MTEL: Communications and Literacy

Clauses

connected groups of words that are composed of at least one subject and one verb

Complex sentences

consists of an independent clause plus one or more dependent clauses

Simple sentences

consists of one independent clause

Compound/Complex sentences

consists of one or more dependent clauses plus two or more independent clauses

Compound sentence

consists of two or more independent clauses, usually connected by a conjunction

Adjacent sentence clues

context for a word goes beyond the sentence it is located in, clues are offered in neighboring sentences

Oxymoron

contradiction in terms deliberately used for effect • Ex. a wise fool

Proper noun

nouns that name something specific, names of people and places

Possessive nouns

nouns that show possession

Climax

number of sentences arranged in ascending order of rhetorical forcefulness

Frequency

number of times any particular data value occurs

Fragments

occur when word groups are missing either a subject or a verb OR if word groups are actually dependent because of the use of conjunctions or relative pronouns

Negative trend

one set of data gets bigger while the other gets smaller

Assumption

one will guess or hypothesize based on given information

Past participle

the form of a verb that typically ends in -ed

Statement of events

the main idea is stated and the rest of the paragraph explains or proves it

Cause

the necessary source for a particular outcome

Frequency of the interval

the number of data values in any interval

Assertion of the thesis

the opinion about the subject, provides the purpose for the essay

Classification

the paragraph presents grouped information about a topic

Correlation

the relationship between two variables

Adjectives

words that modify or describe nouns or pronouns

Adverbs

words that modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs, they cannot modify nouns

Antonyms

words with opposite meanings

Synonyms

words with similar or identical meanings making them interchangeable

Secondary source

works written significantly after the period being studied and are based upon primary sources

Appropriate vocabulary

writers are sensitive to the audience and the purpose for writing when selecting words

Plurals of compound words

• Make plurals of closed compound words in the usual way except when they end in ful o Ex. cupful becomes cupsful

Plurals for words ending in y

• Nouns ending in a y preceded by a vowel add s o Ex. boy becomes boys • Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change the y to an i and add es o Ex. candy becomes candies

Common plurals

• Nouns that end in a hard consonant or a hard consonant followed by an e are made plural by adding an s o Ex. banana become bananas • Nouns that end in a soft consonant sound get an es o Ex. dress becomes dresses

Possessives of words ending in s

• With singular nouns add either an 's or just an apostrophe, depending on the common usage o Ex. James' hat or James's hat • With plural nouns ending in s just add an apostrophe o Ex. horses' coats • With plural nouns that do not end in an s add 's o Ex. children's shoes

Punctuation

commas, parentheses, quotation marks, or dashes offers the reader a definition

Scatter plot

compares two characteristics of the same group, consists of a large amount of data

Irregular plurals

Some nouns plurals are formed irregularly or remain the same o Ex. deer becomes deer and index becomes indices

Subordinating conjunction

a conjunction that introduces a subordinate clause

Bar graph/pictograph

a diagram where the numerical values of variables are represented by the height or length of lines of equal width

Antecedent

a literary device in which a word or pronoun in a sentence refers to an earlier word

Pathos

a quality that evokes pity or sadness

Past tense

a tense expressing an action that as already happened

Subject-verb agreement

a verb must correspond in the singular or plural form with the subject

Sentence clues

a writer will often define a difficult or important word the first time it appears in the piece

Persuasive writing

a writer's ability to select vocabulary and arrange facts and opinions in such a way as to direct the actions of the reader

Tone

a writer's attitude toward the material or the readers, related to the actual words that make up a piece

Possessives of compound words

add the inflection at the end of the phrase • Ex. the mailman's new truck

Adding detail

adding specific information can show how the sentence is related to the main idea

Analogy

an argument that states that if two things have one thing in common they probably have other things in common as well

Essay

an extended discussion of a writer's point of view about a particular topic, a good essay is clear, coherent, well organized, and fully developed

Bias

an opinion, feeling, or influence that strongly favors one side of an argument

Parallelism

arrangement of ideas in phrases, sentences, and paragraphs that balance one element with another of equal importance and similar wording

Ensuring understanding

avoid using the words, "clearly, obviously, and undoubtedly," use words that best fit the intended meaning, and when in doubt explain further

Stem and leaf plot

best suited for small sets data and comparing two sets of data

Positive trend

both sets of data get bigger together

Concluding paragraph

brief, straightforward paragraph that ties together the essay and leaves the reader with a sense of completion

Independent clause

can stand alone or be joined to other clauses

Dependent clause

cannot stand alone as a complete sentence, contain at least one subject and one verb

Descriptive writing

centers on a person, place, or object using concrete and sensory words to create a mood and arranging details in chronological or spatial sequence

Topic sentence

central idea of the paragraph

Spatial/Place

certain descriptions are organized according to the location of items in relation to each other and to a larger context

Point of view

defines the focus a writer assumes when writing about a given topic

Hyperbole

deliberate exaggeration for comic effect

Cause-and-effect

describes how two or more events are connected

Adding transitions

designed to connect one idea to another and avoid choppiness

Sequence of events

details are presented in the order that which they occurred

Minor details

details that are interesting, but not always essential

Major details

details that directly support the main idea

Narrative writing

developed using an incident or related series of events

Simile

direct comparison between two things using the word like, as, or resembles

Fallacy

displaying a faulty reasoning, thus making an argument invalid

Good paragraphing

dividing ideas into bite-sized chunks, includes topic sentence and information relative to that topic sentence

Prefix

element placed in front of a word to adjust its meaning

Sufficient context

ensuring that readers do not have to question the text extensively to figure out what is happening

Entire passage clues

entire piece or a paragraph is dedicated to figuring out the definition of a word

