best companies look beyond diversity compliance (with its focus on simply managing the numbers) to diversity institutionalization (with its focus on results). Some of the factors that promote a culture of diversity include top management support and commitment, removing obstacles, including diversity as a criterion for assessing and rewarding managerial performance, organizational awareness, organizational practices and policies, and reg- ular training and education on diversity.

Guidelines for Developing Political Skills: Be a Loyal, Honest Team Player

Many managers reward loyalty.49 Ethical behavior is important in organizational power and politics.5

Socialized power

McClelland further identified power as neither good nor bad. It can be used for personal gain at the expense of others (personalized power), or it can be used to help oneself and others (socialized power).4

Ohio State University

The Personnel Research Board of Ohio State University, under the principal direction of Ralph Stogdill, began a study to determine effective leadership styles. These research- ers developed an instrument known as the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ). two distinct dimensions or leadership types, which they eventually called initiating structure and consideration unlike Michigan which was one-dimensional

1. List the University of Iowa leadership styles.

The University of Iowa leadership styles are autocratic and democratic.

Leadership Grid and high-high Leader research

The high-high leader has concern for both production and people; this is the team leadership style.

motivation process

Through the __________ people go from need to motive to behavior to consequence to satisfaction or dissatisfaction.

process motivation theories

focus on understanding how people choose behavior to fulfill their needs. equity theory expectancy theory goal-setting theory

personality

is a combination of traits that classifies an individual's behavior. Researchers study personal characteristics and personality to understand and explain why people behave the way they do.

passive follower

is some- one who is low on critical thinking and low on involvement. passive follower looks to the leader or others to do all the thinking and does not get involved.

attribution theory

is used to explain the process managers go through in determining the reasons for effective or ineffective performance and deciding what to do about it.

Self-concept

refers to the positive or negative attitudes people have about themselves.

6 Explain the four types of reinforcement.

(1) Positive reinforcement provides the employee with a reward consequence for performing the desired behavior. (2) Avoidance reinforcement encourages employees to perform the desired behavior to avoid a negative consequence. (3) Extinction reinforcement withholds a positive consequence to get the employee to stop performing undesirable behavior. (4) Punishment reinforcement gives the employee a negative consequence to get the employee to stop performing undesirable behavior.

steps in the oral message-sending process:

(1) develop rapport; (2) state your communication objective; (3) transmit your message; (4) check the receiver's understanding; (5) get a commitment and follow up.

The delegation model steps are

(1) explain the need for delegating and the rea- sons for selecting the employee; (2) set objectives that define responsibility, level of authority, and deadline; (3) develop a plan; and (4) establish control checkpoints and hold employ- ees accountable.

The initiating conflict resolution model steps

(1) plan a BCF statement that maintains ownership of the problem; (2) present your BCF statement and agree on the conflict; (3) ask for, and/or give, alternative conflict resolutions; and (4) make an agreement for change.

The 5 Conflict Management Styles

1 Accommodating Conflict Style The accommodating conflict style user attempts to resolve the conflict by passively giv- ing in to the other party. When we use the accommodating style, we are being unassertive but cooperative. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Accommodating Conflict Style. The advantage of the accommodating style is that relationships are maintained by doing things the other person's way. The disadvantage is that giving in may be counterproductive. You may have a better solution, such as a better way to put up a display. 2 Collaborating Conflict Style The collaborating conflict style user assertively attempts to jointly resolve the con- flict with the best solution agreeable to all parties. It is also called the problem-solving style. When we use the collaborating approach, we are being assertive and cooperative. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Collaborating Style. The advantage of the col- laborating style is that it tends to lead to the best solution to the conflict, using assertive behavior. Again, assertiveness, not aggression, is often a good option. The disadvantage is that the skill, effort, and time it takes to resolve the conflict are usually greater and longer than the other styles. T 3 Negotiating Conflict Style The negotiating conflict style user attempts to resolve the conflict through assertive, give-and-take concessions. This is also called the compromising style. When you use the compromising approach, you are moderate in assertiveness and cooperation. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Negotiating Conflict Style. The advantage of the negotiating style is that the conflict is resolved relatively quickly and working rela- tionships are maintained. The disadvantage is that the compromise may lead to counter- productive results, such as suboptimum decisions. 4 Avoiding Conflict Style The avoiding conflict style user attempts to passively ignore the conflict rather than resolve it. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Avoiding Conflict Style. The advantage of the avoiding style is that it may maintain relationships that would be hurt through conflict resolution. The disadvantage of this style is that conflicts do not get resolved, so avoiding is often not the best option. 5 Forcing Conflict Style The forcing conflict style user attempts to resolve the conflict by using aggressive behav- ior to get his or her own way. When we use the forcing style, we are uncooperative and aggressive, doing whatever it takes to satisfy our own needs—at the expense of others, if necessary. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Forcing Style. The advantage of the forc- ing style is that better organizational decisions will be made, when the forcer is correct, rather than less-effective compromised decisions. The disadvantage is that overuse of this style leads to hostility and resentment toward its user. Forcers tend to have poor human relations.

