Music 105 test 1

william billings

- 1746-1800 - Published The New-England Psalm-Singer, or American Chorister (1770) - Musical originality far out-stripped Lyon's Urania - Contained 127 original compositions - First published collection of entirely American music and the first American tunebook devoted wholly to works by one composer - Collection reflects changes in New England culture tied to the coming Revolutionary War and strikes an aggressively American note, celebrating Billings's patriotic sympathies; Paul Revere even engraved the collection's frontispiece. - Titles of tunes reference Boston and surrounding towns - Collection's introduction also offers an unusual personal glimpse of the composer himself. - Billings seems to have been a self-taught musician and his music, though clearly reflecting his talent, also reflects a lack of polish. - Listening Guide 1.4, "Chester" (William Billings) - Billings's second tunebook was The Singing Master's Assistant (1778)

alexander reinagle

- 1756-1809 - English born composer and performer - Composed and arranged music for home use - Gabe lessons to singers and plauers - Involved himself in the distribution of music - Plugged the work of london instrument builders - Worked with john aitken to publish music - 1787: Reinagle (immigrated to America in spring 1786) published the first American-issued sheet music in Philadelphia. - Published sixteen items with no competition for the next five years - 1793: Publishers in New York, Boston, and Baltimore began to produce sheet music, initiating the music publishing trade in the United States. - Reinagle's early activity indicates that the American music business in the mid-1780s was still so rudimentary that one musician could take on almost the whole enterprise alone. - Piano Sonata no. 1 - "America, Commerce, and Freedom" - In Reinagle's two compositions can be seen the divided heritage of composing as an occupation in the United States.

indian movement

- American Indian population after the Civil swiftly declined in the face of war, disease, and poverty. - Indian American cultures since 1830: crisis and renewal ----Initial hardships through European contact ----Post-Civil War, most thought Indian Americans were headed for extinction (only 300,000 alive in 1865) ----Much of reduction was due to U.S. policy ----Indian Removal Act (1830) ----Forcible move to reservations during Westward expansion ----Citizenship granted by the Fourteenth Amendment excluded American Indians ----General Allotment Act (1878) ----86 million acres of former lands lost by 1890s ----Boarding schools for American Indian children beginning in 1878; assimilation ----Plains Indian Wars (1830-90) --------Numerous battles --------Massacres ----1924 Indian Citizenship Act ----1934 Indian Reorganization Act ----1940 Nationality Act - Indian American Music: the challenges to historians ---- Efforts at preservation in the 1800s ----Three factors skew the historical records: --------Incompleteness of the surviving data --------Difference between music in its natural habitat and outside it (transcriptions) --------Contrast between native and --------non-native perceptions of Indian American ways -------Early writers on American Indian music --------Nineteenth century saw a significant increase in the quantity and quality of American Indian ethnography: writings about all aspects of American Indian cultures. Second half of century saw two diverging treatments of Indian American life: Sensational and distorted portrayals presented in popular culture More substantive work of scholars who brought anthropological methods to the study of music Lewis Cass Henry Rowe Schoolcraft George Copway Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, The Song of Hiawatha (1855) Poem's popularity and staying power make it the central source for understanding how Americans in the eastern half of the continent viewed Indian Americans from the mid-nineteenth century on. American Indian ethnography after 1865 Latter 1800s witnessed two new attitudes among white Americans: One, connected to show business and popular entertainment, trivialized indigenous cultures. Show business Native Americans E.g., parodies of Hiawatha standard fare "Buffalo Bill's Wild West" traveling circuslike event Another was a scientific interest in American Indian life, rooted in idealistic curiosity and requiring trained workers and institutional funding 1879 formation of the Bureau of Indian Ethnology at the Smithsonian Institute in Washington Theodore Baker, On the Music of the North American Indians (1882) Alice C. Fletcher and scholarly field methodology Francis La Flesche collaboration The Omaha Tribe (1911) Intonation John Comfort Fillmore and ethnocentric views on Western and non-Western harmonic relationships Influence on her Study of Omaha Indian Music (1893) Burgeoning ethnomusicology field (which wouldn't gain a foothold in academia until the 1950s) transformed by Thomas A. Edison's cylinder phonographic machine Frances Densmore Collected recordings of more than two-thousand tribal songs for fifty years Listening Guide 9.1: "A Buffalo Said to Me" (Tatan Ka-Ohi Tika, Brave Buffalo) Issues of early recording history Gapped scale

