Natural Hazards

The difference in the energy level between M6.5 and M3.4 earthquakes is

(32 x 32 x 32 x 1.4) times

______________ refers to how a water-saturated sand layer turns into liquid as seismic waves move through it.

...

A lightning was spotted and 3 seconds later a thunder was heard. The lightning was how far away?

1 km away

A typical tsunami in the outer ocean has a wave height of

1 meter or less

When the depth of water becomes 1/16, the wave speed becomes

1/4

_____% of thunderstorms are severe thunderstroms

10

A fault is considered active if it has moved during the last ____________ years

10,000

Energy of lightning?

100,000,000 V

During the last 50 years ____ El Ninos have occurred, with the strongest on record being the _____ and the ______ events

11, 1982-83, 1997-98

A tsunami originated off the coast of Japan will reach the southern tip of South America in about

24 hours

The temperature of the Earth necessary to balance the net incoming solar radiation equal:

255 K

El Nino is on a __ to ___ year cycle.

3, 7

Temperature of lightning: 3,000 K, 30,000 K, or 300,000 K?

30,000 K

Calculate the distance of lightning:

340 m/s x Time Lag (sec)

Emission of radiation by the planet Earth is proportional to the _____________

4th power to temperature

The Santa Ana Winds start from the Great Basin as

A cold, dry air

A high-temperature wildfire whose flames reach the canopies of trees is?

A crown fire

Average speed of seafloor spreading is?

A few inches per year

Intra-plate earthquakes are felt in a vast area because of

A hard, unfractured crust

Causes of Tsunamis

A large earthquake displacing seafloor, underwater landslide triggered by earthquake, underwater volcanic eruption, impact of asteroid/comet

In El Niño years, the northern-tier states tend to experience:

A mild winter

In the US, the amount of CO2 emitted by wildfires is

About 4-6% of human emissions

Nearly half of the incoming solar radiation is?

Absorbed by the ground

The average ground temperature of the Earth is kept higher than expected mainly by?

Absorption and re-emission of infrared radiation by the atmosphere

_________________ are the adjustment to the deformation caused by the main shock, and are usually smaller than the main shock, and more predictable (frequency and magnitude decay with time)

Aftershocks

A severe thunderstorm has which of the following elements: Wind speed of over 93 km per hour, or hailstones larger than 1.9 cm, or a tornado?

Any one

Which of the magma forms has least silica/gas: rhyolitic magma, andesitic magma, or basaltic magma?

Basaltic magma

___________ are massive depressions formed during explosive ejection of magma and collapse of the upper cones, 20 km or more in diameter.

Calderas

Runny, low-gas magma, low silica, high temperature

Characteristics of a non-explosive volcano

Viscous, gassy magma, high silica, low temperature

Characteristics of an explosive volcano

_____________ are an accumulation of pyroclastic debris and small lava granules. Common on the flanks of larger volcanoes.

Cinder cones

There are two kinds of lightning:

Cloud to cloud (75%) and Cloud to Ground (25%)

_______ play a big part in scattering solar radiation back into space

Clouds

Gusts, a short period of intense rainfall, and an abrupt drop in temperature accompany the passage of a?

Cold front

Without extratropical weather systems, the Arctic would be?

Cooler

_________ fires are flaming combustion through canopies of trees (aided by strong winds and slopes)

Crown

The Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale for tornadoes is based on?

Damage

___________ is not essential for the formation of a jet stream.

Decreasing temperature with altitude

Between 2-15 km in altitude, the average altitude of a constant pressure surface is __________ over the pole relative to the tropics

Depressed

A convergent boundary can create a ___________________

Dip-slip fault

____________ refers to how the energy of an earthquake is directed along the direction of rupture.

Directivity

__________ volcanoes, like Lassen Peak and Mono Craters are highly viscous and explosive. A literal blast.

Domes

In the US, on average, the leading cause of crop damage is?