Chapter 6 Summary

1 List the steps in the oral message-sending process. The five steps in the oral message-sending process are (1) develop rapport; (2) state your communication objective; (3) transmit your message; (4) check the receiver's understanding; (5) get a commitment and follow up. 2 List and explain the three parts of the message- receiving process. The three parts of the message-receiving process are listening, analyzing, and checking understanding. Listening is the process of giving the speaker your undivided atten- tion.Analyzing is the process of thinking about, decoding, and evaluating the message. Checking understanding is the process of giving feedback. 3 Describe paraphrasing and state why it is used. Paraphrasing is the process of having the receiver restate the message in his or her own words. Paraphrasing is used to check understanding of the transmitted message. If the receiver can paraphrase the message accurately, communication has taken place. If not, communication is not complete. 4 Identify two common approaches to getting feedback, and explain why they don't work. The first common approach is to send the entire mes- sage and to assume that the message has been conveyed with mutual understanding without getting any feedback. The second approach is to give the entire message fol- lowed by asking "Do you have any questions?" feedback usually does not follow because people have a tendency not to ask questions. Asking questions, especially if no one else does, is often considered an admission of not paying attention or not being bright enough to under- stand, or the receiver doesn't know what to ask. 5 Describe the difference between criticism and coaching feedback. Criticism is feedback that makes a judgment about behavior being wrong. Coaching feedback is based on a supportive relationship and offers specific and descrip- tive ways to improve performance. Criticism focuses on pointing out mistakes, while coaching feedback focuses on the benefits of positive behavior. 6 Discuss the relationship between the perfor- mance formula and the coaching model. The performance formula is used to determine the rea- son for poor performance and the corrective action needed.The coaching model is then used to improve performance. 7 Define the five conflict management styles. (1) The avoiding conflict style user attempts to pas- sively ignore the conflict rather than resolve it. (2) The accommodating conflict style user attempts to resolve the conflict by passively giving in to the other party. (3) The forcing conflict style user attempts to resolve the conflict by using aggressive behavior to get his or her own way. (4) The negotiating conflict style user attempts to resolve the conflict through assertive, give-and-take concessions. (5) The collaborating conflict style user assertively attempts to jointly resolve the conflict with the best solution agreeable to all parties. 8 List the steps in the initiating conflict resolution model. The initiating conflict resolution model steps are (1) plan a BCF statement that maintains ownership of the problem; (2) present your BCF statement and agree on the conflict; (3) ask for, and/or give, alternative conflict reso- lutions; and (4) make an agreement for change.

3 factors that can enhance follower influence

1 Power position: no matter what position a person holds in the workplace, they can be a force for change. Some followers distinguish themselves as innovators, self-managers, or risk-takers. 2 locus of control: is on a continuum between an external and internal belief over who has control of a person's destiny. 3 Education and experience: Followers with valuable skills and experience may be able to use their expert power to influence other followers and even the leader.

Chapter 5 Summary:

1 explain the differences between position power and personal power. Position power is derived from top management and is delegated down the chain of command.thus, people at the top of the organization have more power than those at the bottom of the organization. Personal power is derived from the followers based on the leader's behavior.all managers have position power, but they may or may not have personal power. Nonmanagers do not have position power, but they may have personal power. 3 Discuss how power and politics are related. Power is the ability to influence others' behavior. Politics is the process of gaining and using power. Therefore, political skills are a part of power. 2 Discuss the differences among legitimate, reward, coercive, and referent power. Legitimate, reward, and coercive power are all related. a leader with position power usually has the power to reward and punish (coercive). However, a person with referent power may or may not have position power to reward and punish, and the leader influences followers based on relationships. 4. Describe how money and politics have a similar use. Money and politics have a similar use, because they are mediums of exchange. In our economy, money is the medium of exchange. In an organization, politics is the medium of exchange. 5 List and explain the steps in the networking process. the first step in the networking process is to perform a self-assessment to determine accomplishments and to set goals. second, create a one-minute self-sell that quickly summarizes history and career plans and asks a question. third, develop a written network list. fourth, conduct networking interviews to meet your goals. finally, maintain your network for meeting future goals.

coaching guidelines

1. Develop a supportive working relationship. 2. Give praise and recognition. 3. Avoid blame and embarrassment. 4. Focus on the behavior, not the person. 5. Have employees assess their own performance. 6. Give specific and descriptive feedback. 7. Give coaching feedback. 8. Provide modeling and training. 9. Make feedback timely, but flexible. 10. Don't criticize.