John Sullivan Dwight

- Ardent music lover who's interest in philosophy combined with a passion for german poetry. - Helped pave the way for regular performances of classical instrumental music - Later would become Boston's foremost music critic - 1838: published an English translation of Goethe and Schiller poem - "A language of feeling" - Institutional support from the Boston Academy of Music - Audiences for classical music grew steadily after Beethoven's first performance.

second new england school

- Late 1800s native New England composers: John Knowles Paine George W. Chadwick Arthur Foote Horatio Parker Amy Cheney Beach Edward MacDowell (New York-born) (Theodore Thomas) - Chadwick and "The Boys" Many were also performers, directors, or teachers in their own right. Chadwick is the most well-known today—his music having enjoyed the greatest revival. Trained at: New England Conservatory Leipzig Conservatory Munich (Josef Rheinberger) Eventually joined the faculty at New England Conservatory As a composer, at home with European genres but approached them through an American sensibility Incorporated distinctly non-German traits in composition: Fondness for pentatonic and other gapped scales African-Caribbean dance syncopations Musical sensitivity to the characteristic rhythms of English lyrics The American style Chadwick helped to invent found its niche, especially in emergent Hollywood film.

Lowell Mason

- Mason was the most important musical reformer in American history and stands as a key figure in music's development not only in American churches but also in American public schools. - Known as the "father" of public school music - Approached sacred music with a commercial, entrepreneurial spirit, recognizing that edification could be big business by exploiting the common ground between religion and free institutions - Mason as hymnodist ----Source material in Sacred Melodies from Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven ----Scientific music ----Sponsored by Boston's Handel and Haydn Society ----The Boston Handel and Haydn Society Collection of Church Music (1822) ----Left a banking career at age thirty-five to center his career on music ----Composed more than 1,100 hymn tunes ----Line between tunes he composed and those he merely arranged is not always clear ----"Antioch" ("Joy to the world") and Handel's "Lift up your heads" from the Messiah - Mason as teacher of children ----Grasped the advantages of teaching young children to sing before their taste was formed ----Ca. 1830, he formed the earliest known singing school for children, which he taught free of charge ----1833: helped to found the Boston Academy of Music, aiming to introduce vocal music into the public schools ----1838: Boston school board declared vocal music a regular school subject ----Pedagogy models in William Woodbridge and Johann Heinrich ------Pestalozzi - Mason as businessman ----Seems to have been the first American musician who made a substantial profit from his musical work ----Teaching and distributing music were the keys to his financial success and his widespread influence - Mason and the hymnody of Northern revivalism ----Northern revivalism left a mark on two tunebooks of 1831: --------Joshua Leavitt's The Christian Lyre, which was the first American tunebook to take the form of the modern hymnal --------Thomas Hastings and Lowell Masons' Spiritual Songs for Social Worship ----Unlike foregoing publications, these two texts were intended for worshiping congregations, not singing schools or other musical societies. ----Listening Guide 3.3: "Olivet" (Mason) - Mason's rivals, collaborators, and legacy ----Thomas Hastings ----Students of Mason --------William B. Bradbury, The Young Choir (1841) --------George Frederick Root

Louis Moreau Gottshalk

- Most famous of the first significant American composers of instrumental music in the classical tradition - Relied upon his Creole background for artist expression ----Born in 1829 the son of an English-Jewish father and a mother who was culturally French by way of Haiti ----Raised Roman Catholic ----Lived in a home where blacks and whites mingled freely ----Known for bringing indigenous themes and rhythms into concert hall music - Gottschalk and his music ----Influenced by diverse, active music atmosphere of New Orleans ----Started piano lessons at age three; also learned to play violin Musical education in France at age thirteen ----1852: returned to America to concertize ----Listening Guide 5.2: "The Banjo: An American Sketch" (Gottschalk) - Gottschalk and the classics ----Artistry rooted in the sound of the piano ----Believed that critics who championed the classics placed living composers, especially Americans, at a disadvantage ----Very much aware of the issues associated with those defined classic works ----Felt a preoccupation with the classics threatened musical diversity - Gottschalk's later career ----Spent more than half of the time between his return from Europe and his death in 1869 in the Caribbean ----Maintained an active touring schedule ----Performed eighty-five concerts in four and a half months ----No other American-born musician of the 1800s matched Gottschalk's impact ----Legacy poses a challenge for historians and students of American music --------There is no denying the wide swath that he cut in the international musical life of the 1850s, 1860s, and later. --------Yet he is not widely performed nowadays, when the repertory of the concert hall and the teaching studio is often assumed to render the true verdict on musical quality. --------His dismissal may have more to do with historical fashion than with the worth of his music.