Droughts

___________ damage the most crops (in millions of dollars)

Droughts

Heat waves, droughts, dust storms, and wildfires can all be defined as?

Dry Weather Hazards

Rocks rupture along a fault when stress exceeds their ability to withstand it; rapid slippage will lead to an __________________

Earthquake

In 1997-1998 a number of wildfires occurred in Indonesia because of?

El Nino

In thermal radiation, internal energy of matter partially changes to?

Electromagnetic energy

_____________ is the place on the surface of the Earth directly above the earthquake's origin (focus or hypocenter)

Epicenter

The Martian atmosphere has?

Extratropical cyclones

_____________ kills the most people in the US.

Extreme heat

A _________ is a fracture or a system of fractures in lithosphere along with rocks on opposite sides move (or have moved) relative to each other)

Fault

The sudden release of elastic energy is due to __________, that generates seismic waves

Faulting

During the Great San Francisco Earthquake (1906), more than 2,000 people died because of

Fires

Which of the following states observes thunderstorms most frequently: Alaska, Kansas, or Florida?

Florida

________ are both gases and liquids. They have no particular shape, are freely deformable.

Fluids

Steady surface winds cross the lines of constant pressure largely because of?

Frictional force

What are the three elements of a fire environment?

Fuel (leaves, twigs, grass, shrubs, debris, trees, peat), topography (amount of sunlight, air circulation), weather (temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, winds)

Which of the following does NOT cause a tsunami: Underwater earthquake, underwater landslide, or gravitational pull of the moon?

Gravitational pull of the moon

_________ fires creep below surface, smoldering.

Ground

Volcanic gases include:

H2O, CO2, H2S, SO2

Which of the following is created by a hot spot activity: Iceland, Hawaii, or New Zealand?

Hawaii

Dry weather hazards are caused by subsidence in strong _____________ pressure system that hinders convection and air movement. Heat gets trapped near the ground.

High

________ gas content yields more explosive magma

High

________ silica yields viscous (less flowing) magma

High

What type of magma leads to an explosive eruption?

High silica, high gas

What are the three ingredients necessary for a fire?

High temperature, fuel (trees), and oxygen

Most small wildfires are started by?

Human activities

___________ damage the most property (in millions of dollars)

Hurricanes

Wildfire buildup a ___________ layer of soil and a lack of vegetation that increases surface runoff, leading to floods, soil erosion, and landslides.

Hydrophobic

Which of the following was NOT a major reason why the Japanese tsunami of 3/11/11 became a catastrophe: a complicated coastal geometry (Ria), improper warning, or land subsidence?

Improper warning

Five stages of the Earthquake Cycle

Inactivity, Small Earthquakes, Foreshocks, Main shock, Aftershocks

Normal conditions would bring rain to _________; El Nino conditions brings rain to _________.

Indonesia, Eastern Pacific an Americas

______________ of an earthquake quantifies the effects of ground motion on people and structure. This is determined by the earthquake magnitude, the distance to the epicenter, the depth of the focus, the direction of the rupture, and local geologic conditions.

Intensity

______________ is the horizontal extent of flooding

Inundation

Superstorm Sandy (2012) was unusual in many ways, but the most unusual part was?

It made a left turn to land in New Jersey

Which of the following is insignificant as a natural service function of hurricanes: Rejuvenate and diversify ecosystem, nutrient transport in the oceans, or keep the high-latitude regions warm?

Keep the high-latitude regions warm

____________ are mudflows/debris flows caused by rain over a layer of dust/ash; also caused by ice and snow melted by volcano, fast-moving mixtures of fine sediments and large rocks, like wet cement

Lahars

Coming out of a hot shower, you feel cool because your body loses heat through __________________________

Latent heat of vaporization

_______ is flowing magma

Lava

The city of New Orleans is subsiding faster than it used to because?

Levees keep the Mississippi River from flooding

In a wildfire situation, _______ ignites fires

Lightning

How can wildfires ignite?

