Napoleon's Rise and Consolidation of Power (1799-1807)
Napoleon's establishment of Empire
Soon after the royalist plot to replace Napoleon with the Duc d'Enghien in 1804, many in France began to worry about the monarchist threat. Advised by his government, Napoleon believed that he should become *the hereditary Emperor of France*. — A Third plebiscite was held, confirming that the French public agreed with this decision. — On the 2nd December 1804, Napoleon was crowed *Emperor of France* in Paris with the presence of the Pope and his wife *Joséphine*, who was crowed Empress.
Political changes
*Napoleon consolidates power* In February 1800, Napoleon changed how the 83 French departments were run. He headed each department with *prefects*, who were men with lots of power and responsibility. Napoleon could appoint and replace these men, and appoint mayors in major towns. This allowed Napoleon to exercise *highly centralised control* of administration in France, helping to *solidify* his power. *Napoleon become Consul for Life* Following an *assassination attempt* on Napoleon in *December 1800,* which Napoleon claimed was *neo-Jacobin*, led to his decision to solidify his power further by making himself *Consul for Life*, meaning his length of power was not restricted to only 10 years. A *referendum* was held to ratify this amendement to the Consulate, resulting in an *overwhelming majority* of *3,500,000* being for the change. However, there are arguments that this plebiscite resulted in a majority due to *vote-rigging* and *misinformation*, a clear sign of corruption and lack of democracy. Yet Napoleon became Consul for Life nevertheless.
How Napoleon's military successes were helped by his subordinates
*Twice* Napoleon had to be saved by his brave subordinates, due to his own serious mistakes. — In the battle of *Marengo in 1800*, *Desaix's* return to the battlefield with 6,000 men helped France to crush the Austrians, saving Napoleon from a potentially fatal attack. — Similarly, *Davout's* own military skill at *Jena in 1806* helped claim a French victory, after Napoleon unwisely left a smaller flank to the majority of the Prussian troops.
How Napoleon established his empire
As Emperor, the government was strictly under Napoleon's control. He cleverly established loyalty of the army and politicians through *titles, honours, gifts and land*. — Napoleon provided medals and an annual sum of money for soldiers, under the *Legion of Honour*. — He established an *imperial nobility*, by providing titles to high status individuals. If recipients of these titles had a large enough income than their title could become *hereditary* — Napoleon ensured support from his government by giving politicians large estates with an annual income. — Even lower rank or minor army officers or government officials were given money to live comfortably. In order to maintain the power of his regime, Napoleon introduced *censorship*. — He closed down *60 Parisian newspapers*, and ensured that the newspapers that remained were heavily censored. — All forms of art, such as theatre, books, plays and posters were *heavily monitored* and *reported on* if they didn't follow the regime's rules. — A *secret police* informed Napoleon on anything that seemed threatening to his regime Napoleon also endorsed *propaganda* to help maintain his cult of personality. He commissioned artworks to show him in a heroic manner, like the iconic painting *Napoleon Crossing the Alps*, where he is depicted riding a noble stallion. In reality, he rode a mule!
The Battles of Ulm and Austerlitz (1805)
Despite the loss against the British, Napoleon managed to claim victories over the Austrians in *Ulm* (Oct 1805) and over the Austrians and Russians in *Austerlitz* (Dec 1805). Following Trafalgar, Napoleon led his forces into the heart of Europe, where he managed to *outmanoeuvre* and defeat the Austrians at Ulm, by *rapidly advancing* upon them and taking the Austrian forces by *surprise* before the arrival of their Russian allies. Napoleon's *effective organisation* of his troops and encouragement for them to *live off the land* enabled the French troops to move *quickly*, allowing them to claim an efficient victory against the Austrians through a rapid advance. Into December, his most highly praised victory at Austerlitz saw him defeat both the Russians and Austrians. Napoleon's maintenance of a seemingly *vulnerable right flank* lured the Russians into a surprise attack, whereby the French completely *enveloped* and inflicted heavy casualties on the Russians. Napoleon depended on *motivating* his troops, especially those who had to hold the weak right flank. After these two battle, Napoleon was at a *military high point*, with his skills as a commander conveyed through his victories.