characteristics of a march

- Steady beat - Regular phrase structure - Repeated sections - 4 bar intro followed by two repeated strains (AABB) often 16 bars each. Then trio (new key) third strain. Then fourth strain in key of third strain or full band - Intro| AABB| (transition) CCDD

form of a long march

- Trio melody leads into a contrasting break strain (dogfight) - Singing melody retyrns - Pass through break strain - Melody - Intro| AABB| CDCDC

National Peace Jubilee

- boston, 1869 - Patrick s gilmore, bandmaster who believed band wasnt just for military - Orchestra of 500, band of 1000, chorus of 10,000 - 5 day span - Various concerts: symphonic music, oratorio excerpts, band music, singing of schoolchildren

Classical, popular, tradition music

- classical= The realm of musical activity built around composers' music: music embodied in written scores, which performing musicians strive to play and sing as the notation directs so that the artistic substance fashioned by the composer is translated into sound; cf. popular sphere, traditional sphere. (page 110). - popular sphere= The realm of musical activity associated with performers' music: music that, sketched in outline form by the composer, invites performers to use the original composition as a starting point, singing and playing it as they choose, with accessibility to particular audiences as their primary goal; cf. classical sphere, traditional sphere. - Traditional sphere: The realm of musical activity connected with particular customs and ways of life, relying on oral transmission and preserved as "folk music" in the name of cultural continuity; cf. classical sphere, popular sphere.

songster

- printed collection of song texts, usually without music - the leader in a ring shout

Shape notes and solmization

...A system of notation in which shaped noteheads indicate scale degrees. The practice in singing of assigning a particular syllable to each scale degree

Ballads

1. A narrative song in strophic form. 2. A popular song in medium or slow tempo with lyrics expressing a romantic sentiment.

burlesque

1. In the 1800s, an onstage parody of a familiar stage work such as an opera. 2. In the twentieth century, a stage entertainment emphasizing low comedy and female display.

Psalmody

1. The practice of singing psalms in worship. 2. In colonial and early Federal America, the general practice of sacred singing in singing schools, as well as worship.

form of a short march

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Singing school

A course of instruction devoted to teaching the rudiments of singing and note reading, focused on sacred music

Verse chorus form

A line followed by a main phrase that is repeated more times in the song (the chorus)

Fuging tune

A psalm or hymn tune containing at least one "fuging" section, where individual voice parts enter at different times with a similar melody

Metrical psalms

A psalm translated into metrical, rhymed English

Tune book

A published collection of psalm or hymn tunes.

ethnomusicology

A scholarly discipline that uses fieldwork as its basis and emphasizes ethnography, recording, transcription, and cultural and musical analysis. (page 211)

Strophic form

A song form in which multiple stanzas are sung to the same music

Folk hymn

A song originated from a country or area that is passed down through oral tradition and characterized by simple, modal (seven note scale) melody, and stanzaic narrative verse a hymn in which religious words are set to a secular tune

song plugger

A song plugger or song demonstrator was a vocalist or piano player employed by department and music stores and song publishers in the early 20th century to promote and help sell new sheet music, which is how hits were advertised before quality recordings were widely available.

musical, musical comedy

A spoken play with songs and dances in a popular style. spoken play with songs and dances in a popular style.