Lightning, volcanic eruption, meteor/asteroid, human action (it takes more than one ignition to start a fire)

In the '50s the theory of seafloor spreading was supported by?

Magnetic striping

_______________ of an earthquake is the amount of energy released. Depends on the area ruptured along the fault plane, the amount of movement (slippage) along the fault, and the rigidity of the rocks near the focus of the earthquake.

Magnitude

______________ refers to how the slowing down of seismic waves as they move through mud or sand accumulates energy.

Material amplification

Magma is made of ____________

Melted silicate minerals

Circular cluster of storm cells are called ____________

Mesoscale convective systems

Most tectonic plates are created at?

Midocean ridges

Heat index is higher than the actual air temperature because of?

Moisture

A flat body and frequent, nonexplosive eruptions characterize

Mt. Kilauea (Hawaii)

The 1883 eruption of this volcano caused a massive tsunami and killed over 36,000

Mt. Krakatoa

Lahars and a detectable climate cooling followed the eruption of

Mt. Pinatubo

Precipitation, rejuvenation and diversification of ecosystems, nutrient transport in the oceans, poleward heat transport (extratropical cyclones) are all ________________________ of cyclones

Natural service functions

Some _____________ of wildfires are: enriches soils (carbon-rich ash), kills microorganisms, reduces competition, reduces excessive fuel (dead trees), and some species have adapted to grow after fire.

Natural service functions

Superstorm Sandy made a landfall in NJ at the height of?

Negative NAO

Which of the following was NOT a plate boundary earthquake?

New Madrid (1811-1812)

An extratropical cyclone that depends rapidly along the east coast of the US is called a?

Nor'easter

A divergent boundary can create a ________________

Normal fault

Which of the following is primarily an atmospheric phenomenon: Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation, North Atlantic Oscillation, or El Niño/Southern Oscillation?

North Atlantic Oscillation

On average, surface winds in the tropics of the Northern Hemisphere blow from?

Northeast

The Enhanced Fujita Scale is based on?

Observed damage

Where does lightning occur most frequently: over land, over the oceans, or equally over land and oceans?

Over land

What is a key cause of desertification?

Overgrazing

Which is not a greenhouse gas: carbon dioxide, water, or oxygen?

Oxygen

___________ is fast, compressional (solid, liquid, gas) and usually moves at about 6 km / sec

P-Waves

In a wildfire situation, _______ increases soil moisture, slowing down preignition

Precipitation

What are the three phases of wildfires?

Preignition (Preheating: rising temperature and loss of water, pyrolysis: chemical breakdown of fuel), Combustion (ignition, flaming or glowing/smoldering), Extinction

Which of the following is the leading cause of deaths associated with volcanic eruptions?

Pyroclastic flows

___________ is dust, ask, lapili, blocks, bombs

Pyroclastic materials

The Parkfield earthquakes are known for their

Repeatability

The Coriolis force deflects the air flow to the ______ in the Northern Hemisphere and to the _____ in the Southern Hemisphere.

Right, left

___________ refers to the amount of deformation of an elastic body per unit force.

Rigidity

_______________ is the maximum height of water on land.

Run up height

____________ are slower, transverse (solid), and do not travel in plastic materials, and moves at about 3 km / sec

S-Waves

When lightning is close you should NOT do which of the following: seek shelter under a tall tree, stay inside a parked car, or move out of water as soon as possible?

Seek shelter under a tall tree

Fault rupture releases energy in the form of _________________

Seismic waves

_________ volcanoes are characterized by basaltic magma and are generally nonexplosive. Examples include Hawaii, Iceland.

Shield

________ are hard to deform, equation of state applicable to the Earth's interior not well known.

Solids

The peak intensity of the radiation emitted by the Sun is in the?

Spectrum of visible light

Linear belts of thunderstorms are called _________

Squall lines

In summer, a large fraction of the North Atlantic Ocean is covered by a?

