Multiculturalism FINAL

Terrorism

Motivation can be • religious • political • ideological • Expression of grievances, real or perceived, by radicalized, desperate and/or disempowered people • While Islamist terrorism is currently the primary (but by no means the only) threat, not all terrorism has an obvious cultural connection. We are focusing on terrorism that does. • Mentally ill or lone wolfs are involved in mass casualty events but not culturally motivated • Which areas are hardest hit by terrorism? Their own people!

1953 Short Creek Raid

¥ Arizona authorities raided the community to enforce the states polygamy laws. ¥ Did not go well - political backlash which caused authorities to take a hands-off attitude toward the "polygamists at the border". ¥ Utah largely run by LDS who viewed FLDS as embarrassment and they tended to ignore their criminal behavior.

Title: Patriarchal Murders of Women : A Sociological Study of Honour-based Killings in Turkey and in the West Author: Aysan

Sevʼer, a Turkish Sociologist • Why do some groups commit more honor killings than others? • She argues, essentially, that honor killings are an extreme manifestation of the East's social organization system which is very from different Western societies. • Western and Eastern societies have attempted to establish social order in very different ways. • These different systems tend to be presented hierarchically in Western thought (we are better, they are worse), she attempts to discuss them in parallel terms. • Western Societies Are Governed by Systems Of Law Characterized as Impersonal or Rational

'Onue'

honor related closely to the North American understanding of honor - moral integrity, the esteem accorded to virtue or talent.

'Izzet'

honor that is linked to the generosity of a person, the rich have more opportunities to be generous than the poor. This is gender neutral.

ABA Commission on Women 2016 Annual Report

o Women are 36% of legal profession (50% of current law school students) o Are underrepresented in powerful positions in big firms (21.5% of partners) • Total Representation of Women - Federal & State Judgeships is 27.1% (Women are slightly more prevalent on the federal bench with 30%+ depending on the level). • Baseline labor population o Although it is possible that women don't apply for these jobs for reasons not related to description. • How many women apply o Problem with this as a baseline is that discrimination in recruitment could be masked if you rely on that data... • Even if show disproportional representation, it's not necessarily caused by discrimination

Lila Abu-Lughod (and others)

o noted for her ethnographic work with Bedouins (closest thing we have to 7th century Arabia's tribal social milieu in modern world). • She is American with a Palestinian father, an anthropologist by training, she teaches at Columbia in NYC. • Western freedom for women in primarily freedom to be promiscuous and commoditized (sex object). Choice about sex isn't the same as "freedom". • Bedouin girls and women counter charges against their purity with assertions of their modesty not calls for rights or freedom, autonomy, independence or more power. • Western notions of abused Muslim women who need saving are racist and imperialistic. They may want something different and any effort to improve their lives must begin with understanding what they want. • Women she lived/worked among did not think they were oppressed by Islam and one noted that women are denied their rights everywhere.

Christian Fundamentalism and the CJ System

¥ Blood Atonement- In 1856, Brigham Young, second prophet of the LDS (after founding prophet Joseph Smith, he led them to Utah), delivered a sermon which was later published announcing that there were some sins for which the blood of Christ could not atone. In those cases, those sins could only be atoned by the shedding of the sinners own blood. ¥ Young even went so far as to state that these sinners, if they truly understood their condition, would beg their brethren to shed their blood, that their sins night be atoned for. - In other words it's a "mercy" killing. ¥ Mainstream Morons formally denounced this teaching in 1978.

Leaders in FLDS

¥ Led by a prophet who is believed to be Gods mouthpiece. ¥ Until Rulon Jeffs came along the actions of the prophet were somewhat reigned in by seven-member Priesthood Council. ¥ Rulon eventually declared one man rule causing split with the centennial group. ¥ Rulon Jeffs died in 2002 at age 92. He had been prophet since 1986 when Uncle Roy (Leroy Johnson, father of the modern FLDS church) died. ¥ When Rulon died he had 75 wives some of them were teens... ¥ During his Dad's dotage, Warren Jeffs, had been the power behind the thrown and took over as prophet when his dad died. ¥ Blood Atonment- Rulon Jeffs, father of Warren Jeffs, reportedly told his followers in 1997, "This is loving our neighbor as ourselves; if he needs help, help him; and if he wants salvation and if he wants salavation and it is needed to spill his blood on the earth in order that he may be saved, spill it." ¥ According to Stolen Innocence, her memoir, Ellisa Wahl says Warren threatened her with blood atonment when her "adultrey" came to light. ¥ Robert Richter says he left the church while he was working on a "secret project" to build computer controls for an extremely high thermostat now fears that he now fears could be used to operate a crematory at the temple to dispose of the blood atoned bodies. ¥ "Warren has been teaching for a long time that those who are guilty of adultery must be blood atoned he says. "Warren's even made comments that we have got to figure out a way that we can start doing them so these people can be saved."

Mormons and mainstream LDS

¥ Officially gave up polygamy in 1890 in order for Utah to be a state (Woodruff - at that time the head of the church- Manifesto) ¥ Polygamy is explicitly prohibited by Utah's constitution. ¥ Caused Splinter within Mormonism: mainstream LDS and FLDS (FLDS is somewhat splintered and factionalized (e.g., the centennial group, Kingston group). ¥ Mormons associated dark skin with the seed of CAIN OR EVIL. Brigham Young was big on this and the mainstream Mormons did not admit male minorities to the priesthood until 1978. ¥ Women remain excluded from the Mormon priesthood both LDS AND FLDS. ¥ Today, the mainstream LDS church is pretty law abiding.

Fundamentalist Latter Day Saints

¥ One of the largest fundamentalist groups of 10,000 adherents. ¥ Scattered across Western U.S., with outposts in Canada (Bountiful in BC) and Mexico. ¥ Short Creek is one of first and best known FLDS settlements, now known as Colorado City, Arizona and its twin community across Utah state line is known as Hildale. ¥ HQ of FLDS appears to have moved to Eldorado Texas during Warren Jeffs' reign.

Sunnah

• "the way for others to follow" and encompasses all of Muhammad's words, deeds and tacit approvals (Muhammad is considered by Muslims to be the "perfect person" so if he did it or said it, Muslims usually think it's right and legally binding) and those of his close associates. • About 4,400 hadith (sayings of Muhammad) are considered verified and are accepted by most Muslims as authentic

'Sharaf'

• (Bedouins- Arab nomadic group) - honesty, sincerity, keeping word, loyalty to friends.

Foundations of Islamic Law

• 5 Pillars of Islam • The Shahada (confession of faith) called the inseparable testimony of Islam which must be recited with sincerity "There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his messenger" or similar. • Prayer (5 times daily at proscribed times, requires ritual washing for purification and should be recited facing Mecca). • Zakat (almsgiving or charity) but mandatory - "Tax" on the not poor for the poor akin to mandatory tithing in the Christian context but it is specifically for the poor. • Fasting - required during the month of Ramadan (9th month of the Hijri calendar when the Qur'an is believed to have been revealed to Muhammad). • Hajj- mandatory pilgrimage for all able Muslims to Mecca to see the Ka'aba (a pagan holy place, repurposed by Muhammad as sacred to Allah). • Shari'a is a legal system which grew out of Islam and is believed by some to represents correct living and the pathway to salvation. • Shari'a is believed to be all-encompassing and capable of providing an answer to every moral, legal or religious question (broader than western concept of law). • Sources of Shari'a (in descending order of importance). • Qur'an - Muslim Holy book, most Muslims think it's the direct word of God. • Supposedly revealed to Muhammad in its current form through the Angel Gabriel over a 22 year period. • Medinan Chapters provide instructions relating to law, justice, and order including punishments for crimes. • Meccan Chapters are largely concerned with religious stuff like divine truths, correct religious practice, defense of Islam etc.

Farmer v Brennan, 511 U.S. 825 (1994)

• A preoperative transsexual who projected feminine characteristics, was incarcerated with other males in the federal prison system, sometimes in the general prison population but more often in segregation. The inmate was beaten and raped by another inmate after being transferred by federal prison officials from a correctional institute to a penitentiary--typically a higher security facility with more troublesome prisoners--and placed in its general population. • Petitioner alleged that respondents had acted with "deliberate indifference" to petitioner's safety in violation of the Eighth (8th) Amendment because they knew that the penitentiary had a violent environment and a history of inmate assaults and that petitioner would be particularly vulnerable to sexual attack. • Finding in Farmer v Brennan, 511 U.S. 825 (1994) the Supremes affirmed that the system does have a duty to protect inmates from assault by other inmates pursuant to the 8th but found that to be held liable for damages the actor must have had reasonably specific reason to have known the assault was IMMINENT. • Deliberate indifference entails something more than negligence, but is satisfied by something less than acts or omissions for the very purpose of causing harm or with knowledge that harm will result. Thus, it is the equivalent of acting recklessly. • Subjective recklessness, as used in the criminal law, is the appropriate test for "deliberate indifference." Permitting a finding of recklessness only when a person has disregarded a risk of harm of which he was aware. • The 8th outlaws cruel and unusual "punishments," not "conditions," and the failure to alleviate a significant risk that an official should have perceived but did not, while no cause for commendation, cannot be condemned as the infliction of punishment. • Petitioner's invitation to adopt a purely objective test for determining liability--whether the risk is known or should have been known--is rejected. This Court's cases "mandate inquiry into a prison official's state of mind."

Pakistani Victims

• Aasiya Hassan- A buffalo man got 25 years to life Wednesday for beheading his wife in 2009. • Muzzammil Hassan was convicted in February of the murder of his spouse, Aasiya Hassan. It took the jury less than an hour to find him guilty of second-degree murder. • The life sentence was accompanied by an order of protection to prevent the killer from contacting his two children. • "The defendant viciously killed... and desecrated (his wife's) body because 6 days earlier she had dared to file for divorce," Assistant District Attorney Paul Bonanno said. • The 46-year-old lured his wife to the television studio where the couple worked on Feb. 12, 2009. He then attacked her with a pair of hunting knives, stabbed her 40 times, then severed her head.

Other "Religiously" Connected Terrorism

• Abortion related terrorism • Rand Corp 2010 report found • including arson, bombings, murders and butyric acid attacks. After a period of decline, abortion clinic violence is on the rise again. • Rand study found that clinic violence reduces both abortion providers and abortions in the areas where the violence occurs. Once travel is taken into account, however, the overall effect of the violence is much smaller. On net, roughly 90 percent of the fall in abortions in targeted areas is balanced by a rise in abortions in nearby areas. • BBC Secret War on Terrorism= the way the CIA gained intelligence and so on...