Adding an example

examples can support the main idea and give the document overall credibility

Supporting details

examples, facts, ideas, illustrations, cases, and anecdotes used by a writer to explain, expand on, and develop their more general main idea, relate directly to the main idea

Irony

expressing something other than and particularly opposite of the literal meaning

Journalistic writing

factually and objectively relays information about an event, person, or thing, free from author bias

Transitions

flowing from one paragraph to another within a piece

Argument

generalization that is proven or supported with facts

Transitional phrases

gives clue to the readers about what is coming next

Basic expository writing

gives information not previously known about a topic, or is used to explain or define a topic

Pronoun shift

grammatical error where the author starts a sentence or paragraph using one type of pronoun and then suddenly shifts to another

Line graph

graph that displays information using a series of data points

Personification

human characteristics attributed to an inanimate object, an abstract quality, or animal

Invalid

if an argument is invalid, it is not reasonable and is biased

Valid

if an argument is valid, it is reasonable, non-biased, and is supported by evidence

Onomatopoeia

naming of a thing or action by a vocal imitation of the sound associated with it

Organization

includes two factors in an essay, the order in which the author has chosen to present the different parts of the discussion and the relationship they construct between these parts

Comma

indicates a brief pause

Metaphor

indirect comparison between tow things that does not use the word like, as, or resembles

Outline

list of the main ideas or points

Bathos

ludicrous attempt to portray pathos, may result in elevated language to describe something trivial

Primary source

materials that were created during the period being studied of immediately after it

Connotation

meaning that is implied by a word besides from what it specifically describes

Stated main idea

message is explicit or directly expressed in a sentence or two within the piece

Implied main idea

message is suggested by the overall reading of the piece

Word choice/Formality

most formal language does not include slang and contractions, while the most informal language contains slang, common sayings, contractions, and feels more casual overall

Pronoun

must correspond to its antecedent in number, person, and gender, must refer clearly to a single word, not an idea

Define

outright defines a word

Misplaced modifier

phrases not placed near the one word they modify

Dangling modifier

phrases that do not relate to the subject being modified

Concluding sentences

provide a closing to a piece

Explanation

provides an explanation for the word using other words within the same sentence

Thesis

provides structure to an essay and helps focus the writer's thoughts

Opposite

provides the opposite word within the same sentence

Purpose

reason why a writer writes a piece

Who/whom/whose

refers to humans and can either introduce essential or nonessential clauses

That/Which

refers to things other than humans and is used to introduce essential clauses

Subject of the thesis

relates directly to the topic prompt but expresses the specific area that has been chosen to discuss

Alliteration

repetition of consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words

Stem

the digits in the greatest place value

Leaves

the digits in the next greatest place value

Inference

requires that one foes beyond the strictly obvious to create additional meaning by taking the text one step further

Contractions

shortening of words, used informally in slang

Paragraph

should contain concrete, interesting information, and supporting details to support the main idea or point of view

Trend

shows correlation between two sets of data

Root

smallest element of a word that still carries meaning

Introduction paragraph

start with a brief description of the broader issue then add a clearly focused and specific thesis statement

Enhancing interest

start with a hook, use dynamic vocabulary, use varied sentence beginnings, and avoid clichés

Opinion

statements which must be supported in order to be accepted

Histograms

summarize information from large sets of data that can be naturally grouped into intervals

Main idea

the basic message of a piece

Context clues

the context of a word is the sentence or sentences that surround it, helps readers determine the meaning of unfamiliar words

Euphemism

the substitution of an inoffensive term for one that may cause offense • Ex. passed away instead of death

Reasoning

thinking about something in a sensible logical way

Circle graph

totaling all the information and then dividing it into 360°

Relative pronoun

type of pronoun that introduces dependent clauses in a sentence

Using diction effectively

understand connotation, avoid ambiguity, and avoid repetition when selecting words

Comparatives

used to compare two objects, correct form must be used for both • Ex. slower, younger, and taller

Superlative

used to compare two or more objects • Ex. slowest, youngest, tallest

Dashes

used to denote sudden breaks in thought

Colon

used to introduce lists and emphasize what follows

Italics

used to punctuate the titles of works of literature, names of periodical publications, musical scores, works of art, motion pictures, and television and radio programs

Semicolon

used to separate two or more closely related independent clauses when the second clause is introduced by a transitional verb

Apostrophe

used to show contractions or possession

Comparison-Contrast

used when a paragraph describes the differences or similarities of two or more ideas, actions, events, or things

Mapping

using words or pictures with key ideas connected to smaller chunks of information

Shifts in verb tense

verb tenses must consistently refer to the same time

Fact

verifiable, objective statements used to support objective opinions

Neutral tone

voice is neutral, sentences are declarative, adjectives are few and nondescript

Negative tone

voice is solemn, negative adjectives are used

Positive tone

voice is upbeat, positive adjectives are used

Comma splice

when only a comma joins two separate sentences

Explicit cause and effect

when the cause of something is easily identified

Implicit cause and effect

when the cause of something is suggested but not directly stated

No correlation

when the data sets show no clear trend

Double negation

when two forms of negation are used in the same sentence

Run-on/Fused sentences

when two sentences are run together with no punctuation at all

Word forms

when words have different parts of speech and one is able to determine what the unfamiliar word is by knowing its other forms • Ex. fraud (noun) and fraudulent (adjective)

Audience

who the written piece is targeted for, vocabulary and formality changes with each audience type

Common possessives

with a singular noun add an 's • Ex. teacher's desk

Preposition

words that answer the where and when questions, never end a sentence with a preposition

Homonyms

words that have similar pronunciation and/or spelling but have different meanings