Stationary high pressure system

________ volcanes, like Mt. St Helens and Mt. Rainier are characterized by more viscous and explosive magma, lava, and pyroclastic debris.

Strato

A transform boundary can create a ______________

Strike-slip fault

A __________________ zone is where one plate is sliding under the other one, and the rock melts and gets pushed up as magma through a volcano.

Subduction

Large earthquakes and active volcanoes are most common in

Subduction zones

Large cells with single updrafts are called ____________

Supercells

________ fires move along surface, varying intensity

Surface

The ______________ refers to the large-scale geologic processes that deform Earth's crust and produce landforms; ocean basins, continents, mountains. It is driven by forces deep within Earth. Involves transfer of energy and momentum.

Tectonic Cycle

______________ refers to the gradual movement along a fault, unaccompanied by felt earthquakes. These earthquakes can register M6-7 because of a large area of rupture, despite small slips.

Tectonic creep

For an ideal gas, pressure is proportional to?

Temperature and density

Over the Eurasian continent tornadoes are relatively infrequent because?

The Tibetan Plateau separates warm tropical air and cold Arctic air

Around 10-15 km in altitude, the Coriolis force on average points toward?

The equator

In the atmosphere pressure decreases with altitude because?

The force of gravity is downward

About 3000 km below the Earth's surface lies the boundary between

The mantle and the outer core

The temperature of an ascending air parcel decreases primarily because?

The parcel expands

Tornados rotate cyclonically due to?

The parent mesocyclone, which often spins counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere due to the Earth's rotation

The downward solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere maximizes (per area per unit time) at?

The summer pole

Which of the following statements about tornadoes is incorrect: A hook echo in radar image is a good indication of a tornado, tornadoes do not hit large cities, or wedge tornadoes are a wide and more violent kind?

Tornadoes do not hit large cities

Condensation funnel, multiple vortex, land spout, waterspout, and wedge tornado are all kinds of

Tornados

__________ are massive ocean waves produced by the sudden vertical displacement of ocean water.

Tsunamis

Which of the following was NOT the reason why Loma Prieta Earthquake (CA 1989) caused a great damage to San Francisco, 100km away from the epicenter?

Unprecedented magnitude

A wildfire on a mountain slope usually migrates?

Up the slope

Three Types of Human-Caused Earthquakes

Water Reservoirs, which activate and create faults, Deep Waste Disposal, which creates high fluid pressure, and Nuclear Explosion

Which of the following statement about tsunami is correct: Just before the arrival of a tsunami, water always recedes from the beach, the first batch of a tsunami is always the highest and most powerful, or when a tsunami recedes toward sea it causes more damage with the debris it created on the way in?

When a tsunami recedes toward sea it causes more damage with the debris it created on the way in

__________ release carbon monoxide, organic compounds, and nitrogen oxide into the atmosphere.

Wildfires

An M6.5 earthquake in the Pacific Ocean most likely

Will not create a tsunami

In a wildfire situation, _______ increase circulation, meaning the supply of oxygen and accelerate fire migration.

Winds

The 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland caused

a massive disruption of air traffic

Which of the following is NOT a typical condition leading to a flash flood: a prolonged rainfall over a broad region and water-saturated ground, a few months after wildfire outbreaks, or an intense, short rainfall over the headwaters region?

a prolonged rainfall over a broad region and water-saturated ground

Where a river suddenly exits a narrow, steep canyon and enters a flatland, it tends to form

an alluvial fan

The two most abundant constituents of volcanic gas are

carbon dioxide and water vapor

Favorable conditions for thunderstorms _____ and ____ air aloft, _____ and ______ air below, _____ of air due to fronts or orographic forcing, and _________(large changes in wind velocity and direction

cold, dry, warm, moist, uplift, wind shear

In a steady river flow, discharge is

constant

Thunderstorms, lightning, and tornadoes can all be defined as ________ weather hazards

convective

La Nina is only used for the years with exceptionally ______ temperatures that last for more than 6 months.