The Army and Conquest during the Consulate and Empire — Marengo, June 1800
Napoleon also wanted military conquest to confirm his position as Consul for Life. *Marengo* — Napoleon crossed the alps in *June 1800* and defeated the *Austrians* at Marengo. The French troops were dangerously dispersed in this battle, and were pushed back by the Austrians. Despite this, the French *won*. Napoleon claimed this was his victory, but France's success was in part owed to *Desaix*, Napoleon subordinate. Desaix's initiative led to the decision to return to the battle field, ultimately saving Napoleon from an attack which could have taken his life. Desaix's surprise return with *6,000* men ultimately crushed the Austrians when they thought they had won. This success brought Napoleon *great popularity* in France, but Napoleon was forced to negotiate peace with *Austria and Britain*, following the destruction of the *Second Coalition*. The *Treaty of Armiens* was agreed upon in *March 1802*, evoking peace for a *short amount of time.*
Napoleon's reforms as Consul
Napoleon headed the Consulate government at *The First Consul*. With this power, Napoleon devoted himself to *passing reform* in France. Many of these changes were motivated by his desire to preserve his *personal power*, but some could actually been seen as *progressive reforms* that followed Revolutionary thought.
The War of the Fourth Coalition — 1806-1807
The War of the Fourth Coalition was characterised by *Prussia* joining the fight against Napoleon. *Battles of Jena and Auerstädt, October 1806* Napoleon was once again victorious in these battles, *decisively defeating Prussia*. However, Napoleon's victory was not *entirely assured*. His *victory at Jena*, similar to his situation at Marengo, was made possible by his subordinate *Davout*, who helped claim a French victory after Napoleon *divided* his army *unwisely*, leaving a *smaller flank* to take of the *bulk on the Prussian army*. Following these battles, Napoleon entered *Berlin*, where the *Russians were persuaded to end the War of the Fourth Coalition* after a costly Russian defeat in the *Battle of Friedland*. Napoleon was able to meet *Tsar Alexander I* at *Tilsit*, where they negotiated *The Treaty of Tilsit* in *July 1807*. This agreement was ambitious, *dividing Europe* between France and Russia. France would *dominate Western Europe* as far as Poland, excluding *Great Britain*, which would challenge France by starving them of *European exports* through the *Continental System* (see later).
Reasons for The War of the Third Coalition — 1803-1806
*Reasons for the War of the Third Coalition* *Despite* the peace treaty, Napoleonic war broke out again in 1803 due to Napoleon's desire for military conquest as Emperor, with the *Third Coalition* officially forming in *1805*. The Third Coalition *culminated* due to general *distrust towards France*. French expansion was seeping into *Germany and Italy*, while the *shooting* of the *Duc d'Enghien* shocked *European Royalties*, especially the Tsar. Duc d'Enghien was to replace Napoleon in an assassination plot in *1804*. The plan failed and was uncovered, with the royal being *tried for conspiracy* and shot. France's meddling in Italy and Germany, plus the death of the *Duc d'Enghien* spurred on Russia, Britain and Austria to form a *Third Coalition* to curb Napoleon's power.
Legal and administrative changes
*The Civil Code* — 21st March 1804 The Civil Code was Napoleon's *clear statement on the law* The Civil Code can be viewed in two ways - *liberal*, as it confirmed some changes brought by the Revolution, or *illiberal*, confirming traditional values and authority in France Liberal reforms included — *Feudalism* was official abolished — A *common law code* applied to everyone in France who were to have civil rights — Judges were guided by laws, but were to use their *own judgement* in law courts — *Property owners* were allowed to pass on their property to *whoever* they wished — *Privileges* of the *Catholic Church* were removed Illiberal reforms included — Reintroduction of *slavery* in French colonies was permitted — Males were given *traditional authority* in households, and wives were to be obedient, or risk *imprisonment.* — Married women could not own property *independently* — *Divorce rights* were more in favour for men than women — Only husbands had *custody rights* over their children
The Battle of Trafalgar — October 1805
Napoleon could not settle with peace, as his entire reputation as Emperor was built around *military conquest* and territorial gains. Despite the size of his enemies, with Austria, Britain and Russia being the main opponents in the 1805 Third Coalition, Napoleon decided to try and *invade Britain* in *The Battle of Trafalgar* in *October 1805* with the help of *Spain*. Yet British naval superiority crushed the French, leading to an immense British victory. While Napoleon had maintained French naval warfare, his skills as a land commander was no match to Britain's naval prowess. British gunnery tactics managed to tear through the Franco-Spanish fleet, despite their numerical advantage of *10* more warships than the British. *22* French and Spanish ships were lost, establishing a decisive British victory. British *naval superiority* remained, and would lead Napoleon into an *economic war* with Britain (The Continental System), which would be a key reason for Napoleon's eventual downfall....