Call and response

A style of singing where a leader sings a phrase alone and that phrase is then echoed by the rest of the singers

Handle and Hayden society

Began as a choral society in early 1800s and was named after the composers Handel and Haydn to represent the old music of the 18th century and the new music of the 19th century

Minstrelsy, minstrelsy shows

Black Face minstrelsy shows were very popular before and after the Civil War. Traditionally they were put on by whites pretending to be Black but after the war, Black performers started to put on minstrel shows as well. These were all racist portrayals of Black culture and impersonations. The first shows were actually in the north (bred in New York)

amy beach

Chadwick declared her work fine enough to be "one of the boys" after the premiere of her GaelicSymphony. Before she was two, she was improvising harmony to her mother's lullaby. At eighteen, she played a Chopin concerto with the Boston Symphony Orchestra. She acquired scores and books and taught herself to compose, concentrating on it more after her marriage and (later, after her mother moved in with her and assumed household duties) composing well into her seventies. Her output of over 300 compositions included: Songs Keyboard works Choral pieces Some chamber music A piano concerto A symphony An opera Beach's legacy: First American-trained concert pianist Part of the first generation of professional American female instrumentalists The first American woman to compose large-scale works for the concert hall One of the first composers, male or female, to use folk melodies to help create a distinctively American style

Composers music vs performers muskc

Composer's music is meant to be played exactly how it is written. Performer's music is interpreted and is tweaked to give the listeners the best possible interpretation of that music.

Broadside ballads

Dating from colonial times, verses commenting on current events matched with a familiar tune, printed on sheets called broadsides, and sold in the marketplace.

charles ives

Father was a military band leader during the Civil War Attended Yale and studied composition with Horatio Parker Began a business career that led him into insurance and estate planning Composed prolifically in private; published his own works in the early 1920s with little notice from critics, performers, or the public: Piano sonata no. 2 Concord Mass., 1840-1860 Essays before a Sonata 114 songs Music unlike that of any other composer, living or dead, much of it radically forward-looking in style yet rooted in American musical traditions and history Composers began discovering Ives in the 1930s Father's compositional/musical influence and unconventional teaching methods Role of simultaneity and quotation in composition Ives's songs Variety of musical styles is enormous: Simple textures and consonances Atonal and experimental tunes Sentimental songs Comic songs Hymns Songs in French and German Despite variety, each song is unmistakably Ivesian Listening Guide 8.3: "The Songs Our Fathers Loved" (Charles Ives) Ives's instrumental music Similar traits as seen in his vocal music: Quotations Layering Changes of voice Jarring contrasts Dense overlappings Music inspired by his intellectual heroes, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau Concord Sonata American subject matter and program Draws on European musical past in its large outlines and forms (cf. Beethoven's Hammerklavier Sonata) Ives's contributions include: Imagining a future in which his works could help people attune themselves to the spiritual dimension of human life in an interconnected universe A substantial body of music, some of it radically individual in style An original aesthetic philosophy A symbolic presence that has served as a barometer of attitudes toward American composition for more than a half century since his death

Concert life in 18th 19th century

Finding a venue, setting a date, securing performers, choosing music, and attracting customers. In 1800s mostly by immigrants from europe who were familiar with secular assemblies. First known public concert in the American colonies took place in Boston in early 1700s. Various types of concertizing: Benefit concerts Subscription concerts Charity benefits Musical society concerts Public concerts emphasized variety, running more to short pieces than long ones, designed to appeal to a broad range of audience tastes. Glees "Concerto" "Grand symphony" Repertoire featured: Instrumental selections by the leading European composers of the day Vocal selections expressing more tender sentiments New patriotic numbers encouraging listeners to take pride in American identity

dogfight

High and low instruments exchange short choppy phrases at a loud dynamic level and with agitated unsettled harmony

Benifit concerts in 18th cen

In the 1700s and early 1800s, a concert intended to reap a profit for an individual performer

Spiritual

Is a musical form that can be traced to African roots but is a unique style to African Americans in the United States. Spirituals were also times for Black slaves to gather so sing and dance together away from their masters. african american song rooted in the experience of slavery

Zip coon and Jim Crow

Jim Crow was a character conceived by Thomas D. "Daddy" Rice based on a crippled Black stable hand. Jim Crow strutted the stage as a plantation hand and was seen as an idiot. Zip Coon appeared as a stylish character who was boastful and self-absorbed but was capable of lifting the audience out of their everyday existence.