Tazir Offenses (discretionary)

• All offenses that are deemed to undermine Islamic social order but aren't quesas or hudud offenses. • Include deficient quesas or hudud offenses, indeterminately punished offenses and other offenses against Islam. • Many sources of Shari'a identify activities as wrong without specifying the punishment as required for hadd offenses • Anything that is deemed to contravene the overarching principles of Islam (distributing porn is a modern phenomenon not addressed by the primary documents but it encourages lusts of the flesh which are forbidden so its punishable). • Punishments can be anything ordered by the Islamic judge up to death but are usually less severe and aimed at rehabilitation. • Homosexuality • Dispute among Muslims about whether this is Hudud or Tazir offense • Prohibited for both men and women. • Punishment can include death or lashings. • "Passive" male participant often regarded as more deserving of death because his role is viewed as feminized and unnatural. • Mitigating Factors or Defenses (many similar to Western legal systems) • Lack of volition - defendant lacked free will to commit the act e.g., under duress or unconscious. • Intoxication is only a defense if it was the side effect of a permissible pharmaceutical (like involuntary intoxication). • Insanity - unable to distinguish right from wrong • Self-defense and defense of property. • Family autonomy - men have the legal right to physically punish (assault) and rape their wives, parents have the right to physically punish (assault) their children. • Children (under 7 or sometime its puberty) are not liable for wrongful acts (like our infancy defense). • Theft - intentionally taking property of value from the owner without permission • Must be proved by confession or testimony of 2 male witnesses (2 females can substitute for 1 male). • Female testimony is only worth half of males • Necessity is a defense • Punishment is amputation of right hand, 2nd offense left foot

Hispanics

• America's biggest minority group but remember there is quite a bit of diversity within this label with 100s of different cultural groups making up the Hispanic population • Hispanic or Latina/Latino • Often used interchangeably but those who draw a distinction usually say o Hispanic referrers to language. It means you and your ancestry come from a country where they speak Spanish... o Latina/o refers to geography... specifically Latin America and central America, but not brazil because they are Portuguese... • Brazilian are Latinas/Latinos but not Hispanic • Appropriate term can vary by time, space and context • It's an ethnicity not a race, Latinos/Hispanics can be white, black or mixed race. • Have been and continue to grow in absolute numbers as well as in share of the population • American Hispanics are primarily from Mexico • Tend to be younger • Tend to be less affluent • Immigration from Mexico is a long standing part of American society • Most Mexican-Americans were born here (65%) • 6%have been naturalized, thus71 %of Mexican-Americans are citizens (most other Hispanics are too so DO NOT ASSUME/IMPLY illegal status in dealing with this group) • 11% are legal permanent residents • 18%are unauthorized/undocumented migrants (also known as illegal aliens, although is some circles the illegal designation is regarded as offensive so you may want to avoid it in your professional life). • Some agencies want to partner with Immigrations and Customs Enforcement (ICE) in enforcing the immigration laws and some don't (e.g. sanctuary cities) so depending on where you work you may be encouraged or discouraged from seeking out non legal residents • More lenient immigration laws in the 60s took the • Hispanic population from just 7m in 1970 to 57m today • The number of Hispanics today is predicted to double by 2050 • Geographic closeness of Hispanic countries to the U.S • Higher birth rates among Hispanics w/in the us (2013 nearly a quarter of all births were to Hispanic women and Hispanic women do not make up a quarter of the pop!) • Historic discrimination especially in some regions of the US (normally where there were large Hispanic populations)

Race threat theory

• Americans expansionist policies in the 1800s brought us into conflict w/ Hispanics already occupying the land • Many Hispanics see the border as artificial and see the Southwest as a continuation of Mexico/Latina/o region • Myths and Stereo type about Hispanics • Everybody's an illegal alien • Lazy and bad workers • Uneducated/ not interested in education • Young males are all gang members - while there are Hispanic gangs, the group orientation of Hispanic culture is often manifest in groups just hanging out as their preferred mode of socialization. • Assuming they all speak Spanish/don't understand English o Do you prefer to speak Spanish or is English OK? • The key to effectiveness with any minority group is not to completely eliminate myths and stereo-types (impossible) but to be aware of those myths/stereo-types so we can monitor our thinking and behavior to make sure we aren't acting on stereo-types in dealing with particular people (and the behavior of colleagues).

Muslims as Victims of Crime Perpetrated by Non-Muslims- Single-bias incidents (UCR)

• Analysis of the 5,790 hate crime incidents reported in 2012 revealed that: • 48.3 percent were racially motivated. • 19.6 percent resulted from sexual-orientation bias. • 11.5 percent stemmed from ethnicity/national origin bias. • 1.6 percent were prompted by disability bias.

CDC's FGM Update

• Approximately 513,000 women and girls in the United States were at risk for FGM/C or its consequences in 2012, which was more than three times higher than the earlier estimate, based on 1990 data. The increase in the number of women and girls younger than 18 years of age at risk for FGM/C was more than four times that of previous estimates. • The estimated increase was wholly a result of rapid growth in the number of immigrants from FGM/C-practicing countries living in the US and nor from increases in FGM/C prevalence in those countries or among Americans • Population Reference Bureau Data 2013

CHILDREN

• Avoid using children (or other bystanders) as translators, if absolutely necessary, be sure you still address communication to the adult. • Respeto - like respect but more encompassing. It dictates behavior towards adults and authority figures. While police may be the beneficiaries of respectful treatment, due to authority status and cultural value of respeto, it does not indicate confianza (they trust you) - rapport building through mutual sharing of some background information and taking time and showing patience is especially important. • avoid- cultural value that emphasizes the personal quality of any interaction - you're not just a CJ system professional doing a job - your interaction will be perceived as "personal". Underreporting of crimes • Hispanics often fail to report crimes to the police or to cooperate even when they are not the perp because o Fear retaliation from their community o Their past experiences with law enforcement in their country of origin may have been negative and they may be afraid of you & the system o May perceive police here as unresponsive based on their or a friend's past experience or may simply be fearful because of lack of knowledge o Immigration status may be a concern for some. • Hate crimes against Hispanics/Latinas rose sharply between 2003 - 2007 believed to be linked to broader pattern of anti-immigrant rhetoric and scapegoating immigrants for job losses • Community outreach has been effective in Hispanic communities • Bilingual social workers to work with community in concert w/ police dept. • Bilingual community service officer (don't wear guns don't make arrests) • Reach out to community leaders to set enforcement priorities • Recruit qualified Hispanic officers (avoid tokenism though...) • Hire and train bilingual officers

A National Domestic Violence Hotline Study (2015) found

• Both the women who had called the police and the women who hadn't called the police shared a strong reluctance to turning to law enforcement for help: • 1 in 4 reported that they would not call the police in future • More than half said calling the police would make things worse • Two-thirds or more said they were afraid the police would not believe them or do nothing

Honor Killing in the 21st Century

• By Nicole Pope- Journalist- Had spent 20+ years in the Middle East and Turkey • Lived in Turkey at the time she was writing the book • Chose to focus on honor killings in Turkey, Pakistan and UK immigrant communities primarily because of access issues and availability of data • Divorced mother of two living in Turkey • "I personally believe that an arch patriarchal bullying links honor killings to crimes committed against women in the western societies, even if the narrative and sociopolitical backgrounds are different"

Typical Terrorist Objectives

• Changing the existing social order- change ideological, political, religious ideals • Psychological disruption • Social disruption • Create a revolutionary environment

La Familia

• Characterized by bonds of interdependence, unity and loyalty. Nuclear and extended family and often includes networks of friends, neighbors and community members. • Not common to be confronted w/ a large extended group, shouldn't automatically regard as that as a set-up or otherwise threatening. • Traditionally the father was considered the head of the family - disciplinarian, decision-maker, provider - his word was law and not to be questioned. • Oldest son was seen as a secondary decision maker • Father's position of power and authority in traditional Hispanic family can facilitate abuse and other forms of violent criminal behavior which women and children may not realize is illegal or feel safe reporting (this danger is present in any situation of inequality and they doesn't't change bc its actually imposed inequality). • Traditionally the mother was seen as providing emotional support and nurturing. • May be wise to ensure the father is present when interacting with a traditional Hispanic family and if he is unavailable you may wish to include oldest son if he is at least in his teens and the mother desires this. • As a consequence, eye checking with other family members before answering, even speaking in Spanish with others before providing an answer in English is not necessarily indicative of deception • Hispanics may say "we" when Anglos might be inclined to say I, again that may be a cultural artifact and not an effort to be duplicitous. • MACHISMO- cultural value endorsing "maleness" - stresses an exaggerated sense of masculine pride and powerfulness. Control/guardianship over women and children. Males are responsible for the well-being and honor of the family. o May contribute to a higher degree of resistance from Hispanic males. o In extreme cases, he may not recognize that hurting his spouse is a crime. • MARIANISMO - cultural value based on the Virgin Mary, women are considered spiritually superior to men. Women are expected to be self-sacrificing for their husbands and kids. Homemakers and caretakers • Through this cultural lens, boys are regarded as strong and girls as weak. Passivity in females is encouraged so you may need to make extra effort to reach out them. • Should be remembered that understanding traditional family structure may help you in interacting with some Hispanic people, others may have more enlightened/egalitarian relationships/family structures so do not assume until you know the situation. • REACH OUT TO GIRLS SINCE THEY COULD BE BEING ABUSED...asserting independent can end in a negative/ criminal response for them.

Female Inmate Suits - Georgia- Cason v. Seckinger 231 F.3d 777 (11th Cir. 2000) - Class action to stop abuse by guards.

• Class counsel, Bob Cullen, "You get the impression from the staff at GWCI that it was a sexual smorgasbord and they could pick and choose whom they wanted." o FYI all sex between prisons and guards is illegal as inmates do not have the legal capacity to consent. • Subsequent criminal investigations resulted in 14 indictments, including a former deputy warden, on charges including rape, sodomy and sexual assault. 119 female inmates were identified as victims. Effecting Change (Belknap Chapter) • "There has been over-labeling of female deviance by male labelers and bias against women in legal definitions and application caused by male domination of society and the CJ system." Is she right? • Gender bias among judges is identified as particularly important impediment to legal reforms being implemented. Ex: Rape shield laws were prosecutor couldn't't ask about victim's sexual history... some judges allowed it anyway though... • Three theories- Evil woman, chivalry, and equal treatment were all mentioned • Deinstitutionalization of status offenders. • Conditions in Female Prisons Often Worse • Recommendations o Facilitating contact between offender and children o Adequate temporary custody arrangements rather than termination should be sought and in-prison housing for babies o Improve medical services, especially for pregnancy, de-incarceration of pregnant women o Stop building max security intuitions for women, most aren't violent/dangerous o Improve drug and alcohol treatment o Improve legal services o Improve vocational (skilled blue collar) and educational programs (literacy) o Improve therapy, counseling, and empowerment o Better post release services

Muslim Social Survey

• Conducted by Pew (available on line in aggregate form) • There were 1.6 billion Muslims in the world as of 2010 - roughly 23% of the global population. • Islam is currently the world's second-largest religion (after Christianity). • If current demographic trends continue, the number of Muslims is expected to exceed the number of Christians by the end of the century. • Muslims are the Fastest-growing Religious Group In The World. • Muslims have more children than members of other religious groups. Muslim women globally average 3.1 children, compared with 2.3 for all other groups combined. • Muslims are also the youngest (median age of 23 years old in 2010) of all major religious groups, seven years younger than the median age of non-Muslims. As a result, a larger share of Muslims are or soon will be of child bearing years and/or ready to start a family • Islam arose in the Arab world which remains largely Muslim, however, most Muslims (about 60%) live in the Asia-Pacific region, including large populations in Indonesia, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Iran and Turkey. • Indonesia is currently the country with the world's largest Muslim population • The Muslim population in Europe also is growing; Pew projects 10% of all Europeans will be Muslims by 2050 • Muslims in America - Small but Increasing • Despite large global population, only about 1% of the U.S. adult population is Muslim. • There were an estimated 3.3 million Muslims of all ages living in the United States in 2015 • A majority of U.S. Muslims 63% are immigrants. • Pew's demographic projections estimate that Muslims will make up 2.1% of the U.S. population by the year 2050. • A recent Pew Research Center report estimated that the Muslim share of immigrants granted permanent residency status (green cards) increased from about 5% in 1992 to roughly 10% in 2012, representing about 100,000 immigrants in that year. • A 2011 survey found that 86% of American Muslims say that suicide bombings and other forms of violence against civilians in the name of Islam are rarely or never justified • An additional 7% say suicide bombings are sometimes justified and 1% say they are often justified.