The position of the church
Napoleon recognised the need to solve the conflict between the Catholic Church and the State. Negotiations surrounding a solution culminated in the *Concordat*, signed in *1801* as an agreement between the state and papacy. The concordat stipulated that — - The Catholic Church *recognised the Revolution* and would not try to regain its lands - The Church would be state controlled, with its clergy to be *payed and appointed* by the government - *Toleration* of all other faiths With the Concordat secured, Napoleon had ensured the Church was *obedient* to the State. Napoleon even went so far to create a *St Napoleon's Day'* on the *16th August*, in order for the French public to revere him as their leader, much to the objection of the papacy.
Napoleon's new constitution — The Consulate
The period between the *coup of Brumaire and a French Empire* is known as the *Consulate*, spanning from 1799 until 1804, when Napoleon makes himself *Emperor* — Napoleon's Consulate was complex, with a limited democratic element. — Napoleon was First Consul, the *head* of the consulate — The male French population elected a group of *Notables*, essentially the societal elite. *The Senate* would be chosen from this group, and were in charge of choosing members for the *legislative bodies*. — The new constitution was voted on via a *referendum*, which was *rigged* to give an overwhelming majority in favour.
Reasons for Napoleon's Military Successes Until 1807
There are *two ways* to look at Napoleon's successes up until 1807. Napoleon can be credited for his successes, but there are *other factors* which helped him succeed.
Was the consulate democratic? Or simply a cover for dictatorship
There are arguments for and against the idea that the Consulate was democratic - *It was democratic* — *Opposition and discussion* of Napoleon's laws was allowed in the Consulate's bodies — There had to be *legislative approval* of *tax raises and budgets* *It wasn't democratic* — In practice, *no law* could be passed without Napoleon's approval — Plebiscites *were rigged* in order to ensure that Napoleon's power remained, meaning that the Consulate and Napoleon's status as *Consul for Life* (voted on in *1802*) could prevail — Napoleon had the power to *appoint central government officials* and key officials in local government Overall, the Consulate and Napoleon's domination of it embodied *liberal authoritarianism*.
Financial changes
— Centralised financial control ensured that tax collection was fair and efficient, helped by the improvement of *tax registers* — Napoleon founded *The Bank of France* in 1800. Having a central bank meant that the government could raise finances much easier, something that the ancien regime failed to do — Napoleon's new currency, the *franc de germinal*, was coin based, and was a stable currency to ensure the stability of the French economy, something that the paper based *assignat* failed to achieve.
How the mistakes and weaknesses of Napoleon's enemies helped him to succeed
— Napoleon *heavily relied* on the *mistakes of others*. Before the campaigns of Ulm and Austerlitz, the Austrians expected Napoleon to take much longer crossing the Alps, estimating that he would take around *80 days* with *70,000 men*. Much to the Austrians' shock, Napoleon arrived after only *13 days* with *190,000 men*. — During these campaigns, *negotiations* between the Russians and Austrians were *hindered* by the use of *different calendars*, meaning their co-ordination of plans was made difficult and put them at a disadvantage. This can be seen at Ulm, where the Austrians *were outmanoeuvred* without the help of the Russians, who had *not even arrived yet!* — The *Russians were naive* to commit their forces to a *seemingly weak French flank at Austerlitz*, allowing Napoleon to *easily envelop them.* — Prussian forces were *complacent* in their ability to defeat the French, but once the Napoleon began to strike the Prussians, they displayed *little resistance in the campaigns of 1806* due to *falling morale*
How Napoleon helped his military successes
— Napoleon managed to inspire his troops and maintain morale. He did this through a *good relationship* with his men and inspirational *bulletins*, which ensured reliability and competence. — Napoleon managed to *gain the trust* of his men, which was particularly important in *risky manoeuvres* where troops had to resist bravely and trust that reinforcements would eventually arrive. — Napoleon encouraged *living off the land*, meaning troops were not burdened by *slow moving supply trains* and could move and advance much quicker. — Tactics wise, Napoleon *divided* his forces to *confuse* and *deceive* the enemy. This would *disperse* the opposition, making it easier for Napoleon to concentrate his forces to strike. — Napoleon also used *envelopment*, whereby the enemy would be lured by a smaller force, and then be *surrounded and trapped* by the French, blocking off a line of retreat and inflicting *heavy damage.*
Educational changes
— Napoleon's take on education was that it would provide France with a generation of officials, administrators and military officers. — Under Napoleon, 45 *lycées* and 300 secondary schools were established, where students were to be taught under a standardised system and common curriculum. — Primary education focused around basic numeracy and literacy, as well as *moral education* — This educational system sought to follow public instruction, rather than the *civic value of the individual*. Students were expected to be *compliant and non-political*, and would be the *next generation* to provide their services to the Napoleonic State in the future.