Characteristics of Highly Effective Teams

1. Team charter and norms 2. Widely shared team goals 3. Team cohesion and task interdependence 4. Team demographics and size 5. Clearly define team member roles and responsibilities 6. positive interpersonal relationships 7. Clearly stated operating procedures 8. Effective conflict resolution strategies 9. high-level interpersonal communications 10. Strong top management support

Limitations of Using Teams

1. There is the possibility that members face pressure to conform to team standards of performance and conduct, even if it goes against the individual's or organization's interest. 2. Shirking of individual responsibility, also known as social loafing 3. Groupthink is when members of a cohesive group tend to agree on a decision not on the basis of its merit but because they are less willing to risk rejection for questioning a majority viewpoint or presenting a dissenting opinion. 4. teams that are extremely cohesive can also become, at their worst, a source of intra-team and inter-team conflict.

Levels of Moral Development

3. postconventional Behavior is motivated by universal principles of right and wrong, regardless of the expecta- tions of the leader or group. One seeks to balance the concerns for self with those of others and the common good. He or she will follow ethical principles even if they violate the law at the risk of social rejection, economic loss, and physical punishment (Martin Luther King, Jr., broke what he considered unjust laws and spent time in jail seeking universal dignity and justice). "I don't lie to customers because it is wrong." The common leadership style is visionary and committed to serving others and a higher cause while empowering followers to reach this level. 2. Conventional Living up to expectations of acceptable behavior defined by others motivates behavior to fulfill duties and obligations. It is common for followers to copy the behavior of the leaders and group. If the group (can be society/organization/department) accepts lying, cheating, stealing, and so on, when dealing with customers/suppliers/government/competitors, so will the individual. On the other hand, if these behaviors are not accepted, the individual will not do them either. Peer pressure is used to enforce group norms. "I lie to customers because the other sales reps do it too." It is common for lower-level managers to use a similar leadership style of the higher-level managers. 1. preconventional Self-interest motivates behavior to meet one's own needs to gain rewards while following rules and being obedient to authority to avoid punishment. "I lie to customers to sell more products and get higher commission checks." The common leadership style is autocratic toward others while using one's position for personal advantage. Source:Adapted from Lawrence Kohlberg,"Moral Stages and Moralization:The Cognitive- Development Approach." In Thomas Likona (ed.), Moral Development and Behavior:Theory, Research, and Social Issues (Austin,TX: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976), 31-53. At the first level, preconventional, we choose right and wrong behavior based on our self- interest and the consequences (reward and punishment).With ethical reasoning at the second level, conventional, we seek to maintain expected standards and live up to the expectations of others. One does what the others do. At the third level, postconventional, we make an effort to define moral principles regardless of leader or group ethics.Although most of us have the ability to reach the third level of moral development, postconventional, only about 20 percent of people reach this level.

1 State the major difference between behavioral and contingency leadership theories, and explain the behavioral contribution to contingency theories.

Behavioral theories attempt to determine the one best leadership style for all situations. Contingency leadership theories contend that there is no one best leadership style for all situations. Behavioral theories contributed to contingency theories because their basic leadership styles are used in contingency leadership models.

3 Discuss similarities and differences between the Ohio State University Leadership Model and the Leadership Grid.

Both theories are based on the same two leadership behaviors, but they use different names for the two dimensions.The theories are different because the Leadership Grid identifies five leadership styles, with one being middle of the road, whereas the Ohio State model identifies four leadership styles.The Leadership Grid also gives each combination of the two-dimensional behaviors one leadership style name.

Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002

Congress passed this to help ensure that complaints about financial irregularities would surface and be swiftly acted upon, without retaliation against the person who exposed the unethical behavior ("whistle-blower").

7 State the major differences among content, process, and reinforcement theories.

Content motivation theories focus on identifying and understanding employees' needs. Process motivation goes a step farther to understand how employees choose behavior to fulfill their needs. Reinforcement theory is not as concerned about employee needs; it focuses on getting employees to do what managers want them to do through the consequences provided by managers for their behavior.The use of rewards is the means of moti- vating employees.