FGM

• Dates back thousands of years. • Medically unnecessary removal of external sex organs • Death from infection, hemorrhaging, blocked urinary or menstrual flow not unusual. • 40 countries in Africa and the Middle East practice it • Estimated that between 80 and 100 million females globally have been subjected to FGM - usually between 7 and 10. • Usually performed by a community member with no training or medical knowledge under filthy conditions although increasingly in Middle Eastern countries medical professionals are involved which probably reduces deaths from infection. • Should medical professionals preform FGM? • What are the arguments pro and con? Justifications for FGM • Religious • Some Muslims think its religiously required • Sociological- everyone else does it and man doesn't want woman who hasn't. Ostracized or barred from marriage... • Rite of passage • Aesthetic or hygienic • Female genitalia are regarded as dirty or ugly • Some think clitoris is odiferous • Psychosexual- Women are fundamentally sexual creatures and naturally promiscuous; the purpose of FGM is to prevent women from succumbing to these impulses • Encourages virginity and discourages adultery...Cuts sex drive so husband can keep up World Health Organization (WHO) - Types of FGM • Type I — Partial or total removal of the clitoris and/or the prepuce (clitoridectomy). • Type II — Partial or total removal of the clitoris and the labia minora, with or without excision of the labia majora (excision). • Type III — Narrowing of the vaginal orifice with creation of a covering seal by cutting and positioning the labia minora and/or the labia majora, with or without excision of the clitoris (infibulation). • Type IV — All other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non-medical purposes, for example: pricking, piercing, incising, scraping and cauterization.

Criminological Theories which seek to explain Causes

• Differential association- learn to be a terrorist through association with significant others or significant experiences which support extremism and/or terrorism. • Anomie/ strain theory- those whose access to approved means for achieving socially desirable goals is blocked experience strain, some people react to strain through rebellion (terrorism) which seeks to replace both the goals and the means. • Routine activities theory- observable benefits for the would-be terrorist gives you motivated offenders (e.g., get to be powerful or respected, get revenge or with ISIS you get sex slaves), available victims preferably with maximum symbolic value, and a lack of competent guardians. • Radical criminology- class conflict or some other groups based conflict caused by the unequal distribution of resources in society creates the impetus for terrorists. • Political Violence as Strategic Choice and Rational choice Theory-A rational/ strategical choice they select terrorism because they think it is the best tactic available to them to defeat their adversary. • Terrorism is a tool adopted by the political fringe to achieve goals. It is a deliberate strategy. • Conventional political activism is unlikely to work because they do not have sufficient public support in democracies or support of the powerful in dictatorships or oligarchies so they turn to terrorism. • Mao's People's War- Mao the communist Chinese representative fought against the nationalists so he came up with guerilla tactics. • Moral Justification for Political Violence • Moral convictions of terrorist • Think they are doing good/right and just • Gods will... simple definitions of good and evil which make enemy subhuman • Utopia= greater good... • Righteous revenge (e.g., U.S. intervention in Muslim majority countries) • Codes of self-sacrifice • Techniques of Neutralization (Drift theory in and out of criminality) - Sykes and Matza • Appeal to higher loyalties • Denial of victim (they deserved it) • Condemn the condemners

Normative support and social support facilitating crime

• Differential association- social support for learning crime. • Belief as an element of social control. • Deterrence - less severe, certain and swift consequences if your immediate social milieu supports the conduct. • Excerpt From 10 YEARS OLD ... AND DIVORCED - NUJOOD ALI WAS A HERO. BUT HER STORY SHOWS THAT WOMEN IN THE MIDDLE EAST RARELY ENJOY A HAPPY ENDING The New York Post, February 14, 2010 (excerpted feel free to read the whole article on lexis) • Islamic Cultures Can but Don't Necessarily Provide Social & Normative Support for Honor killings/honor related violence

Torture

• Disfiguring victim is common in HRV because it symbolizes the loss of face caused by the victim's allegedly dishonorable conduct. • Kari (black woman, woman accused of illicit sexual behavior) in some regions are dressed in red like a bride and hacked to death with axes. • Karo, (black man, man accused of illicit behavior) Males are often able to escape death for adultery but even if they are killed they are not tortured the way female victims usually are. • Women are murdered as kari are deprived of a proper burial

"Typical" female offender in the CJ system

• Disproportionately women of color- In their early-to-mid-thirties • Most likely to have been convicted of a drug or drug related offense • Fragmented family histories, with other family members also involved with the criminal justice system • Survivors of physical and/or sexual abuse as children and adults • Significant substance abuse, physical and mental health problems • High school degree/GED, but limited vocational training and • War on drugs has been hard on women. o Data consistently show that women are primarily in prison for drug and property crimes (about 2/3 on average). o Women in state prisons in 2003 were more likely than men to be incarcerated for a drug offense (29% vs. 19%) or property offense (30% vs. 20%) and less likely than men to be incarcerated for a violent offense (35% vs. 53%). ♣ Women in the Criminal Justice System, the Sentencing Project (2007). • Underrepresented but Growing • In 1970, there were fewer than 8,000 women in American jails. By 2014, that number had skyrocketed to nearly 110,000 ― making women in jails the fastest growing segment of America's incarcerated population (Vera Institute report) • Between 1980 and 2014, the number of incarcerated women increased by more than 700%, rising from a total of 26,378 in 1980 to 215,332 in 2014 (male prison rates increased on the order of about 400% during that time period) on the shallow end of the system (may avoid prison). • Stats may underrepresent women's actual participation: o In 2015, 46.0 percent of violent crimes and 19.4 percent of property crimes were cleared by arrest or exceptional means (lots of perps don't get caught, women could be better at avoiding detection). o System may treat women more leniently even when they are caught (Chivalry Hypothesis) • Contrary to the Chivalry hypothesis is the Evil woman hypothesis which posits that female offenders are treated worse not better (they aren't just criminals they are norm violators who provoke a very negative reaction from CJ system decision-makers and the public)

Domestic violence prevalence

• Domestic violence occurs in every community and affects all people regardless of age, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, gender, race, religion, or nationality. • DV is the leading cause of injury to women- more than car accidents, muggins, so on... stat is disputed tho... excluded form UCR data so we don't really know, but it is significant) • Domestic violence accounts for about 15% of all violent crime • 1 in 3 women and 1 in 4 men have been physically abused by an intimate partner. • 1 in 5 women and 1 in 7 men have been severely physically abused by an intimate partner. • 1 in 7 and 1 in 18 men have been stalked. • Less than 1/5 of vics reporting an injury from intimate partner violence sought medical treatment following the injury (fear of retribution/ consequences) • The most common forms of physical violence against women who have experienced intimate partner violence in their lifetime are being pushed, slapped (20.4%), slammed against something (17.2%), hit with fist or something hard (14.2%) and being beaten (11.2%). Source: National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey, 2010 Summary Report. • Domestic Violence was Originally Legally Sanctioned in America and England • Rule of thumb (can hit women with anything smaller than your thumb) • Even when recognizes as a crime, enforcement spotty at best • Public outcry, rising status of women (political pressure) and big dollar lawsuits all helped to change the climate

Evidence

• Examines Pakistan and some of their most abusive laws like the Hudood Ordinances which were based on Sharia law and compelled rape victims to produce 4 male victims to the assault or face prosecution as an adulterer or fornicator - clearly Islam is used as a justification for this horrific abuse but some sources suggest that Pakistan's feudal and tribal society are at least equally culpable - as a Pakistani lawyer noted if they can use religion to abuse women its religion if they can use custom to abuse women its custom • Goes through varying interpretations of Islam, noting that the Qur'an while not up to today's standards of decency and gender equality was a big improvement for 7th century Arabia and is probably no worse than the violent and sexist stuff in Jewish and Christian Holy books. • Certain interpretations of Islam have become increasingly misogynistic and punitive over the last 3 decades perhaps in response to social and political upheaval. • Her conclusion is patriarchy, which by definition imposes gender inequality, is the root cause but notes that patriarchy which is a cultural artifact has infected a number of religions originating out of the Middle East • While Christianity and Judaism have made significant strides in coming to a more enlightened understanding of their respective dogmas, Islam in some quarters lags behind e.g. the fundamentalists/radicals/Islamists. • "The religion and texts that inspire it [Islam] may not be directly to blame, but they often inform a population's perception of what is right and wrong and give harmful practices the cover of legitimacy and sanctity" • Modern Motives for Migrants to Murder • Triggers • Social dislocation • Loss of community respect • Unemployment • Inability to integrate • Infantilizing of erstwhile "in control" dads who now have to rely on children to communicate with and get by in host society • Loss of control over teenage daughters who assimilate • Analogous to batterers who often kill in response to loss of control, e.g. she leaves. • Old Traditions Modern Contexts • Difference between modernization (scientific and technological advances) and westernization (adopting Western norms of equality and human rights etc)? • Highlights how selective patriarchy can be to its approach to modern life - it willingly embraces technological advances but rejects sociological advances when it come to family and women. • Legal Support for Honor Killing • Qisas and diyat ordinance • Pope also talk about honor killings being a ruse to cover another crime - just go kill a female relative after you kill the guy and claim honor • Honor killings can only be averted or adequately punished when they have taken place if the social triggers that cause them and the environment in which they occur are well understood

Duty to Protect

• Females in custody should not be left with male arrestees/inmates unsupervised bc of the possibilities of sexual assault. • Homosexuals and people with non-standard gender identities can also be at high risk when placed in general jail or prison populations, consider protective custody. • You are morally, ethically and legally responsible for the safety of people in your custody • If someone requests protective custody, it should probably be given to her/him. • State Created Danger - More than Negligence, Must Protect from other Police • Normally to hold an officer liable for failure to protect you need to show that the officer by his or her conduct somehow created or substantially increased the danger to the plaintiff and then failed to act to protect the plaintiff he or she had so endangered (this is legal minimum, do more). • Assaults by other police, officers have a duty to intervene and protect a citizen from harm at the hands of a fellow officer, if possible.

Hudud or Hadd Offenses

• Fixed offenses, 6 are generally recognized, they require proof of specified elements and infliction of punishments as laid down by Muhammad. • Slander/defamation • Punishment is 80 lashes • Limited to false accusations of prohibited sexual conduct or sexual abnormality • Highway Robbery (dates back to tribal days) • Use of force or threat of force to rob travelers on public roads • Various categories from confrontation only to robbery homicide with penalties ranging from banishment to crucifixion. • Harshness is probably a function of importance of trade routes in pre-Islamic and nascent Islamic tribes. • Consumption of Intoxicants • Condemns both consuming intoxicants (wine usually) and being intoxicated. • Pharmaceuticals are generally exempted but street drugs are usually prohibited although only alchol is actually mentioned in the Quran • Must be proved by 2 male witnesses (2 females can be substituted for 1 of the males). • Disagreement over whether 40 or 80 lashes is the proscribed punishment. • Apostasy- Renouncing the principles of Islam of converting to another religion from Islam • May have arisen due to the early Islamic state emerging in a context in which they were under attack and pressure from the outside and couldn't afford any disloyalty among their own. • For males the punishment is death for females it is imprisonment and flagellation. • Men must be given 3 days to recant before they are killed and females can recant at anytime. • Does not apply to people who practice other religions and were never Muslim.

Liberation Hypothesis

• Freda Adler- woman's crime will increase as their opportunities do, equality in criminality will occur as equality in other spheres occurs. • Pathways to crime - Relational Crime More Prominent for Women • Research suggest that for women, the most common pathways into crime are survival of abuse, poverty, and substance abuse. • Criminal behavior results from a multitude of issues including mental illness, trauma, substance abuse and addiction, economic and social marginality, homelessness and relationship issues. • Females are often arrested for committing crimes with men or for relational reasons (e.g., drug dealing boyfriend gives her up in exchange for leniency for himself or she is caught holding for her dealer boyfriend). • Relational theory is based on the idea that women interact with the world in an interconnected capacity. Women develop a sense of self and self-worth in which their actions arise out of and lead back to connections with others. • Carol Gilligans theory suggest that women, more so than men, are likely to be motivated by connections and relationships. For examlpe, women are more than likely to engage in drug-related crime in the context of a relationship.

