Neuroscience: Pre-midterm

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Dura Mater and Arachnoid Cauda equina Filum Terminale

*Identify the following structures of the spinal cord: Dura Mater and Arachnoid Cauda equina Filum Terminale

Cerebral Hemisphere Vermis Anterior Lobe Posterior Lobe Primary Fissure Folia

*Identify the structures of the Cerebellum: Cerebral Hemisphere Vermis Anterior Lobe Posterior Lobe Primary Fisure Folia

somatic afferent

An axon carrying sensory information from the skin to the brain could be considered a _______?

Electroencepeology measures brain activity from surface electrodes used commonly for epilepsy

EEG (importnant)

Basal Ganglia motor control, motivation, attention, multitask Cortex localized Primary & secondary sensory Primary motor Motor planning Association

What struructes compose the telencephalon and what are their functions?

Abducens (VI) Oculomotor (III) Trochlear (IV) THE MLF CONEECTS THESE BILATERALLY

What three cranial nerves control eye movement?

Parkinson's dementia: Primarily affects goal-directed behavior; causes hallucinations and delusions

What is Parkinsons Dementia?

CNS - MS PNS - Guillen barre

What is an auto immune disorder that attacks myelin in the CNS and what about in the PNS?

Waking and sleeping, paying attention, and the initiation of action

What is consciousness

the ability to generate alternative possibilitites

What is divergent thinking

Can apply to many signs: virtigo - an illusion of movement or presyncope - pre fainting or feeling unsteady from a balance issue or light headedness

What is dizzyness?

Internal Juggular Vein

What is the "Main Drain" of the brain

the distribution of ions, which creates a difference in the electrical charge on each side of the cell membrane.

What is the electrical potential across the membrane?

Dural projection separating the left and right cerebral hemispheres

What is the falx cerebri?

Dyslexia

What is the most common learning disablity?

a nerve from a single spinal segment that carries motor, sensory and autonomic information

Which of the following best describes a spinal nerve?

there are no visual reeptors at the location of the optic nerve

Why do we have a blindspot?

Due to the proximity and overlap of the structures responsible for memory and emotion?

Why is memory and emotion so closely realted?

They come out of the cranium and foramen magnum

Why is the accessory CN considered a CN?

Inhibits pain

What are endorphins?

Pineal gland

The Epithalamaus is also known as the ____ gland.

Midbrain

The Mesencephalon is composed of the ...

~day 30, brain & s.c. develop from here

The Neural tube is fully closed by _____

Vision

The Occipitial lobe is responsible

MCA (middle cerebral artery)

What artery is most commonly associated with stroke?

lack of VOR - Visual information is bouncy

What is Oscillopsia

The thoracic spinal nerves

Which nerves do not contribute to a plexus?

Oh (Some)- (I) Olfactory: Transmitting impulses to the brain from the smell receptors in the mucous membrane of the nose, Sensory Oh (Say) - (II) Optic: Sight, Sensory Oh (Marry) - (III) Oculomotor: extrinsic eye muscles that enable most movements of the eye and that raise the eyelid, Motor To (Money) - (IV) Trochlear: superior oblique muscle of the eye, Motor Touch (But) - (V) Trigeminal: Sensation in the face and motor functions such as biting and chewing, Mixed/Both Functions And (My) - (VI) Abducens: movement of the lateral rectus muscle in humans, responsible for outward gaze, Motor Feel (Brother) - (VII) Facial: muscles of facial expression and anterior 2/3 rds of the tongue, Mixed/Both Functions Virgin (Says)- (VIII) Vestibulocochlear: transmits sound and equilibrium (balance) information from the inner ear to the brain, Sensory Girls (Big) - (IX) Glossopharyngeal: Sensation from the pharynx, posterior tongue, middle ear; afferent for gag and swallowing reflex Constricts Pharynx, Taste; Blood pressure and Chemistry from carotid artery, Salivation Both actions Vaginas (Boobs) - (X) Vagus: Parasympathetic control of the heart, lungs, and digestive tract, Mixed/Both Functions And (Matter) - (XI) Accessory: sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles ,Motor Hymens (More) - (XII) Hypoglossal: Innervates all the extrinsic and intrinsic muscles of the tongue, except for the palatoglossus, Motor

12 Cranial Nerves and Function

History of Nueroscience

1800s: Broca & Wernicke functional localization of the brain •1890: Ramon Cajal [father of modern neuroscience] neurons are distinct cells using Golgi's method (silver staining) •1950s: microelectrode & electron microscope •1970s: in vivo neuroimaging

Meninges

3 layers of _____ cover the brain and spinal cord.

1. Motor to face, eyes, tongue, jaw, and two neck muscles 2. Somatosensory from the skin and muscles of the face and TMJ 3. Special sensory information (visual, auditory, vestibular, gustatory, olfactory & visceral) 4. Parasympathetic regulation of pupil size, curvature of the lens, HR, BP, breathing, & digestion

4 functions of the Cranial Nerves

Motor to face, eyes, tongue, jaw, and two neck muscles Somatosensory from the skin and muscles of the face and TMJ Special sensory information (visual, auditory, vestibular, gustatory, olfactory & visceral) Parasympathetic regulation of pupil size, curvature of the lens, HR, BP, breathing, & digestion

4 functions of the Cranial Nerves

Comprehensive not screening

A _____ examination will give meaningful information for planning appropriate interventions.