March

Music for the movement of human bodies featuring a steady beat, regular phrase structure, and repeated sections.

edward macdowell

Musical orientation ran against the classicist strain of German Romanticism Identified with the "New German School" of Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner Trained in Europe at sixteen; taught piano at Darmstadt Conservatory Played his first piano concerto in Zurich with Liszt himself in attendance Moved to Boston to focus on a composition career funded chiefly by piano teaching and performing Offered first professorship at Columbia University, which left him little time for composition Suffered from mental illness near the end of his life; buried near his summer home in Peterborough, N.H., which was made into an art colony Arrived on the American composition scene at an opportune moment, as Americans were developing an appetite for classical music and building an infrastructure of ensembles, conservatories, concert halls, and opera companies to support it MacDowell and musical nationalism In nineteenth-century Europe, nationalism and universality were closely connected. MacDowell resolved to be an American composer in the way that Musorgsky was a Russian composer: by treating his own country as the equivalent of a peripheral European nation and bringing the landscape and indigenous American materials into his own European-based style. MacDowell's Woodland Sketches, op. 51 (1896) Listening Guide 8.2: "To a Wild Rose" from Woodland Sketches (Edward MacDowell) Nationalism and the Indian Suite Written in 1891, based on Native American melodies Drawn from transcriptions in Theodore Baker's 1882 dissertation on the music of Native Americans from North America. MacDowell philosophically countered Antonín Dvořák's late nineteenth-century directive that American composers should use native music materials (African and Native American) simply to realize a national voice. Problematic, romanticized outlook on Native American history and culture

Old way vs regular singing

Old way= the style of lining out favored by new England congregations before the rise of regular singing. Regular singing= singing by rule, as encouraged by the musical literacy movement of eighteenth century new england

Shout/ring shout with constituent parts

Performed by clapping hands, stomping feet and shuffling counter-clockwise while others (basers) answering shouts by the leader (songster). There is also someone keeping rhythm by hitting a stick on the ground (sticker)

theodore thomas

Premier American conductor of the nineteenth century At fourteen, he joined the first-violin section of the New York Philharmonic Society Took it as his mission to help raise musical standards of the symphony orchestra Mastered the business side of his trade Audiences responded to Thomas's blend of idealism and pragmatism Helped to realize three important elements of American symphonic culture: A belief in the artistic importance of the symphony orchestra Civic pride, centered in the feeling that an orchestra enriched community life Wealth, donated in recognition that the marketplace could not support an orchestra of the first rank Founded and directed the Chicago Symphony Orchestra By 1905, a number of American cities boasted symphony orchestras and seemed to be catching up with European cities' symphonic life.

john philip sousa

Rose to prominence in 1892, year of Gilmore's death Set the professional standard going forward Key figure in America music history Put his stamp on the march Showmanship and polish as conductor March form Trio Cantible Break strain Instrumental sections Catchy tunes and quotation Listening Guide 7.1: The Stars and Stripes Forever (John Philip Sousa) Conjunct motion Disjunct motion Sousa and recorded music Thomas A. Edison invented the phonograph in 1877. By mid-1892, Sousa conducted the U.S. Marine Band in more than two hundred recordings. He promoted his groups in more than 800 further recordings by the 1920s. Sousa's reservations about recording Primitive technology meant little thought could be given to artistry Mistrusted an enterprise that placed music in the service of technology Considered recordings an assault on the ecology of musical life

putnams camp

Sounds like a mess, Ives is known for his modern pieces and layering.

stephan foster

Stephen Foster and the "Ethiopian business" wrote songs Staged minstrel shows for fun as a teenager Edwin P. Christy and Foster promotion Interlocutor Christy's Minstrels most successful minstrel band in America "Old Folks at Home" copyright Foster's songs signaled the direction in which minstrelsy was headed by mid-century—their continuing popularity was intimately bound to domestic music making.

Bones

The bones are a folk musical instrument consisting of two animal ribs or wooden versions that can be used to crates complicated rhythmic patterns. Were also popularized in Black Faced Minstrel shows.

Lining out

The practice of singing with a deacon or precentor. (Someone reads psalm line by line and congregation sings back)

gospel hymn

There is a refrain (chorus). - The dotted eighth/sixteenth rhythm is pervasive. - The harmonic movement is simple, depending mainly on primary chords (I, IV, and V(7). - The chords are mostly in root position. For chords in inversion, the one-six-four is mainly used. - There are static repeated chords. - There is an obbligato part for tenors and basses in the refrain. - The verse section of the stanza is a parallel period

Parlor song

This kind of music was designed for middle class homes that would typically have a piano. Many parlor songs can be attributed to female composers even though males dominated the sheet music business world.