Religious Hate Crimes

• Hate crimes motivated by religious bias accounted for 1,166 offenses. A breakdown of the bias motivation of religious-biased offenses showed: • 59.7% were anti-Jewish • 12.8% were anti-Islamic • 7.6 percent were anti-multiple religions, group. • 6.8 percent were anti-Catholic. • 2.9 percent were anti-Protestant. • 1.0 percent were anti-Atheism/Agnosticism/etc. • 9. 2 percent were anti-unspecified religion

Quesas Offenses

• Homicide (intentional or unintentional killing) or battery (intentional or unintentional act that causes permanent and serious bodily injury). • Quesas means equality and these crimes are punished according to the principle of lex talionis (the same injury inflicted on victim should be inflicted on the perpetrator). Akin to retribution, an eye for an eye. • Victim or Victim's family can demand diyyah or blood money instead of the physical punishment or offer forgiveness • Are not prosecuted by independent state prosecutor but by the victim and/or their family - this is private criminal justice (our system is always)

Honor Killings

• Honor Related Violence Exists in Non-Islamic cultures as well • Until fairly recently Mediterranean cultures like the Greeks, Spanish and Italians all had significant problems with honor related violence. • Latin America also has "honor violence" although its usually talked about in terms of machismo but results are the same - significant potential for violence. • Sikhs and some other groups within the Arab world like the Druze (an offshoot of Islam but somewhat different) also commit honor killings. • Indians (Hindus) also engage in honor related crimes although most are based on caste and tend to be limited to the Northern part of the country (women can marry up, males can't). • Gendered violence in India (illegal but still occurs) • Sati or Widow burning - women forcibly thrown or coerced into throwing themselves on funeral prye of husband. • Dowry Deaths - often by fire, may be result of bride's family's failure to pay additional dowry or "enough" dowry (dowry goes from bride to groom in Hindu cultures unlike Muslim cultures). • Perhaps as result of who immigrates these practices do not currently pose a problem for the CJ system in the U.S. • Sometimes referred to in the literature as patriarchal killings • Encompasses sex/gender, religion and culture • All honor-related violence is criminal in America • In the U.S. honor violence occurs mostly among immigrants from societies that condone it. • Culture is No Excuse for Abuse • Most Commonly Cited Statistic • 5,000 women and girls a year die as a result of Honor Killings - Many more are injured. • Likely to be under counting the violence because such crimes are ignored and don't get processed by the CJ system in some countries thus they tend to be invisible in the data although some people charge honor killings and related violence are inflated for political reasons. • Pre-dates Islam (some interpretations of Islam may be a contributor or facilitator but HK present prior to Islam) • Occurs in cultures other than Muslim-majority cultures (especially formerly). • Many Islamic leaders have denounced honor crimes as un-Islamic. • Today honor killings most commonly occur in Muslim-majority countries or among immigrants who are Muslim and from Muslim-majority countries. • Correlation isn't causation- Dispute about the degree to which Islam causes honor killing but honor killings are clearly associated with more conservative or extreme formulations of that religion.

Violent Jihad in America (potential sources)

• Immigrants who come here with the intent to commit terrorism • First or second generation who get radicalized here either through a mosque or other organized radicalization effort or on their own primarily through the internet and other non-personal contact with jihadi ideas. • American converts to Islam who become radicalized either through a mosque or other organized radicalization effort or on their own primarily through the internet and other non-personal contact with jihadi ideas. • Most Muslim immigrants and Muslim-Americans want nothing to do with violent jihad. • Globally, most of the victims of the Islamists are Muslims.

"Honor,'' Collectivity, and Agnation: Emerging Risk Factors in ''Honor''-Based Violence by Joanne Payton in Journal Interpersonal Violence Vol. 29(16) 2863-2883 (2014)

• In 2010 almost 3,000 crimes of violence occurred which were internally designated by the police in the U.K. as having an honor motive (freedom of info request) • HRV (HBV) is obviously a serious problem in the U.K. • Argue developing a risk assessment tool is necessary to help non-specialists in law enforcement to avoid the error of misrecognition thus failing to protect victims and also avoid traumatizing or alienating people through over-intervention or pathologizing a whole community • Found significant variability but actual harm strongly correlated with the woman's assessment of her risk not her actual/suspected conduct • Risk assessment must proceed from woman's own assessment and reported history, not her cultural identity or the nature of her actual/suspected conduct. • Larger agnatic networks (family member from paternal line of victim's family) in country indicating heightened ability to collaborate and egg one another on correlated with heightened risk for victims • Family tree should be constructed with attention to occupational access that will facilitate tracking • When victims are children, removal rather than "normal" family liaison approach is often necessary. • Different Cultural Understandings of Honor That Inspire Killing: An Inquiry Into the Defendant's Perspective by Recep Dogan Homicide Studies 2014 18: 363 originally published online 12 March 2014 2014, Vol. 18(4) 363-388 • Differential association - through interaction with others, individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques, and motives for criminal behavior per Sutherland

Islamic Dress

• Is regarded as mandated by Islamic law in some Muslim Majority Countries for others it's a religious choice. • Chador- long veil covering everything but the eyes • Abaya- long ankle length dress or robe • Burka- long viel, head to toe, that covers everything, and has screen for eyes Afghanistan (pre-Taliban) • Islamic Dress Is Controversial • Portable seclusion allowing more freedom for women constrained by rules about concealment and segregation. • A misogynistic tool of female oppression. • Neutral religious practice akin to Jews wearing yamakas. • Social segregator, destructive of social fabric by emphasizing difference • Ibolya Ryan, 47, was murdered by a burka-clad assailant who lay in wait in a women's room at a mall in Abu Dhabi, the victim was a Romanian-born American citizen who taught in the United Arab Emirates. • The suspect was eventually identified as Dalal al Hashemi, a 38 year-old UAE citizen of Yemeni origin. • She was arrested in connection with the teacher's murder and is also accused of planting a bomb in front of an Egyptian-American doctor's home.

Murder in the Family

• Isa case here at home (hand out) • Punishments in Muslim-majority Nations can be harsh by Western standards and are disproportionately applied against women • Bibi Aisha, an 18-year-old Afghan woman was sentenced by a Taliban commander to have her nose and ears cut off for fleeing her abusive in-laws. When Aisha posed for the picture in 2010 she said she wants the world to see the effect a Taliban resurgence would have on the women of Afghanistan, many of whom have flourished in the past few years. There is evidence that women have embraced the freedoms that have come from the defeat of the Taliban — and many fear a Taliban revival. • Post-Surgery (provided for free by Grossman Burn Foundation in California) • Stoning, a punishment mostly for women for adultery • Acid Burning - Common in Pakistan

Criminal Procedure in the U.S. and Sharia Law

• Islamic law forbids entry into a person's home uninvited, thus conducting criminal investigations rarely involve searches as we understand them, although some authoritarian regimes which claim to be Muslim pretty much ignore this and operate like a typical police state. • No right to a jury, cases are proved before an Islamic judge.

Assumptions of Legal Systems

• Law applies equally to all • Laws define what an infraction is • Law determines penalties or consequences for infractions within certain pre-established boundaries • Not clueless or idealistic - she recognizes that these assumptions - the law in theory - are not always applied with fidelity in practice. She notes law in the West primarily protects elites and punishes minorities and that law is often inefficient at delivering justice. • Eastern Societies Are Governed By Systems Of Honor • Assumptions of Honor systems that rhey are Subjective and Relational • Societies that have traditionally relied upon moral obligations and honor rather that a system of laws have developed elaborate understandings of honor. • Various Muslim majority cultures including the Turks have developed complex systems of honor that rely upon faith- driven principles, complex 'rights' and 'obligations' in 'relational contexts' as prescribed in the Qur'an, or as exemplified through Prophet Muhammad's words, deeds and arbitrations (Hadis/Hadith) not laws embodied in statutes. • Critics might argue that Atatürk was somewhat successful in secularizing public life in Turkey although reversion may be occurring today • Honor Is Central To Life- Honor is applicable to many aspects of life in such societies and governs many types of individual and collective behaviors. • Honor is amorphous - and contagious - in nature. It either glorifies or taints an individual, and all others who are related to that individual by marriage or by blood.

Rand Corp Study on Terrorist Threats

• Looked at 150 executed AND foiled plots of terrorism attacks • Looked at many ideologies behind the attacks • Prior research suggests that Connect the dots as opposed to high level intelligence gathering aimed at identifying plots. • Empirical records suggest that plots are foiled from info from general public and from local level police forces

Islamic Family law as it might impact on Crime in Muslim Immigrant Communities

• Marriage contracts are supposed to involve offer and acceptance but Guardians can enter into marriage contracts on behalf of minors who lack capacity (child marriages) • Grooms are supposed to pay the bride an acceptable mahr or bridewealth or dowry • Husbands must provide food, clothing and shelter to wife • Wife must obey and respect husband • Husband has right to punish wife who refuses to obey • Not supposed to beat her in the face • Wife has right to seek an education and husband is supposed to provide the necessary resources for an education. • If the husband approves, the wife can work and any earnings are hers alone. • Incestuous marriages are prohibited (cousins are OK) • Polygamy (up to 4 wives) is permitted but only for men. • Muslim women have to marry Muslim men but Muslim men can marry among the people of the Book (Christians and Jews) • Homosexuality is prohibited

Muslim Divorce

• Men can freely get out, they just have to say I divorce you (talaaq), abstain from sex with wife and wait for his wife's iddat period to expire (3 months to ensure she isn't pregnant). • Women cannot get out unless they get their husbands to issue a talaaq pay their husbands enough money they are willing to let them go or can convince a court to issue a divorce for her. • Courts will usually issue a talaaq for a woman only if she can show her husband is in jail for 5 or more years, her husband has been gone for 4 or more years, he is impotent, he has maltreated her, he failed to fulfill one of his marital duties or he is an apostate. • Women have no claim on marital property • Men "own" the children although very young children are usually allowed to reside with mom until boys are 7 and girls are 9

Women and Particular Criminal Phenomenon...Women and Murder... Women and Homicide

• More likely to kill an intimate partner then men are, although men kill so much more than women do, men are still responsible for far more intimate partner homicides in terms of absolute numbers (e.g. Males were 7 times more likely than females to commit murder in 2008 according to BJS) • Some variance year to year but data generally suggest:The model category for female homicides in the us is murder by an intimate partner (clear the husband/boyfriend first) In 70-80% of intimate partner homicides, no matter which partner was killed, the man physically abused the woman before the murder. • Differences in female and male involvement in lethal violence in Russia (2009) • Relatively little is known of the distributions of homicide event characteristics in non-Western nations in which women relative to men are involved. One study which drew data from Russian court and police records indicates that homicides in which a female was the victim or offender were more likely to occur between intimates and to occur in the home, whereas homicides involving males were more likely to occur in a public place, to be alcohol-related, to involve a firearm, and to involve a victim and offender who did not know each other well.

Namus

• Most important type of honor in Muslim majority societies (and focus of honor killings) • Is directly connectedto the honor men derive from the chaste and virtuous behavior of their women, both the rich and the poor are equally entitled to and able to acquire 'namus'. Social equalizer or a non-tangible path for social status: it can equate the poor with the rich, on at least on one culturally esteemed dimension. • No one (especially, no man) is exempt from striving to lead an honorable life and protecting the family name from insinuations or charges of dishonor. • Namus is dichotomous - you either have it or you do not. There is no such thing as having a little or a lot. • Namus is fleeting- Regardless of how much honor one may have acquired in the past, one may lose it in an instant. Protection of namus is a life-long duty and requires constant vigilance. • Namus is a public matter (female behavior is scrutinized by all) • The extended family, as well as more distant kin and neighbors serve as habitual observers. If things are deemed not right, the collectivity will serve as judge and jury. • In family matters, and especially when these matters involve women's sexualized behavior, an informal (but decisive) family court will act to restore or cleanse the family honor. • If the behavior is found to be wanting, the punishment could also be public (in the most extreme, stoning women to death in some Eastern and African cultures). • If the response (murder) is delayed, members of the community may act as instigators to remind the family of the offending women for their responsibility. • Taken in their entirety, the honor system forms the building blocks of a social milieu within which almost all social interaction is valued and judged. • Namus Becomes Lethal when Both men and women use namus to judge all women but not men (West - slut shaming). The poor, the disadvantaged, the vulnerable are even more possessive and passionate about their honor - most specifically, of the namus kind - since they have no money or other material sources of pride in the stratified societies they are a part of. Example: Kurds are socially, politically and economically marginalized in Turkey, Iraq and Iran. The Kurds are also associated with exceptionally rigid sanctions in the name of honor. • She argues that poverty and rampant disadvantage facilitates the process of over- attachment to honor systems among many societies • It is at the extreme pole of this continuum that judgments about honor—namus kind—can become fatal.