A cluster of neurons is called a nucleus if found in the central nervous system; it is called a ganglion if found in the peripheral nervous system (PNS)

rostral / caudal

A coronal section of the brain will divide it into _____ and _____ parts

The letter H

A cross section of the spinal cord reveals grey matter forming a shape similar to...

Failure of posterior neuropore to close

A nueral tube defect resulting in functional consequences of the Spinal cord would result from...

Failure of anterior neuropore (cranial end) to close

A nueral tube defect resulting in functional consequences of the brain and hind brain would result from...

Caudal

Another term term for posterior is....

the hippocampus fucntions to store spatial memory. taxi drivers were enlarged bc of their knowlege of the city

AS noted inlecture, why was the hippocampus enlarged in new york taxi driver?

M - Memory /Motivation: drive Memory: attention & retrieval Motivation: desire to learn, try, or benefit from the environment O- Olfaction - Only sensory system that does not go through the thalamus - straight to the cortex (MTL) V - Visceral: Drives of thrust, hunger, temperature regulation, endocrine functions - Sympathetic & parasympathetic reactions - Peripheral autonomic nervous system responses E - Emotion: feelings & attitude Self-concept & worth Emotional body image Tonal responses of motor system Attitude, social skills, opinions

An pnuemonic for the limbic system is that the limbic system M.O.V.E.'s us.... Explain

activate the reward pathay - interest them and they can learn as ADHD afftes all aspects of attention

As discussed in lecture, how can you enhance learning in children affected withADHD

White matter

Association fibers, Commissural fibers, Projection fibers are an example of what type of matter?

Collaterals

Axons can branch these are refered to as....

Axons of the ganglion cells these are also the only cells in the eye that fire an action potential

Axons of what cells in the eye form the optic nerve?

Between arachnoid and pia mater

Between what two layers of meningies is CSF found and what is this space refered to as?

Bilateral

Both Sides

day 28

Brain development begins day ___ and is not fully complete until mid 20s (cerebral cortex is last to develop)

Sensory intergration and somatosensory informaotion

The Parietal lobe is responsible for...

thoracic spinal cord

Cell bodies of the sympathetic nervous system is found...

Gray matter in the brain

Cerebral cortex refers to:

peripheral nervous system

Cranial nerves are primarily considered in what division of the nervous system

computed tomography xrays through the body detailed bony impages stroke,intracranial pressure (grate fro disagnosing stroke, hemoraging and bone issues) hypodense areas show stroke as opposed to hyperdense pg 88 tables exposes individual to radiation

Decribe a CT Scan (Important)

Acute: indicating minutes or hours to maximal signs or symptoms Sub-acute: Progressing to maximal signs and symptoms over a few days Chronic: Gradual worsening of signs and symptoms continuing for weeks or years

Define Acute vs. Sub-acute vs. Chronic

Cortically blind: The person has no awareness of any visual information due to a lesion in the brain Blindsight: The ability of a cortically blind individual to orient to, point to, or detect movements of visual objects Research suggests that blindsight is contingent on intact function of the retina and pathways from the retina to the superior colliculus and lateral geniculate nucleus.

Define Cortically Blind and Blindsight Why is Blindsight possible?

Incidence: the proportion of the population that develops a new case of the disorder with in a defined time period. Prevalence: The current proportion of the population o the population affected, both old and new

Define Incidence and Prevalence

Recovery of neuronal function after brain injury is influenced by the intensity of rehab and the timing of the rehab relative to the injury. Early rehabilitation is necessary for improved outcomes. Lack of movement after brain injury can lead to loss of function in nearby undamaged areas Preventable by initiating retraining soon after injury Example: rehab started 5 days after stroke = improved function significantly more than rehab started 30 days later Task specific training is key to motor learning & regaining more normal brain function

Describe some of the effects of Rehabilitation on Plasticity

Pain

Describe substance P

NOr epinenphrine *attention / vigilance regulates activity of spinal cord neurons, inhibition of spinothalamce neurons (descending pain inhibition), *regulation of ANS

Describe the Locus Coeruleus and Medial Reticular Zone, there function and their primary nueromodulator

Acetylcholine Object selection / attention (cingulate) Is located in the caudal midbrain. Ascending axons from the PPN project to the inferior part of the frontal cerebral cortex and intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus. influences movement via the following connections: Globus pallidus and subthalamic nucleus Limbic system Reticular areas that give rise to reticulospinal tracts

Describe the PPN (pedunulo pontein nuclous) ist function and primary nueromodulator

Unilateral: Impaired posture, eye movement control, and nausea. Imbalanced signaling vertigo Affects on vestibulospinal system producing a tendency to fall to side of the lesion. Biateral: Impaired vestibular reflexesOscillopsia (world bounces) Lost internal sense of gravity [NO vertigo]