cool

A _________ boundary is one where the two plates are moving away from each other; yields mid ocean ridges. A _________ boundary is one where the plates are moving alongside each other in opposite directions. A ___________ boundary is one where the two plates ram into each other head on; causes subduction zones, and thus volcanoes.

divergent, transform, convergent

A _________ is an extended period of unusually low precipitation that produces temporary shortage of water

drought

_______ affects more people than any other natural hazard in the United States

drought

Natural service functions of ________________ include enhanced hydrologic and rock cycles, landform development, and future earthquake hazard reduction.

earthquakes

A material is said to be _______ if it is deformable with force but regains original shape when the force is gone (e.g. rubber band)

elastic

The Earth's mantle is?

elastic on short timescale and plastic on geologic timescale

The headwaters region of a drainage basin is characeterized by

erosion and steep slope

Dust storms are characterized by _______ wind and _______ visibility.

high, low

Trade winds move from ______ pressure to ______ pressure near the Equator.

high, low

Thunderstorms have a lifetime of _____ and a horizontal scale of _______ of km

hours, 10's

Superstorm Sandy was a unique tropical/extratropical ________ steered westward by a highly meandering jet stream, whereas a typical late-season hurricane would become an extratropical cyclone, merge with an eastward jet stream and die out

hybrid

Human interaction with cyclones is characterized by ________ population growth along coasts, and _________ wetlands, which used to act as a buffer zone, increasing the risk of storm surge

increased, disappearing

When moist unsaturated air cools, relative humidity _______

increases

Computer simulations suggest that global warming makes hurricanes ______ frequent overall, but strong ones ______ frequent

less, more

The El Nino-Southern Oscillation involves both the ________ and the _______ and their mutual reinforcement.

ocean, atmosphere

A tornado is created by stretching the rotating column of air of a?

parent storm

A material is ________ if its shape changes irreversibly with force (e.g. play dough)

plastic

Th North Atlantic Oscillation is a straight line in ________ mode and a meandering line in ________ mode.

positive, negative

Cloud to ground lightning is caused by collisions of _________ charged ice crystals and ________ charged graupel that create static electricity. ______ are lighter than ________.

positively, negatively, ice crystals, graupel

Solar constant is _________ to the luminosity of the Sun and ___________ to the square of the distance from the Sun.

proportional, inversely proportional

El Nino causes change in _________ distribution and ___________

sea surface temperature, wind pattern

Superstorm Sandy was the ______ costliest hurricane in US history

second

Andesitic, rhyolitic magma: 60-70% _______, 750-1000 _____, 2-5% _____, _______, _______explosive

silica, degrees, gas, viscous, highly

Basaltic magma: 50% _______, 1200 ______, 0.5% _______, not _______, ______ explosive

silica, degrees, gas, viscous, not

Molten rock or Ice behave like ______ on a short time scale, but behave like _________ on a long time scale.

solids, fluids

The San Andreas Fault is a

strike-slip fault

The atmospheric temperature decreases with increasing altitude partly because the atmosphere is transparent to the?

sunlight

Which type of load is most abundant in river water?

suspended load

High-energy, low-intensity earthquakes can be produced by

tectonic creep

During El Niño: the sea surface temperatures of the eastern Pacific are anomalously high, the sea surface temperatures of the western Pacific are anomalously high, or the trade winds are anomalously strong?

the sea surface temperatures of the eastern Pacific are anomalously high

Most tornadoes in the Northern Hemisphere spin counterclockwise because?

they are spawned by parent storms that are affected by the rotation of the Earth

Which of the following does NOT apply to the S-wave?

travels faster than the P-wave

A material is __________ if it has no particular shape but deforms in response to force (e.g. honey)

viscous

Today, the term El Nino is only used for the years with exceptionally ______ temperatures that last for more than 6 months.

warm

Favorable conditions for tropical cyclone formation include _________ ocean surface, _______ vertical wind shear

warm, weak