Foiled Plots of attacks

• Most plots required added investigations following receipt of an initial clue regarding a plot. Interestingly, investigative activities related to connecting the reported activity to other cases of known terrorist activity—commonly referred to as "connecting the dots"—only led to plots being foiled in a handful of cases • In 5/7 plots, initial clues were received but dropped prematurely • We are much safer after 9/11 and are better at foiling plots. The proportion of foiled plots has jumped from a 32% interdiction rate in the years prior to 2001 to more than an 80% interdiction rate in the years following 2001. There has been a migration away from terrorists even attempting catastrophic attacks (1,000+ casualties) since 2006. • There is a continued and slightly increasing risk from smaller scale attacks. The smallest scale attacks (1 to 9 casualties) are especially notable because they have reached execution almost 60% of the time. • More than80% of plots from 1995-2012 were foiled due to observations by law enforcement or the general public. • Strong need to maintain good relations with communities that might have contacts with potential terrorists • While Islamists currently pose the largest and most serious threat do not forget about other toxic ideologies. • A strong need to support process management and "quality assurance" so that initial clues are properly pursued and key findings are shared among all investigators. • Manwar Ali: Inside the mind of a former radical jihadist (the Tedtalk guy) • Zak Ebrahim: I am the son of a terrorist. Here's how I chose peace.

Islamist Terrorism

• Most religious terrorist violence today is associated with Muslim extremists who adhere to an ideological/political version of Islam, referred to as Islamists, to distinguish them from the millions of law abiding Muslims. • Historical Christians and Jews have also partaken in these acts. • Roots of Modern Islamic Extremism...Pan-Arab Nationalism (led by President Gamal Abdel Nasser, and advocated for a United Arab Republic) • Secular leftist radicalism...None of these were able to deliver real political reform diffuse economic prosperity or the desired degree of respect from international community • Democracy has no history is this part of the world and the mosques in many ways became the only space in which malcontents/dissidents could operate. (The Shaw example) • Westernization (e.g. Western ideas, culture and values) began to be perceived as anti-Muslim (probably aided by Western support for Israel) The 79 revolution... • The successful use of jihad against USSR in Afghanistan gave the impression that it was successful • Jihad - Sacred Struggle-The greater struggle within each person to do what is right. • The lesser Jihad - duty to wage war to defend Islam against aggressors. • Islamists are pretty expansive in their definition of what constitutes an "attack" on Islam • Islamist terrorist regard their terrorism as a just war • Mujahideen - holy warriors engaged in jihad. • Mujahideen who get killed (martyred) are promised admission to a paradise flowing with milk and honey and peopled with female virgins who are at their disposal. • This can be enticing to people who are unsuccessful in life...

Perpetrators

• Murderous Uncle- Murdered niece because she fell in love with a "foreigner" from a nearby city her family did not approve of and defied her father by eloping with the boy • Police found them and returned the 24 yr old woman to her family who killed her, the boy released and disappeared • Uncle murdered her instead of brother because in killer's words her brother wasn't "man enough" for the job. • Uncle was proud of what he did but not passionate or incensed (evidence these aren't crimes of passion as we understand in the West) • It's our custom, it had to be done (uses culture not religion as his excuse) • Couldn't face the social scorn - we couldn't't have a seat on the village counsel if we didn't kill her. • Calculated effort to terrorize and threaten female family members • "The impact of the killing on the women of our family will last at least 50 years. They'll know that disobeying means death." p. 97

Witnesses in Sharia Law

• Must be able to see, hear and speak. • Cannot be children • Preference for males (a female's testimony is only worth ½ of a male's testimony) • Women always lose he/she said cases • Must be "disinterested" (not family or enemy) • Must be Muslim • Must have good reputation • Confessions Must be voluntary, Must be clear, detailed and unequivocal, corroborated by the facts of the case, Must be made by an adult

Sexuality or Gender Identification...Sexual-Orientation Bias

• Of the 1,248 victims targeted due to sexual-orientation bias: o 56.3 were victims of crimes motivated by their offenders' anti-gay (male) bias. o 24.4 were victims of anti-lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (mixed group) bias. o 13.9 percent were victims of anti-lesbian bias. o 3.8 percent were victims of anti-bisexual bias. o 1.5 percent were victims of anti-heterosexual bias.

The White House

• Office of the Press Secretary • For Immediate Release • February 06, 2015 • Statement by NSC Spokesperson Bernadette Meehan on Zero Tolerance Day for Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (UN sponsored event) • Today marks the twelfth annual International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C). On this occasion, we stand in solidarity with the more than 125 million women and girls alive today who have undergone FGM/C, and we renew the call to end this harmful practice. • As the President stated this past summer, FGM/C is a practice that should be eliminated. It carries grave dangers to physical and mental health, and the U.S. Government considers it to be a serious human rights abuse and a form of gender-based violence. That is why we invest in community-led and holistic programs to eliminate FGM/C and address its harmful effects, including where it persists within immigrant communities in the United States. We will continue and deepen our work to end this practice both here and abroad through support for and communication with affected communities. • We applaud the collective efforts of partner governments, NGOs, and multilateral institutions to combat FGM/C. These efforts have contributed to concrete gains in establishing laws prohibiting FGM/C, reducing prevalence rates, and increasing the numbers of women and men who recognize the practice must end - an important step toward breaking this social norm. • We must work together to strengthen these gains and protect future generations of girls from FGM/C. Today, we renew our call for zero tolerance, once and for all.

Women in Corrections

• Often have children on the outside (80% per Vera institute study) • Some studies suggest that recidivism among female offenders separated from children is higher o Creates significant collateral damage for kids ♣ PTSD, depression, problems in school etc. • Women in jail are mostly black and Hispanic, overwhelmingly poor and low-income (like men). • Are sometimes pregnant o Attachment issues • Inequality between males and females fosters male violence against women and girls. Whenever you encounter a situation of inequality, you should be on the lookout for crimes of violence and exploitation. Also be sensitive to the fact that power inequality can be a mitigating factor in the less-powerful person's criminality (coercion) although women are certainly capable of independent criminality. • Females are over-represented among victims (NCVS 2015) • In 2015, 0.98% of all people's age 12 or older (2.7 million persons) experienced at least one violent victimization • In 2015 the rate of violent victimization for males was 15.9 per 1,000 and for females it was 21.1 per 1,000 (that changes somewhat year to year, in other words there are some years where males have higher victimization rates) • Females are always over represented among victims for some types of offenses. • Vast Majority of Rape/Sexual Assault Victims Are Females Year After Year • About 90% of rape victims known to the police are female (may be a laregr dark figure with male victims) • One in five women and one in 71 men will be raped at some point in their lives (The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey: 2010 summary report). • Females ages 16-19 are 4 times more likely than the general population to be victims of rape, attempted rape, or sexual assault. • Despite media coverage, little girls are more likely to be to be the victims of molestation than little boys. o 1 in 5 girls and 1 in 20 boys is a victim of child sexual abuse. o Campus Climate Survey Validation Study Final Technical Report • The prevalence rate for completed sexual assault experienced by undergraduate females during the 2014-2015 academic year, averaged across the nine schools, was 10.3% and ranged from 4.2% at School 2 to 20% at School 1. • The prevalence of completed sexual assault among undergraduate males during the 2014-2015 academic year ranged from 1.4 & at Schools 2 and 6 to 5.7% at School 5, with a cross-school average rate of 3.1%.

Rojin's story

• Older half-sister Zekiye went and got Rojin and brought her to her home before her brother Huseyin "head of family" got word of it, probably saving her life. • But even she was torn, she recognized that Rojin was a victim but the pregnancy was a threat to the family's reputation and threatened ideas about chastity and female worth that had been drummed into her head since infancy. • "The girl is guilty; she should have told us. She is a stupid, ignorant girl. Why didn't she run away instead of leaving this burden on our shoulders"? • Hinted a discrete abortion would have allowed the family to cover up the sexual assault. • Teenage girl (half niece) said "I hardly know her but can't stand her how could she do such a thing. How could she mess up our family in such a way. She is nothing but filth" • Victim herself begged author for help • Young male members were apparently calling for her blood but Huseyin was convinced by Zekiye not to murder Rojin. • Huseyin said "Girls are guilty, but of course if they are forced it is different". He seemed to be swinging wildly between rage and begrudging understanding. • He cursed her for bringing dishonor on family but recognized that being raped made it not entirely her fault. • Harm to Rojin Not Much of a Concern More Concerned about Failure of Rapist to Adhere to Custom • "If a girl is touched by someone not legitimately entitled to touch her, or who hasn't asked for her father's permission, then we have to kill or we would show lack of strength." • "This is according to our religious law. You have to ask a girl's father first" • Theme: Perpetrators of honor-related violence often see their behavior as religiously motivated even if mainstream adherents to the faith regard the behavior as anti-Muslim and evil. • Abu Abseh, a Jordanian who killed his sister with a paving stone when he found her with a man, spent just four months in prison and thought he was administering God's law, he said. "We are Muslims and in our religion, she had to be executed." NYT, 1999 • Until 2005, rapists in Turkey who married their victims could escape any punishment. • This same "defense" is or was available in many other Muslim majority countries as well, why? • Rojin's rapist originally given a heavier sentence but on appeal was let off with only 20 month • Originally denied sex but when faced with DNA he said she consented • While the family didn't kill her, she was isolated in a bare concrete room devoid of furniture - food was left outside her door - they treated her like an animal. • Nobody would talk to her or even look at her. • Her rapist had a rap sheet for assaulting young women that's how he got his second wife and while the family complained that he was harassing Rojin nobody took steps to protect her. • Harm to Rojin the victim received little or no consideration, primary concern was how this had harmed the family's "honor" and how they could get rid of her. • Found a poor man in a mountainous province near Iraq who was willing to take her because he couldn't afford a bride-price. • Rojin's treatment Highlights the Cultural myth prevalent in patriarachal societies that males protect females - very little empirical evidence that this is actually true. To the contrary, an argument can be made that the safest thing that could happen to women in patriarchal societies is to have everyone Crime data clearly shows that women who are violently victimized against are usually victimized by men (so are male victims).

Why are these cultures so obsessed with female virginity?