The sacred harp mid 1800s

Was a choral music tune book printed in shape notes

Hutchison family

Was a singing group made up of the family. They took stances in their music, the first of which was reducing alcohol consumption. This was immensely effective. Their next stance was on slavery. Their best known rallying song is "Get off the Tracks" and they were truly a force to be reckoned with against slavery.

P.t. Barnum (1810-1891)

Was an Impresario famous for presenting Jenny Lind to the world though tours as the amazing foreign opera singer she was. Barnum came out $500,000 richer.

Psalter

a book of metrical psalms

song cather

a folk song collector of the early twentieth century

operetta

a form of musical theater similar to opera but lighter in theme and music style with spoken dialogue

coda, tag

a musical compositions closing section

vocable

a nonsemantic syllable used in singing

Camp meeting

a religious gathering at which worshipers camp out for several days of prayer and singing

Hymn, hymnody

a religious song or poem, typically of praise to God or a god The practice of writing and singing hymns,

Psalm

a sacred song in the Hebrew scripture

vamp

a short section of music meant to be repeated with a fresh musical statement is ready to me introduced

Vaudeville

a type of entertainment popular chiefly in the US in the early 20th century, featuring a mixture of specialty acts such as burlesque comedy and song and dance.

revue

a variety stage entertainment, often with an overarching theme a light theatrical entertainment consisting of a series of short sketches, songs, and dances, typically dealing satirically with topical issues.

jubilee singers

african american acapella ensamble, late 1800s, mostly spirituals but some stephen foster songs

ragtime

african american popular style emerging in the 1890s that emphasized irregular syncopations playing over a stead march like accompaniment

gaelic symphony, second movement

amy beach Winds, slow, Scottish sounding, Beach was the first female American pianist to start her career so young and to produce more than 300 works, part of the Second New England School

spiritual

an african american sacred song rooted in the experience of slavery

concert spiritual

an expression of african american experience that incorporates the manner of european class music

Bay psalm books

book of psalms that mirrored the scriptural originals for more literal translations of the text. First full length book published in the colonies

after the ball

charles harris Super carnival, old record/zombie apocalypse status, Harris was known for advancing popular music, a pioneer of Tin Pan Alley, called the King of Tear Jerkers

de boatmans dance

dan emmett Lots of banjo, sounds like Miner/fiddle song, best known as the fiddle player for the Virginia Minstrels

sherburne

daniel read chorus piece, read is known for his fugues

Text meters; long, common, short

each stanza was typically four lines in length with each line containing six or eight syllables, using iambic foot. Common meter= 8.6.8.6. long meter= 8.8.8.8. short meter= 6.6.8.6.

daniel emmett

fiddle player in the virginia minstrels

deep river

harry burleigh Spiritual, slow, Burleigh is best known for making characteristically American music and made Black music available to classically trained artists

interpolation

in musical comedy and operetta, a song added to the shows original score, not necessarily by the original shows principle composer and lyricist

get off the track

jesse hutchinson jr Piano, light sounding, Hutchinson family is known for fighting for change through song (alcohol and slavery)

the stars and stripes forever

john philip sousa military, sousa is known for his highly militaristic songs and performances

the banjo

louis moreau gottshalk Piano piece, Carnival sounding, no words, Gottschalk is known for writing music that is difficult for the player but easy on the listener

Virginia minstrels, Chrissy's minstrels

mid 1800s four chairs on stage in semi circle speech and music Christy- perfected blackfacce initiation comic singer, interlocutor, played banjo, most successful minstrelsy band The Virginia Minstrels were formed in New York and honed their skills in the salons and theaters of New York. Christy had already perfected his black face comic singing talents and he then created his own troupe. They toured for several years but ended up creating a business in New York, providing family entertainment for cheap prices.

tin pan alley

nicknamed for the publishing district around west 28th street in nyu and by extension for the popular music industry early 20th century

atonal

not written in any key or mode

stinger

short clip of music that can be used to introduce, end or link various sections of an audio or audiovisual production. Sometimes they are also called sounders and can often have voice-over and sound effects incorporated with them

george root

student of masons, had not a ton of talent, just lots of opportunity. went on to be in famous choirs and teach in singing schools/ ranked the different types of music

books/lyrics/music

the script for a musical comedy, equivalent to an operas libretto

chester

william billings Chorus piece, think classical church song, Billings is known as the first American choral composer