NEEDS, MOTIVATION, ATTITUDE

Leptin

A hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that acts as a satiety factor in regulating appetite.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow observed that certain needs will yield a greater influence on our motivation and established what is referred to as Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Maslow classified needs into five groups, and assigned different levels of priority to each group. The hierarchy is typically displayed as a pyramid where the most important needs are at the base. The first four levels of the pyramid correspond to physiological needs, safety and security, love and belonging, and self-esteem. The highest level of the pyramid corresponds to self-actualization, or the need to realize one's fullest potential. Maslow theorized that if the lowest level of need is not met, motivation to meet that need will be the highest priority. Once that need is met, if additional needs exist, they will be satisfied based on priority. For example, a person's most basic motivation will be to satisfy physiological needs, followed by the need to establish a safe and secure environment. Basic needs : physiological and safety social needs: love respect: self-esteem maximum potential: self actualization

adaptative (Functional Attitudes Theory)

Adaptive attitude is the idea that one will be accepted if socially acceptable attitudes are expressed.

sexual motivation

Alfred Kinsey reported his findings on sexual behavior from interviews with people from a broad range of sociocultural backgrounds. William Masters and Virginia Johnson published another important study of sexual motivation. The study involved physiological measurement of sexual arousal, proving that men and women experience similar physical responses. The most notable differences seen between the sexes were based on cultural influences and learned behavior. Physiologically, humans are motivated to sexual behavior based on the secretion of estrogens, progesterone, and androgens. There is a strong correlation between hormone concentration and sexual desire. Another biological factor for sexual motivation is smell. Certain odors have been shown to increase sexual desire and activity. Pleasure and the interpretation of pleasure is also a key player in sexual motivation and one that is highly influenced by culture. One study measured physiological arousal based on watching sexually explicit videos. The results showed that both men and women experienced the same levels of arousal, but women more often reported being unaroused or having feelings of disgust based on subjective interviews. This study demonstrated that cognition plays a role in sexual motivation. Additionally, culture and society influence what is deemed appropriate sexual behavior, the age at which it is deemed appropriate, and with whom. Cultural norms and conditioning influence the desire for sexual interaction, or lack thereof.

attitude

An attitude is the expression of positive or negative feelings toward a person, place, thing, or scenario. Attitudes develop from experiences with others who affect our opinions and behaviors. Even prior to meeting someone, past experiences and information from others can influence your attitude toward a person. There are three primary components of attitude: ABC: affective, behavioral, and cognitive.

instinct theory of motivation

Darwin, William James people are driven to do certain behaviors based on evolutionarily programmed instincts, which are innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli. Humans also have instinctive behavior; for example, thumb sucking is an instinctual response to stress in babies that is aimed at self-soothing. primitive reflexes like the grasp reflex are also instinctual. Note that some instincts last for the entire lifetime, while others may appear or disappear with age.

drive reduction theory of motivation

Drives are defined as internal states of tension that activate particular behaviors focused on goals. Drives are thought to originate within an individual without requiring any external factors to motivate behavior. In other words, drives help humans survive by creating an uncomfortable state, ensuring motivation to eliminate this state or to relieve the internal tension created by unmet needs. Primary drives, including the need for food, water, and warmth, motivate us to sustain bodily processes in homeostasis. Homeostasis is the regulation of the internal environment to maintain an optimal, stable set of conditions. In homeostatic regulation, external factors are encountered, and the system will react to push the system back to its optimal state. Additional drives that are not directly related to biological processes are called secondary drives. These drives are thought to stem from learning. The drive to matriculate into medical school and become a physician is an example of a secondary drive. Secondary drives also include certain emotions, such as the desire for nurturing, love, achievement, and aggression. Drive reduction theory explains that motivation is based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable states. Theorists hypothesize that certain physiological conditions result in a negative internal environment. This internal environment then drives motivation and seeks homeostasis in order to reduce the uncomfortable internal state.

extrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation can include rewards for showing a desired behavior or avoiding punishment if the desired behavior is not achieved. Examples of such motivation include working hard at your job for praise from your boss, practicing regularly for a sport so that you will perform strongly in an upcoming game, or studying for months on end to achieve a high score. Each of these acts result in external, tangible rewards. Extrinsic motivation can also include doing chores to avoid punishment and working to avoid being fired. Competition is a strong form of external motivation because a person is incentivized to beat others and not only to win, perform, or achieve for him- or herself.

intrinsic motivation

Motivation that comes from within oneself is referred to as intrinsic motivation. This can be driven by interest in a task or pure enjoyment. A student who takes interest in the subject matter at hand and has the goal of mastering the content is driven by intrinsic motivation, while the goal of achieving high grades is considered extrinsic.

opponent-process theory

Motivations are considered destructive if they result in harm to oneself. For example, drug abusers can be motivated to take drugs by the pleasure experienced when taking the drug or by the removal of withdrawal symptoms. While there are many "hard" drugs available, the most commonly used psychoactive substances in the United States are caffeine, nicotine, and alcohol. A theory of motivation that explains continuous drug use is the opponent-process theory. This theory explains that when a drug is taken repeatedly, the body will attempt to counteract the effects of the drug by changing its physiology. For example, the body will counteract repeated use of alcohol, a depressant, by increasing arousal. The problem with this reaction is that it will last longer than the drug, resulting in withdrawal symptoms that are exactly opposite the effects of alcohol: sensations of anxiety, jitteriness, and irritability. The withdrawal created by this mechanism can create a physical dependence on the drug. Opponent-process theory can also explain tolerance, a decrease in perceived drug effect over time. Cultural and demographic factors also affect drug use. Young adults are the most likely age group to smoke, with a decline in smoking rates seen as the group ages. Smoking is also seen more commonly in disadvantaged socioeconomic groups. Across the globe, smoking rates are highest in Eastern Europe; this creates visibility, leading to additional pressure or desire to smoke in these communities.