• Patrilineal societies • Purity of bloodlines (pre DNA) • Unpolluted womb for their seed

FGM

• Pedophilia/child rape • Some interpretations of Islam hold that Mohammed married a 9-year-old. • Some Muslims repudiate this interpretation but others accept it and act accordingly. • Sexual Assaults • Marital rape not recognized under Islamic law. • FYI wasn't illegal in MO until 1990

Causes of Honor Killings

• Pope says she found • Sexual scandal • Defiance or disobedience • Socially inconvenient • # female lives don't matter • SES differences are significant (can more easily buy palatable solutions or people are more educated and have more enlightened attitudes toward such matters) • She argues many crimes labeled domestic murders or "crimes of passion" in the West could fit broader categories of crime committed in the name of honor • Domestic homicides for perceived infidelity, female desire to leave or otherwise assert control • Domestic violence used to control • "Honor killings have survived because they are the logical conclusion in a social system where women's chastity and obedience are the main currencies and blood ties are usually the social glue holding the community fabric together." p 29 • Honor is Legally a Mitigator (Usually) "Nobody can really want to kill his wife or daughter or sister," said Mohammed Ajjarmeh, chief judge of the High Criminal Court in Jordan. "But sometimes circumstances force him to do this. Sometimes, it's society that forces him to do this, because the people won't forget. Sometimes, there are two victims -- the murdered and the murderer." (1999 NYT) • A Jordanian man found guilty in an honor killing can be sentenced to as little as six months in prison. If the killing is ruled to be premeditated, the minimum penalty is a year. • No similar leniency is offered to a women who kills, even if the circumstances are similar. • Pope found Rumors Are Enough • Found many honor killings occurred because of rumors and innuendo, without proof or even any effort to get proof (Doctors perform virginity checks in this part of the world pretty regularly so such evidence is available) • Pinar (woman killed for taking a job in a nearby city and living with a female roommate, found to be provocation by the judge and reduced murderers (dad and brother's) sentence, Pinar was proved on autopsy to be a virgin) • Older brother's reaction "I told her people were talking. She was warned." • Girl murdered by her grandpa, autopsy also showed no sexual activity, she thought they were going to a Dr to prove her innocence but he just killed her instead. • Born Unequal...Honor crimes take place against a background of widespread prejudice and unequal treatment which Starts at birth and gap widens as children age - Girls treated like servants, boys like princes. • Deliberately render girl's dependent because Girls are deprived of education, Females deprived of any ability to support themselves, and Violence is used in a calculated manner to subjugate women. • Girls are socialized to accept inferior position and honor-based violence. • Even some victims of the attacks said they deserved their fate. "He shouldn't have let me live," said Roweida, 17, who was shot three times by her father after she confessed to an adulterous affair, and, along with dozens of girls with similar stories, is being held for her own protection in a Jordanian prison. "A girl who commits a sin deserves to die."

Zina (Sex offenses)

• Prohibited sexual intercourse- Absent a voluntary confession by the perp, rape victims need 4 male witnesses (or 3 male witnesses and 2 female witnesses) who saw penetration to prove their case. • Rape victims who can't prove their case are now confessed fornicators and can be punished accordingly. • Rape is rarely reported in the Muslim world unless a pregnancy results. • Punishment for all forms of prohibited sexual intercourse is flagellation of not more than 100 lashes except for adultery which can result in stoning, although not all Muslims accept stoning as valid because that comes from the Sunnah whereas flogging is in the Qur'an.

Psychological Causes of terrorism

• Psychological theories focus on individual psychological pathology and/or group dynamics to explain the rise of terrorist groups. • Jury is out on whether terrorists are psychologically pathological - some studies find they are no more likely to have serious psychopathology than the rest of the population but others have found evidence that terrorists are more likely to come from fragmented families, have intense conflict with parents and be failures vocationally and educationally. • Group level psychological theories posit that people who grow up in social milieus characterized by political violence and have a pronounced need to a group can end up defining their social status by group acceptance - the intensity of group dynamics among terrorists which demand unanimity and are intolerant of dissent can create self-perpetuating cycle which rationalizes/encourages ever greater political violence to demonstrate ever greater devotion to the group.

ISIS - Diversity of Opinion

• Recent surveys show that most people in several countries with significant Muslim populations have an unfavorable view of ISIS, including virtually all respondents in Lebanon and 94% in Jordan. • In some countries, considerable portions of the population do not offer an opinion about ISIS, including a majority (62%) of Pakistanis. • Favorable views of ISIS are somewhat higher in Nigeria (14%) than most other nations. Among Nigerian Muslims, 20% say they see ISIS favorably (compared with 7% of Nigerian Christians)

Domestic Violence

• Refers to violence betwn spouses but can also include cohabitants and non-married intimate partners (NCVS deff) • Domestic violence is the willful intimidation, physical assault, battery, sexual assault, and/or other abusive behavior as part of a systematic pattern of power and control perpetrated by one intimate partner against another. It includes physical violence, sexual violence, threats, and emotional or psychological abuse. The frequency and severity of domestic violence varies dramatically. (National Council Against Domestic Violence)

Sex, Gender, Culture, Religion and the CJ System

• Religion is a cultural artifact found pervasively among human societies. • Misogynistic cultures tend to produce misogynistic religions (and perhaps vice versa). • Thus, biological sex is often a focal point of repression in both religion and culture. • Inequitable power distribution based on sex breed crimes of exploitation and oppression which implicates the CJ system. • Anyone Can Be a Criminal • People of any religion and/or culture can be a criminal and commit horrible crimes. • Example: Priest pedophile scandal • While the Church's secrecy helped facilitate assaults, violating children was not normatively endorsed or affirmatively encouraged (at the very least not overtly) by the Church. • Some religions and cultures, however, provide social and normative support for what constitutes criminal conduct in our society • Religion and culture are inextricably intertwined with considerable feedback between the two. Religion shapes culture but culture also shapes religion: • Catholicism in Guatemala as opposed to USA. • Irish wakes etc... • Religion may be one of the most significant manifestations of culture. • Often on the fringes of an otherwise non-criminogenic group i.e. among "fundamentalists" you may find normative and social support for criminal behavior not present in the mainstream group.

Religious Terrorism

• Religious violence tends to be less constrained in terms of scope/scale of violence and choice of weapons than secular violence. • Terrorism in the name of religion has become a primary type of political violence in the modern world • Frequency (happens most) • Scale of violence (worse) • Global reach (more places than others) • Relative decline in secular terrorism • Class conflict, anticolonial liberation, and secular nationalism have been somewhat replaced by virulent sectarian ideologies • Grass roots support for religious violence is most widespread among populations living in repressive societies that do not permit demands for reform or other expressions of dissent

Other Sects

• Salafism (jihadism) is an ideology that posits that Islam has strayed from its origins and calls for re-Islamization. In the form embraced by Al Qaeda and other Islamist terrorists it calls for jihad, the violent imposition of Islam on all peoples. • Wahhabi - very small sect of Islam limited mostly to Saudi Arabia- fundamentalists with an orthodox version of Islam that is extremely sexist and very conservative by American standards. • Just as with Protestants and Catholics a number of theological differences have grown up among the various Muslim sects through the years but they all recognize shari'a

Examples of Islamist Attacks in America

• San Bernardino- American born to Pakistan parents, worked as an environmental health specialist in the SB county health dept., met his Saudi wife online, and went there to marry and bring her home. • Malik his wife expressed servitude towards ISIS and Islam • They killed 14 and wounded many more of Farook's co-workers at a holiday party. • They were killed in a shootout with police subsequent to a vehicle chase. • Abdul Razak Ali Artan (Ohio State Attacker) • A permanent US resident from Somalia studying management logistics. • Intentionally rammed car into pedestrians then jumped out and sashed people with his knife. • Injured 11 people before being shot by a University Police Officer within minutes of the attack.

Female Offenders

• Sex and the CJ System - Perpetrators (UCR 2015) • Women/females are (and always have been in USA) under represented among perpetrators, although that is decreasing a bit. • Example: More than 73% of the people arrested in 2015 in the USA were males. Males accounted for violent crime of persons arrested for violent crime and 61.7% of persons arrested for property crime. • Compare:80% of the persons arrested in the USA during 1995 were males. 85 % of those arrested for violent crimes were male, and 73% of those arrested for property crime arrests were males.

Shari'a is Islamic Law

• Shari'a is a cultural artifact which expresses both a worldview and sense of morality - many modern Muslims do not want to impose it as secular law today but Islamists do. • Islamists want to impose Shari'a on everyone. • Violent efforts to do so are termed jihad (conversion by the sword) • Islamists also use non-violent methods to advance Shari'a. The term "dawa" refers to activities carried out by Islamists to win adherents and enlist them in a campaign to impose sharia law on all societies. • Dawa is a subversion from within, the use of religious freedom in order to undermine that very freedom. • Mix humanitarian outreach with ideological indoctrination to the detriment of women, homosexuals, and people of other faiths.

A first person account from Ayaan Hirsi Ali

• She Grew up in Somalia, Saudi Arabia and Kenya • Raised Muslim • Very Abusive Childhood • African civil wars threatened her life at various points • Sent to Germany to wait to get a visa to Canada so she could join her husband, a Somali immigrant her Dad picked out for her, she escaped and got asylum in Holland. • Became a Dutch Citizen and was elected to parliament but lost her citizenship and position when her lies on her refugee papers were uncovered • She was worried about being tracked by her family so she gave a false name and "adopted" stories re: the civil war. • She is the Author of The Caged Virgin, Infidel, Nomad, Heretic, The Challenge of Dawa Jaha Dukureh (Gambia immigrant and American activist) • Born in Gambia to a wealthy imam with several wives • Subjected to FGM at 1 week of age • Sent to NY for an arranged marriage at age 15 • Had to be surgically opened at a clinic in NYC • Left first husband after a few months, lived with an aunt and uncle, worked in a restaurant and managed to graduate from high school • Agreed to marry again, at 17 she was sent to Atlanta to marry a Gambian immigrant. • Lives in Atlanta with 2nd husband and 3 kids • Started an Atlanta based NGO, Safe Hands for Girls, to help teenage girls living in US who are at risk of being taken back to their family's country of origin for FGM. • Try to intervene and prevent where possible • Provides support services for survivors • Ms Dukureh also does education work in Africa and has had some success • Ms Dukureh has been instrumental in calling for change, spearheaded a successful petition on change.org and is often credited with bringing the issue of FGM to the Obama administration's attention

Empirical Assessment of Domestic Radicalization (EADR)

• Significant differences in background characteristics, group affiliations, and radicalization processes exist across the ideological milieus. • Radicalization of those on the far left and jihadist ideologies often occur in young adulthood but those on the far right often radicalize in older adulthood • Most extremist come from middle class backgrounds but not all are violent • Stable employment appears to decrease the risk that individuals with extreme views will engage in violent behaviors. Stable employment often leads to the development of positive social relationships and places demands on individuals' time that depress extremist activities. • Despite an increase in lone actor behavior in the U.S., radicalization remains a distinctly social process. Group and clique membership rates remain high across the ideological spectrum. Group/clique affiliation is linked to increased violent behaviors (group think, in/out group). • Check out the Heritage Foundation (Conservative think-tank) maintains a database of Islamist terror plots and attacks since 9/11)

The Concept of Honor (namus)

• Some noted Honor is fragile and imposes heavy duty. • The Characteristics of an Honorable (namuslu) Man • Most married so most answered by reference to an honorable married man. 3 groups of responses • Obeys norms governing male-female interactions and does not go after someone else's wife, daughter or sister in a way that would damage the other guy's namus • Characteristics of an honorable woman (namuslu kadın) • Most married so most answered by reference to an honorable married woman. • Doesn't leave the house without husband's permission or let unrelated men in her house • Takes care of her children. • Modest, never flirtatious • Honest • Dishonorable attributes for men and women were essentially a negative mirror of the honorable attributes. • Any behavior by a woman not in accord with these notions of honor could motivate HRV or killing. • What factors do you take into account, or how do you decide whether a woman's behavior is honorable or dishonorable • Parents and/or grandparent's opinions (3) • Religion (4) • Cultural mores (3) • Majority of these convicted honor criminals searched for evidence to confirm suspicions before they acted • While IPV and HBV share a commonality in that men in both of these types of crimes are trying to use violence to control a woman and prop up their own sense of masculinity there are also significant differences: • This is quite different from honor killing defendants, where the defendant felt ashamed at the conduct of the female relative. • What Theory did the author find helpful in explaining honor killings? o Appeal to higher loyalties - I did it for my family o Condemnation of the condemners - Rejecters may be described as lacking in honor or manliness, or dismissed as a "pimp," or "cuckold" or "tramp" • Contrasted with Neutralization Techniques Employed By Men Who Commit "Western Style" Gender Violence/Murder • It was out of character, an exceptional event • Denial of the victim. Justify by reference to her failure to do housework, child care or maintain appearance • Suggests that males in honor cultures may have particularly precarious mental health and suggests that some of the behavior shown by the defendants in this study soon after the killing might be regarded as indicating poor mental health, or the behavior pattern of a person who is not master of his mind or in control of his behavior.