Types of Cultures

Cooperative culture - represents a leadership belief in strong, mutually reinforcing exchanges and linkages between employees and departments. Adaptive culture - represents a leadership belief in active monitoring of the external environment for emerging opportunities and threats and adapting to them. Competitive culture - represents a leadership mind-set that encourages and values a highly competitive work environment. Bureaucratic culture - represents a leadership mind-set that values order, stability, sta- tus, and efficiency.

Guidelines for Developing Political Skills: Understand the Organizational Culture and Power Players

Develop your connection power through politicking. It is natural, especially for young people, to take a purely rational approach to a job without considering politics. B

Guidelines for Developing Political Skills: Gain Recognition

Doing a great job does not help you get ahead in an organization if no one knows about it or doesn't know who you are.

University of Michigan:

Job-Centered and employee-Centered Behavior under the principal direction of Rensis Likert, The researchers' goals were to (1) classify the leaders as effective and ineffective by comparing the behavior of leaders from high-producing units and low-producing units and (2) determine reasons for effective leadership.1

Key Terms

Key Terms cross-functional team, 284 distributed leadership, 298 functional team, 283 group, 271 groupthink, 273 self-managed team champion, 297 SMT facilitator, 298 self-managed teams (SMTs), 285 social loafing, 273 team, 271 team cohesion, 277 team creativity, 281 team effectiveness, 275 team learning, 275 team-member exchange (TMX), 275 team norms, 277 teamwork, 272 virtual team, 285

KSA

Knowledge; skills; ability You will notice an overlap between the skills and roles because the leader needs the competencies (knowledge, skills, and ability—KSAs) to enact the managerial roles. (pg. 11)

5 key elements of leadership

Leader-Follower— leaders influence the behavior of fol- lowers, and vice versa. Influencing—the relationship between leaders and followers, who change roles. Organizational objectives—outcomes that leaders and fol- lowers want to accomplish. Change—needed to achieve objectives. People—leadership is about leading people.

University of Michigan and Ohio State University Studies

Leadership research was conducted at Ohio State and the University of Michigan at about the same time during the mid-1940s to mid-1950s. These studies were not based on prior autocratic and democratic leadership styles but rather sought to determine the behavior of effective leaders. Michigan State added participative leadership like the Ohio studies; cohesive relationship - main component

Conducting Effective Team Meetings

Meeting plans: • time. List date, place (if it changes), and time (both beginning and ending). • Objective. State the objectives and/or purpose of the meeting.The objectives can be listed with agenda items, as shown below, rather than as a separate section. However, be sure objectives are specific. • participation and assignments. If all members have the same assignment, list it. If dif- ferent members have different assignments, list their names and assignments. Assignments may be listed as agenda items, as shown below for Ted and Karen. • agenda. List each item to be covered, in order of priority, with its approximate time limit. Accepting the minutes of the preceding meeting may be an agenda item. Here is an ex- ample agenda:

achievement Motivation theory and Leader Motive profile (LMP)

Need for power Need for affiliation Socialized power (LMP) Need for achievement No separate need; it is included in the other needs

Negotiation

Negotiating is a process in which two or more parties have something the other wants and attempt to come to an agreement.

Problem members

Silent Talker Wanderer Bored Arguer

4 Discuss similarities and differences among the three content motivation theories.

Similarities among the content motivation theories include their focus on identifying and understanding employee needs.The theories identify similar needs but are different in the way they classify the needs. Hierarchy of needs theory includes physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization needs. Two-factor theory Key terms acquired needs theory, content motivation theories, equity theory, expectancy theory, giving praise model, includes motivators and maintenance factors. Acquired needs theory includes achievement, power, and affiliation needs, and includes no lower-level needs, as the other two theories do.

Chapter 7 - LMX (leader-member exchange)

Some have suggested that it is one of the most important relationships for followers, arguing that the quality of the social exchange between a leader and a follower is be more predictive of follower outcomes than traits or behaviors of leaders.

The Big Five Personality Dimensions "The Big Five Model of Personality"

The Big Five Model of personality categorizes traits into the dimensions of surgency, agreeableness, adjustment, conscientiousness, and openness to experi-ence. Correlates with Leadership Researchers conducted a major meta-analysis combining 73 prior studies to correlate the Big Five personality dimensions with leadership. The highest correlation with leadership was surgency (.31), followed by conscientiousness (.28) and openness to experience (24). Agreeableness was weakly correlated (.08), and adjustment was negatively correlated with leadership (-.24).16 In other words, people high in surgency are perceived as leaderlike—they work hard, and they bring about change. They are not too concerned about being well liked and trying to please everyone, and they are stable or not overly emotional.