needs

Needs are also motivators that influence human behavior. Through this lens, motivation can be described as how we allocate our energy and resources to best satisfy these needs. Motivation thus determines which behaviors are most important to pursue, how much effort will be taken, and for how long the effort will be maintained.

primary vs secondary drives

Primary drives are those that motivate us to sustain necessary biological processes. Secondary drives are those that motivate us to fulfill nonbiological, emotional, or "learned" desires.

self-determination theory (SDT) of needs

SDT emphasizes the role of three universal needs: autonomy, the need to be in control of one's actions and ideas; competence, the need to complete and excel at difficult tasks; and relatedness, the need to feel accepted and wanted in relationships. Theorists explain that these three needs must be met in order to develop healthy relationships with oneself and others.

Attitude influences Behaviour (theories)

Theory of planned behavior attitude to behavior process model prototype willingness model elaboration likelihood model (cognitive)

Ego-Expression (Functional Attitudes Theory)

allow us to communicate and solidify our self-identity. For instance, if a person strongly identifies with a sports team, she may wear a hat that helps identify her as a fan of that team.

arousal theory of motivation

arousal, the psychological and physiological state of being awake and reactive to stimuli. Arousal involves the brainstem, autonomic nervous system, and endocrine system, and plays a vital role in behavior and cognition. Arousal theory states that people perform actions in order to maintain an optimal level of arousal: seeking to increase arousal when it falls below their optimal level, and to decrease arousal when it rises above their optimum level. Yerkes-Dodson law postulates a U-shaped function between the level of arousal and performance. This law states that performance is worst at extremely high and low levels of arousal and optimal at some intermediate level. The optimal level of arousal varies between different types of tasks: lower levels are optimal for highly cognitive tasks, while higher levels are optimal for activities that require physical endurance and stamina. Further, simple tasks generally require slightly higher arousal than complex tasks.

ego-defensive (Functional Attitudes Theory)

attitudes are ego-defensive if they protect our self-esteem or justify actions that we know are wrong. For example, a child who has difficulty doing math may develop a negative attitude toward the subject

Functional attitudes theory

attitudes serve four functions: knowledge, ego expression, adaptation, and ego defense.

incentive theory of motivation

behavior is motivated not by need or arousal, but by the desire to pursue rewards and to avoid punishments.

source characteristics

characteristics of the person who delivers a persuasive message, such as attractiveness, credibility, and certainty

message characteristics

features of the message itself, such as the logic and number of key points in the argument, grammar, structure

Knowledge function (Functional attitudes theory)

important in that it provides consistency and stability: attitudes help provide organization to thoughts and experiences, and knowing the attitudes of others helps to predict their behavior. For example, one would predict that an individual who cares about political action would vote in an upcoming election.

four factors that influence motivation

instincts, arousal, drives, and needs.

subjective norms

people's beliefs about how other people they care about will view the behavior in question

learning theory of attitude

posits that attitudes are developed through different forms of learning. Direct contact with the object can influence attitudes. For example, children form a positive attitude toward sweets almost immediately after tasting them. Direct instruction from others can also influence attitudes. For instance, a child who is taught by her parents not to use curse words can form a negative attitude toward curse words and, indirectly, a negative attitude toward those who use curse words. Our attitudes can also be influenced by others' attitudes. For example, a teenager may begin to have a positive attitude toward smoking if his friends all smoke. Finally, attitudes may be formed through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learning.

social cognitive theory

postulates that people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviors of others. According to this idea, behavior is not learned by trial-and-error, but develops through direct observation and replication of the actions of others, and in tandem with the influence of personal factors (such as thoughts about the behavior) and the environment in which we observe the behavior. These three factors—behavior, personal factors, and environment—are not independent concepts, but influence each other, as shown in Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation. For example, the work ethic of employees in a company (behavior) is affected by how hard their colleagues work, their previous attitudes toward hard work (personal), and the systems and infrastructure of the company (environment). Reciprocally, this behavior may create a change in the employee's attitude toward work (personal) and the systems within the company (environment).

affective component

refers to the way a person feels toward something, and is the emotional component of attitude. Snakes scare me and I love my family are both affective expressions of attitude.

elaboration likelihood model of attitude

separates individuals on a continuum based on their processing of persuasive information. At one extreme are those who elaborate extensively; that is, those who think deeply about information, scrutinize its meaning and purpose, and draw conclusions or make decisions based on this thought. This deep thinking is referred to as central route processing. At the other extreme are those who do not elaborate, focusing on superficial details: the appearance of the person delivering the argument, catchphrases and slogans, and credibility. This is known as peripheral route processing. Consider two voters watching a political campaign: while one may be swayed by the cogent arguments made by one candidate (high elaboration, central route processing), the other may be swayed by the perception that the other candidate is more personable (low elaboration, peripheral route processing). Most individuals fall in the middle of this continuum, and the degree to which we elaborate on information can vary depending on the specific situation.

Expectancy-value theory of motivation

the amount of motivation needed to reach a goal is the result of both the individual's expectation of success in reaching the goal and the degree to which he or she values succeeding at the goal.

perceived behavioral control

the ease with which people believe they can perform the behavior

social cognition

the mental processes that people use to make sense of the social world around them

behavioral component

the way a person acts with respect to something. For example, avoiding snakes and spending time with one's family would reflect the behavioral component of the attitudes described earlier.

cognitive component

way an individual thinks about something, which is usually the justification for the other two components. In the snake example above, knowing that snakes can be dangerous (and sometimes poisonous) provides a reason to be afraid of snakes and to avoid them.