Omar Mateen

• Son of Afghan immigrants • Carried out the deadliest terrorist attack since 9/11- 49 dead and 53 wounded • During calls with police negotiator from the club, Mateen pledged allegiance to ISIS and blamed his murder spree on the American bombings of Muslim countries. • He was shot and killed by SWAT during ensuing gun battle at the club • His wife was arrested and charged with obstruction of justice • Allege she knew of plans but also evidence she was abused but found not guilty in March...

Types of Terrorism

• State - terrorism by government actors against civilian enemies real or perceived - e.g., the "disappeared" in Latin America, Quasi-Government backed Hutu slaughter of Tutsi in Rwanda. • Dissident - terrorism from disaffected nonstate movements and groups against the government, ethno-national groups and other perceived enemies e.g. IRA against the Brits, Weathermen (a far le​ft terrorist group in the US in the 1960s). • Religious - terrorism motivated by b​elief that an otherworldly power has sanctioned if not commanded the application of terrorist violence for the greater glory of the faith and/or deity. • International - terrorism that spills out onto the world stage usually because targets of symbolic value which affect international interests have been hit.

Causes of Terrorism

• Structural theories of revolution emphasize that weaknesses in state structures encourage political revolution, thus governments beset by economic or military crises are vulnerable to challenges by insurgents as are governments whose policies anger and alienate elites within the society. • Relative deprivation -when a group's rising expectations are met with sustained oppression revolt may ensue. • Absolute deprivation - when people are unable to get the necessities of life revolution may ensue as truly desperate people have nothing to lose.

Kinds of Muslims

• Sunni - 80%-90% • Shi'te (shia) -10%-20% • Sunnis and Shias are the two primary subgroups of Islam, just as Catholics and Protestants are two subgroups within Christianity. • With the exception of a few countries, including Iran (which is majority Shia) as well as Iraq and Lebanon (which are split), most nations with a large number of Muslims have more Sunnis than Shias. • In the US, 65% identify as Sunnis and 11% as Shias (with the rest identifying with neither group, including some who say they are "just a Muslim"). • The Sunni-Shia divide is nearly 1,400 years old, dating back to a dispute over the succession of leadership in the Muslim community following the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632. • Sunnis followed Abu Bakr a companion but not a blood relative while (Shia) thought leadership should stay in Muhammad's bloodline and wanted his cousin Abu Talib to succeed him.

Tamerlan and Dzhokhar Tsarnaev

• The Boston Marathon terrorist brothers • USSR ex-civilians... older brother was the problem for the most part... became abusive to wife... was shot by police and younger brother hid but was sentenced to death! • Ethnic Chechens, the family emigrated to the US in 2002. Dzhokhar became American citizens in 2012 • Both attended a prestigious high school in Cambridge. Dzhokhar the younger brother seemed to be popular and successful. Older brother Tamerlan had problems fitting in. He reportedly changed at some point and became attracted to Muslim extremism and abusive toward his wife.

Sex, Gender and the CJ System

• The Difference Between Biological Sex And Gender (Terms Are Sometimes Used Interchangeably) Sex • Biological sex (XX or XY chromosomes, a few babies have chromosomal abnormalities like XYY) • Includes other physical attributes such as external genitalia, sex chromosomes, sex hormones, and internal reproductive structures. At birth, it is used to assign sex, that is, to identify individuals as male or female. Gender • Social construction of sex as lived in a particular society (girls wear dresses and boys cant...) • It is the complex interrelationship between an individual's biological sex, one's internal sense of self as male or female which usually (but not always) matches one's sex (gender identity) as well as one's outward presentations and behaviors (gender expression) usually culturally mandated involving gender roles and other socially prescribed attributes of approved expressions of sex. CJ system usually treats people, at least officially, on the basis of biological sex (although that may change as transgender and other gender minorities gain legal standing to sue for changes)

Extremism

• The holding of intense, unyielding and radical political or religious views; fanaticism. • The advocacy of extreme measures or views. • Extremism is a precursor to terrorism- overarching belief system used to justify violent behavior • It is the primary catalyst and motivation for terror • Common Characteristics of Violent Extremists • Intolerance • Everyone who doesn't agree with them is wrong and evil. • Moral absolutists- Everything is black and white, they don't do gray very well. • Broad conclusions • Simplify the goals of the cause and the nature of the opponents. • Usually directed at soft targets- civilians not really police or military... • Intended to affect (terrorize) a target audience. • Working Definition for this Class- Terrorism is a premeditated and unlawful act in which groups or individuals engage in a threatened or actual use of force or violence against human or property targets with the intention of purposeful intimidation of govs or people to affect policy or behavior with an underlying political, religious, or ideological objective...

De-infibulation at the Time of Marriage

• The opening up of the infibulation often occurs as part of a ceremony and in the presence of female members from the bride and groom's families to verify that the bride is a virgin at the time of marriage. • Female community member • Occasionally medical personnel • The husband may cut her open with a knife or forcibly penetrate and bursts through the scar of the infibulation on wedding night • Supports patriarchy, subordinate's women to men and generally supports a culture of male dominance • Author in Slapping the Hand suggests that FGM so seriously compromises women's health that it constitutes a human rights violation. • Argues that international human rights standards should be enforced irrespective of cultural norms (universalism) and that women in these cultures do not have a real choice about undergoing FGM. What would someone who believes in cultural relativism say? regarding the beliefs, values, and practices of a culture from the viewpoint of that culture itself... if the culture is okay with it than we should be too? • What Western practices with regard to women might be analogized to FGM- Breast implants or circumcision... • FGM occurs in the US primarily in immigrant communities. • 18 U.S.C.A. § 116 provides in pertinent part: whoever knowingly circumcises, excises, or infibulates the whole or any part of the labia majora or labia minora or clitoris of another person who has not attained the age of 18 years shall be fined under this title or imprisoned not more than 5 years, or both. • A 2012 amendment bans "vacation cutting" • Dr. Jumana Nagarwala is awaiting trial in federal court for 2 counts of FMG - She is claiming a religious practice defense • U.S. Data on FGM- A large-scale study of FGM in the U.S. was released by the African Women's Health Center at Brigham and Women's Hospital in 2004 and found more than 227,000American women were at risk of or had undergone FGM.

Nature of the Terrorist Threat to the U.S. Homeland

• There were 150 plots over the 18-year period of the study • Islamist (including Islamist inspired) 38% • White Supremacist- 20% • Militia/Anti-Government 17% of plots • Other 25% (e.g. antiabortion, anti-Muslim, Leftist, Rightist etc.) • Biggest increase overtime tho pertains to the Islamists (current and biggest terrorist problem) • Important Findings • An increase in 100-1000 causality plots (actual or projected casualties for foiled plots) • Catastrophic plots (1000+) cluster between 1999-2006 • Five of the six 1,000+ casualty plots were Islamist • From 1995 to 2001 only 31% of plots were foiled. Following 9/11 attacks, from 202thru 2012, 80% of plots were foiled. On average, the percent of plots reaching execution declined by 3.42 percentage points per year while the total number of foiled plots increased by 0.433 per year. The total number of plots reaching execution declined by 0.21 per year, despite the overall increase in plots. • Since 2006 no evidence of any attempt catastrophic attacks (1000t) • Single actor plots accounted for 47% of the total plots • Small scale plots (1-9 victims) reach execution 60% of the time. • Usually involve single actors or a few individuals and little pre-operational planning. • Efforts of informants or undercover agents, often through solicitation over the Internet, are most helpful with these "lone wolf" cases. • Intelligence efforts only generated initial clues in about 14% of the plots. • Agents and informants were still the single largest source of clues of foiled plots. Most of these discoveries were from in-person investigative work; there were a few cases in which would-be terrorists solicited agents and informants online. • Identifying associations with known suspects was the second largest source of clues. Examples included making suspicious communications, being roommates, and participating in meetings associated with terrorist planning. Investigating prior terrorist activity (typically smaller-scale activity) also helped identify perpetrators who were planning future attacks. • From 1995 to 2012, of initial clues leading to foiling plots (e.g., extremist rants reported by hearers, smuggling-like behavior, paramilitary training) • Unsolicited tips from the public that someone was engaged in terrorism and inadvertent discovery during other law enforcement activity tied for 4th • Discoveries that became initial clues leading to terror plots have five themes in common— they were

The Relational Theory of Women's Psychological Development: Implications for the Criminal Justice System

• Thesis of this article is that the CJ system, especially the correctional system, needs systemic change that permits gender responsive programs/ approaches for dealing with female offenders. • it is important to recognize equality does not mean "sameness." Equality is not about providing the same programs, treatment and opportunities for girls and boys. . . . Equality is about providing opportunities that mean the same to each gender. • Attachment: a culture of belonging • Containment: a culture of safety • Communication: a culture of openness • Involvement: a culture of participation and citizenship • Agency: a culture of empowerment

T.A.S.C.S

• Threatening: The activity has a clear relationship ("nexus") to an aspect of terrorism or "ordinary" but serious crime. Note that this does not have to relate to a specific plot— traveling overseas to get paramilitary training from a terrorist group constitutes being "threatening." • Atypical: Common, benign explanations for the reported behavior are highly unlikely. • Significant: The behavior reflects genuine commitment. • Credible: The report appears to be reliable. • Specific: The report is detailed.

Hasham

• Voluntary submission or deference is honorable for dependents like women in Bedouin society (Arab trial society). Women who obey only because of coercion or lack of choice (no male kin to intercede for her) are not honorable.

Islam as Progressive Reform

• Was veiling and segregation a patriarchal reaction to the feminist revolution inherent in [some of] Muhammad's teachings? For those days, it was. • Rapid social change can be perceived as a threat and may lead to greater repression of women. Points to evidence that Iraqi Kurdistan experienced increases in honor murders and FGM post-Gulf War. • Forced Marriage of Westerners - Girls are Forced to Return to Family's Nation of Origin and Marry • Brits have laws in place making it illegal and giving judges discretion to prevent parents from taking daughters out of UK • After removal, British consulates will intercede to get girls out of country and help them get a divorce if necessary • U.S. Department of State indicates forced marriage is a violation of human right and international law and offers assistance but the U.S. lags behind U.K. in addressing this issue.

Honor and the Virtues of Autonomy from Veiled Sentiments

• While Bedouins value equality in theory they live in a rigidly hierarchical and unequal society • Old versus young • Rich versus poor • Male versus female • Hierarchal relationships of domination and submission are rationalized/justified by belief that these statuses are tied to moral worthiness or "honor" not just brute force or power. E.g., women are forced to be dependent and this dependence is seen as moral weakness and used to legitimize inequality. • Honor entails reciprocal obligations - the one with power is supposed to take care of and protect the one without power and in return the powerless one defers to the powerful one. • Abu-Lughod seems to suggest that women in conservative Muslim societies accept beatings and other forms of violent opression as normal or even desirable, thus Western insistence on human rights for all is a form of cultural imperialism.

Killer Mothers

• While being the primary murderer is rare, women are often accomplices and/or offer "evidence" against the accused before family or tribal "court". Occasionally • Why would women participate in misogynistic violence? • Trying to protect own lives or positions in the community • Post-menopausal mothers of sons have some status but its bestowed and regulated by men • Fear they will be next • Recognize that challenging it would be futile and by going along they deflect abuse and gain some small measure of power • Decide to sacrifice one child to protect others • They have been brainwashed or have otherwise bought in to the whole "honor" thing • Get some psychic reward from subjecting others to the violence and abuse they have suffered - akin to "fraternity hazing" • Analogous to Stockholm Syndrome • Similarly, inexplicable allegiance to the oppressor has been reported in other contexts as well. • House v Field Slaves- Forced Suicides= Staged • Get victim to do it herself • One brother says of his abducted sister who had called their home once asking to be rescued that he in order not to kill his sister and possibly mess up his own plans for an education and a better life hoped and prayed she would commit suicide because it was his only chance not to go to jail. • Religion Tradition and Patriarchy • Pope Asks: Is Islam itself the root of the cause of women's stifled lifestyles or is religion merely offering a convenient cover for patriarchal cultural practices?