Differences between the Michigan and Ohio State Models

The Ohio State and University of Michigan leadership models are different in that the University of Michigan places the two leadership behaviors at opposite ends of the same continuum, making it one-dimensional. The Ohio State University model considers the two behaviors independent of one another, making it two-dimensional; thus this model has four leadership styles. contributions: There is no one best leadership style in all situations applications: Self-assessment helps change behavior leading to more effective performance and relationships.

2. Describe similarities and differences between the University of Michigan and Ohio State University leadership models.

The University of Michigan and Ohio State University leadership models are similar because they are both based on the same two distinct leadership behaviors, although the models use different names for the two behaviors. The models are different because the University of Michigan model identifies two leadership styles based on either job or employee-centered behavior. The Ohio State University model states that a leader uses high or low structure and consideration, resulting in four leadership style combinations of these two behaviors.

Guidelines for Developing Political Skills: Develop Good Working Relationships, Especially with Your Manager

The ability to work well with others is critical to your career success, and it's an important foundation of politics. advancement do more than what is required share bad news don't go to your boss's manager

Autocratic leadership style.

The autocratic leader makes the decisions, tells employees what to do, and closely supervises workers.

Chapter Summary

The chapter summary is organized to answer the 8 learning outcomes for this chapter. 1 Describe the two subgroups that can form under VDL theory. Leaders develop positive social exchanges with a select subset of followers known as the in-group.with another subgroup known as the out-group, leaders develop economic-based authority relationships. Leaders primar- ily use expert, referent, and reward power to influence members of the in-group. out-group members are more likely to be managed according to the requirements of the employment contract.As long as such compliance is forthcoming, the out-group follower receives the stan- dard benefits for the job (such as a salary) and no more. 2 Define the two kinds of relationships that can occur between a leader and followers under Leader-Member exchange theory. Leaders form high-quality social exchanges (based on trust and liking) with some members and low-quality economic exchanges with others. 3 Describe the role of the leader and follower in influencing LMX relationships the Leader's role.The leader's ability or willingness to develop a working relationship with a follower that goes beyond an economic-based exchange (which is strictly contractual in nature) to a socially based exchange re- lationship (characterized by friendship, mutual trust, loy- alty, and respect between the leader and the follower) is critical in influencing the LMX relationship. other factors such as a leader's resource strength, span of control, and ability to create a supportive work climate or environ- ment will also greatly influence LMX relationships. the Follower's role. proactive followers who want to influence LMX relationships with their leaders can em- ploy tactics such as impressions management, ingratia- tion and self-promotion. 4 Discuss the main criticisms of LMX theory. The main criticisms of LMX theory are measurement issues and attribution bias and its predictive power. The main instrument for measuring LMX quality is the LMX-7.A criticism of LMX-7 is that it determines the quality of the exchange relationship solely from the fol- lower's perspective.The leader's input is not taken into account.A second criticism of LMX is its attribution bias in favor of in-group members. given the variability in a leader's treatment of in-group and out-group members, it is quite possible that a leader's favorable impressions toward in-group members may well translate into fa- vorable performance evaluations and feedback for such members. Finally, there have been criticisms of the pre- dictive power of LMX theory. For example, the research evidence on staff turnover is mix at best and reserva- tions about the performance measures used. 5 Describe the two behaviors identified in the Kelley model and the resulting five follower types. Using a combination of two types of behavior— independent critical thinking and level of involvement in organizational affairs—Kelley groups followers into five categories. The independent critical-thinking variable is on a continuum from low to high and the level of involvement on a continuum from low to high as well. The five basic follower types are: alienated, passive, conformist, pragmatic, and effective follower. 6 Briefly describe the three factors than can enhance a follower's influence. The three follower-influencing characteristics are: (1) relative power position—leaders need to realize that followers also have the power to influence them. (2) Locus of control—followers can have an internal or external locus of control, based on their belief about who is the master of their destiny.Thus, leader-member exchanges should be different based on locus of control. (3) Education and experience—leaders need to realize that followers may have different levels of education and experience and that they need to supervise them differently. 7 List five things a leader should delegate. A leader should delegate paperwork, routine tasks, technical matters, tasks with developmental potential, and employees' own problems. 8 an effective evaluation should accomplish at least three things. Name them. An effective evaluation should: • Describe behavior, performance, and results the leader has observed • Explain, illustrate, and support the leader's conclusions • T ell employees clearly what they are doing well and describe what they need to improve.