Women as Employees of the CJ System

• Women in Policing- Started out as matrons and assigned to deal with kids and prostitutes mostly • In 1968, the Indianapolis P.D. made history by assigning the first two female officers to patrol on an equal basis with males. • Women today make up only about 13 percent of the force, sworn officers. (COPS office) • First female correctional officer was appointed, at New York's Sing Sing prison in 1822. • In 2008, 14% of Bureau of Prisons officers were female • According to the American Correctional Association's September 30, 2007 report on Adult Correctional Personnel by Gender and Race, women represented 37% of state adult correctional personnel (excludes federal prison personnel) and 51% of juvenile corrections personnel. • Underrepresentation increases as you move up the ranks in corrections too. • Census of State and Federal Adult Correctional Facilities (latest available 2005) • Lawyers and Judges (Courts) • According to the National Association of Criminal Defense lawyer, women make up just over 20% of NACDL members.

Qiyas

• analogical reasoning occurs at lower levels of society on a daily basis and is only binding on a case-by-case basis. Taking a recognized ruling on one set of facts and applying it to another set of facts. Comparable to use of precedent in Western legal systems.

Do Muslim Women Need Saving?

• argues honor killing has been politicized and used to • Stigmatize the Muslim world and its culture as uncivilized and misogynistic. • Establish the superiority of cultural values associated with liberalism and the West (autonomy, individualism and sexual freedom) • Justify military intervention - bringing human rights to the Muslim world especially Muslim women. • Justify elites in the Muslim world forcefully intervening in the lives of less modern/enlightened countrymen through police and social workers. • She stresses that honor killing is quite rare and asserts it is best conceived of as another species of domestic violence not a distinctly "Muslim" phenomenon.

Victim Blaming

• begrudgingly conceded that the fact that she was raped made it not entirely her fault, a lot of blame was placed on her for being raped. • Victim blaming happens in West too • Honor and Shame • Honor is for men, shame for women - honor murder restores male honor and maintains patriarchal social structures. • Women's sexuality is/was designated as property of men (dad or husband), virginity is economically valuable property. • Arranged marriages are commercial transactions - Women's sexuality is a commodity to be bought sold, valuable property to father or husband. • Practice of trading sexual assaults or monetary compensation to men for an assault on his female "property."

'Serer'

• honor that accumulates from a man's own accomplishments and successes. Again, this type of honor may be more a domain of the rich, powerful and older adults, since they may have more opportunities to amass this type of honor

Collective Efficacy

• involves communities employing informal control processes to prevent crime, as well as to curb social and physical disorder. • Honor crimes are an extreme manifestation of collective efficacy in Eastern societies and among immigrants from these societies to the West.

Ihima (Consensus)

• when primary sources of law are silent, agreement of the Muslim community is sufficient (one hadith says my community will not agree on error thus providing the rationale for making consensus a source of law). In practice, consensus means agreement among the most respected male Islamic scholars (highest echelons of Islamic society and occurs rarely).

United Effort Plan

Trust held all property and other assets FLDS church estimated value was 100-200 million. ¥ Jeffs treated it as his money. ¥ Trust dismantled as a result of civil suits. ¥ Lost fraud, tax evasion, and other financial crimes associated with FLDS operation of the UEP. ¥ It also allowed Jeffs to deprive "enemies" of their homes and reassign to loyal followers.

Lost Boys

became obvious problems for the state. ¥ Rachel Jeffs (oldest daughter of Warren's 2nd wife, Barbara Barlow) ¥ Sexually assaulted from her dad from 8 ¥ Married off to Richard Allred as his 3rd wife on a couple of days' notice when she was 18 and he was 25 (he was one of Warren and Rulon's security guards and she barely knew him) ¥ Left FLDS in 2015 after incarcerations in repenteous house and being locked away from family ¥ She believes some of this abuse was because she told her husband and a couple of other people about Warren's sexual abuse. ¥ Was helped by her mother's family (part of the Centennial group of polygamists who split from FLDS years earlier) and 2 sisters who left shortly before she did.

Abu-Lughod dubs this the code of modesty (hasham)

conformity to sexual norms is just a part (both being willful and promiscuous is forbidden/dishonorable for females).

Police Department Corrupted

¥ Local police dept. was all FLDS and they helped smuggle Jeffs in and out to perform under aged marriages while he was on the run. ¥ Many Colorado City peace officers were ultimately decertified by the state.

Criminogenic Beliefs of the FLDS

¥ Racial purity (no dark skin) ¥ Girls or women who become involved with minorities are targeted for death. ¥ Bleeding the beast ¥ Welfare fraud, embezzlement of public school funds ¥ During Jeffs tenure ¾ of those in Colorado City received food stamps. ¥ Keep sweet, can't say no ¥ Marital rape ¥ Other crimes of exploitation ¥ Shut up and look pretty ¥ Winston Blackmore in BC ¥ Canadian Branch of FLDS, when Winston fell out of favor with Jeffs down in the Crick, he was booted as the leader. ¥ This caused a schism with some remaining loyal to Blackmore. ¥ He participated I and performed underage marriages. ¥ Exploited young males in his logging company and construction business for monetary gains. ¥ Used ability to place wives to control males as Jeffs did. * Male prerogative to dominate females or to teach about sex ¥ Pedophilia ¥ Incest ¥ Misogynist attitude toward women ¥ End girls education after about 5th grade in violation of compulsory education laws ¥ Plural marriage (only polygamy not polyandry) ¥ Polygamy crime but usually only legally marry the 1st wife ¥ Math problem leads to: ¥ Lost boys- didn't have a wife assigned to them because all the girls were married off to older men...

Project S.A.RA.H (STOP ABUSIVE RELATIONSHIPS AT HOME)

¥ Started in New Jersey, it's a targeted response to domestic violence for the Orthodox Jewish Community. ¥ Works with Rabbis and offers women culturally and religiously appropriate/acceptable help. ¥ Emphasizes interpretations of Jewish law to prohibit all abuse between spouses ¥ Uses supportive rabbis and social workers who are familiar if not actually orthodox themselves ¥ Tries to offer in-home and healing services for women not willing to take the secular conventional advice to leave. ¥ Perpetrators may be within the family or family may otherwise not support the victim's efforts to get help due to social pressure or beliefs. ¥ Reporting sexual assault in particular may have grave consequences for the victim in her community (discretion/confidentiality is imperative). ¥ Be aware of these vics may be less forthcoming, especially if you are male. ¥ Should be on the lookout for evidence and may need to gently inquire or otherwise bring up the topic (without assuming it's a problem). Avoid confrontational tactics. ¥ Especially important to speak with potential vics away from suspect and other family members. ¥ How might you get evidence necessary to move against a criminally involved religious group? Best Practices ¥ Protecting all vics should be a top priority ¥ If they do seek help or if the circumstances otherwise warrant it be prepared to take necessary steps to assure their safety (examples: arrest perp, take victims into protective custody, make referrals to culturally appropriate support for adult victims) ¥ With serious matters you need to enforce the law but avoid gratuitous humiliation or cultural or religious disapproval or shaming... ¥ Look for culturally sensitive domestic violence service providers in your jurisdictions before you need them so you can make appropriate referrals. ¥ S.A.R.A.H. ¥ The Muslim Advocacy Network Against Domestic Violence (MANADV) ¥ Asian Pacific Institute on Gender Based Violence ¥ Some local Christian churches may have pastors who run programs in their church.

RELIGIOSITY, CHRISTIAN FUNDAMENTALISM, AND INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE AMONG U.S. COLLEGE STUDENTS

¥ Survey data were gathered from a sample of undergraduates (N = 626). ¥ Independent variables were religiosity and Christian fundamentalism ¥ Dependent variables measured violence approval, psychological aggression, and intimate partner violence. ¥ General religiosity (measured as belief in God, strength of religious faith, church attendance, and frequency of prayer), was not associated with violence approval, psychological aggression, or intimate partner violence. ¥ Christian fundamentalism was positively associated with both violence approval and acts of intimate partner violence, but not psychological aggression.

American Orthodox Jewish Women and Domestic Violence

¥ Very patriarchal and like other patriarchal religions, it can provide support for abuse among some adherents. ¥ Examples in Jewish Law ¥ Halakha dictates that women are not allowed to engage in religious leadership roles. ¥ Tzniut dictates rules of modesty and relations between men and women and includes a number of prohibitions concerning being alone with unrelated males, singing where men might hear, etc. ¥ Physical contact between husband and wife is required; it is the man's duty to have intercourse with his wife, and she is prohibited from refusing him.

Yearn for Zion Ranch

¥ When things got Hot in Utah and Arizona, Jeffs relocated FLDS headquarters from "the Crick" to El Dorado Texas and built Yearn for Zion Ranch. ¥ 2008 young girl called authorities from inside reporting various attrocities against women and girls. ¥ In April, law enforcement raided the ranch and removed 438 children who were eventually returned to parents.

CHILD BRIDES, INEGALITARIANISM, AND THE FUNDAMENTALIST POLYGAMOUS FAMILY IN THE UNITED STATES

¥ Women must be sealed to a man to get to heaven and there arent enough righteous men to go around. ¥ Freedom of religion ¥ sexual privacy (as defined by the recent case of Lawrence v. Texas and since she wrote Obergefell v. Hodges) ¥ Contractualism ¥ Fundamentalist polygamy violates liberal motions of self-chosen love, equal partners, sexual integrity, and voluntary of children ¥ The patriarchal nature of plural Fundamentalists families and communities undercuts the public's legitimate interest in promoting an appreciation for justice, equality, and liberty among society's youngest members. ¥ A just family structure is essential to a just society thus we have a interest in prohibiting inequitable family practices. Her Conclusion ¥ The impact of the fundamentalist polygamous lifestyle on the ¥ Autonomy (sexual and otherwise) ¥ Bodily integrity, and ¥ Equality of adult women and children ¥ is sufficiently troubling that lifting the sanction on plural marriage runs counter to basic considerations of justice in a free society and should not be done. ¥ Biblical Battered Wife Syndrome: Christian Women and Domestic Violence ¥ Findings ¥ Wifely submission and male headship and centrality of male authority throughout mainstream evangelical culture provide the theological underpinnings of wife abuse. ¥ Women as completers of men ¥ Complementarianism (subordinate's women) versus mainstream egalitarian (equality between spouses) views ¥ Documents lots of vics blaming among evangelicals ¥ Church counseling too often gives equal credence to abusers complaints about "kitchen failures" and focuses on reunification to the exclusion of women's safety. ¥ Fundamentalist women tend to stay in abusive relationships longer. ¥ Points to need for biblical justification to leave ¥ As in other contexts, unequal power leads to crimes of violence and exploitation especially Physical and sexual abuse ¥ a practice that advocates husbands asserting dominance over their wives using corporal punishment. This is Criminal assault.

THE Kingston GROUP

¥ wear conventional clothes but involved in same sex offenses ¥ John Daniel Kingston was sentenced to 28 weeks in jail for beating a 17-year-old daughter who refused to submit to a marriage to her uncle. ¥ Jeremy Ortell Kingston was sentenced to a year in jail for marrying and having sex with 15 yro cousin ¥ David Ortell Kingston was sentenced to the Utah State Prison for up to 10 years for committing incest with the 16-year-old niece who became his 15th wife. ¥ Three sisters who left the sect are the stars of a reality television show called "Escaping Polygamy."