Describe the difference between Unilateral and Bilateral damage in peripheral disorders of the vestibular system

Photoreceptors - light-sensitive to Bipolar cells - transmit info from photoreceptors to ganglion cells to Ganglion cells - output of retina -Axons make up optic nerve (CNII) -Only retinal cells that fire AP

Describe the path and functions of cells in the retina

Tropia 1 eye deviates from forward when both are open Phoria deviation from forward gaze when only 1 eye is open can use binocular fusion to see image OK

Differentiate between Tropia and Phoria

Wallerian Degeneration - Death of distal segment of Injured axon Central Chromatolysis - Death of Soma of Proximal end of injured axon -The cell does not have to die in periphery thanks to Schwann cells and axonal regeneration 1mm per day (1 in per month) - Axonal Regeneration rate (NGF)

Differentiate between Wallerian Degeneration and Central Chromatolysis?

Mechanoreceptors: Respond to pressure and to stretch. Chemoreceptors: Sensitive to chemical concentrations in the blood. Nociceptors: Respond to stretch and ischemia. Thermoreceptors: Respond to very small changes in the temperature of circulating blood (hypothalamus); respond to external temperature changes (cutaneous).

Differentiate between the receptors of the ANS

Action potential arrives at the presynaptic terminal. Membrane depolarization, opening Ca2+ channels. Increased Ca2+ in terminal movement of synaptic vesicles toward a release site in the membrane. Synaptic vesicles fuse with the membrane and release neurotransmitter into the cleft Neurotransmitter that contacts a receptor on the postsynaptic membrane binds to that receptor. Receptor changes shape. Changed configuration of the receptor either: Opens an ion channel associated with the membrane receptor. Activates intracellular messengers associated with the membrane receptor.

Draw the event s at the synapse

PP ANS and Stress (slide 11)

Draw the flow of informtion of the autonomic motor system

Proceeds in general rostral to caudal and proximal to distal (head region to lower body parts, central body parts out to the peripheral body parts

Explain the pattern of physcial development in the womb

Occurs during the embryonic stage: inclolves 2 stages: nueral tube formation (days 18 to 26) brain formation - begins on day 28 and continues beyond the embryonic stage through the fetal stage - (note...the brain is not considered fully developed until the early 20's) -

Explain the process of nuerodevelooemnt and the two stages in which it occurs:

Proliferation (can be disrupted by maternal cocaine use) Migration Differentiation Aggregation When cells stop migrating the aggregate in functional systems - share a common role Function of each nueron depends on the area of the brain where the nueron migrates

Explain the steps of cellular level development.

Cerebellum

Generally speaking, a coordination test would be assessing function of which part of the brain?

Focal - SIngle location (a Tumor) Multifocal - Several nonsymmetrical locations (metasticized tumor) Diffuse- bilaterally symmetrical lesions without crossing midline (Alzheimer's disease)

Focal vs mutifocal vs Diffuse

Extraoccular eye muscle and eye movement.

Gaze stabilization

affects on heart rate, BP, respiration, cranial nerve function...

How might a brainstem lesion affect the autonomic system?

Memory specifically spatial memory

Function of the Hippocampus

Predicting Behavior Selecting Behavior Motor Learning Shifting Attention Spatial Working Memory

Functional connectivity loops of the Basal Ganglia are important for:

cell bodies and dendrites / information processing

Gray matter is comprised of _______ and is important for _______?

Ridges, valleys

Gyri are ____ and Sulci are ____

tentorium cerebelli

HWat dural projection seperates the cerebrum from the cerebellum

loss of vasculature control, temperature regulation & sweating in region supplied by the nerve.

How might the autonomic system be affected by a peripheral nreve lesion

disrupts ascending & descending ANS info at the level of lesion.

How might the autonomic system be affected by a spincal cord injury?

From the most rostral to the most caudal or inferior from their emergence or origination.

How are the cranial nerves listed?

Anterior and Posterior are paired with the opposite canal of the other ear and the horizontals are paired with one another 90 degrees to one another LARP and RALP left anterior right posterior and right anterior left posterior if recipricol parieng does not occur - vertigo (nausea and oculomotor problems

How are the inner ear canals paired?

Neuronal activity can stimulate glial activity Glial activity modulates neuronal activity, synaptic transmission & synaptogenesis Complex mechanisms not well understood Maybe via affecting neurotransmitter release and receptor expression at the postsynaptic membrane.

How do Astrocytes contribute to Expierence-Dependent Learning?

Neuromodulators are released into extracellular fluid and adjust the activity of many neurons. Neurotransmitter is released by a presynaptic neuron and acts directly on postsynaptic ion channels or activates proteins inside the postsynaptic neuron (indirectly).

How do nueromodulators and nuero transmistters differ?

Neurons function by undergoing rapid changes in the electrical potential across the cell membrane.

How do nuerons function?

The WHAT pathway - object identification

How is information in the Ventral stream used??

Limbic System - Emotion Activated limbic areas can produce autonomic responses (e.g., increased heart rate as a result of anxiety, blushing with embarrassment, crying).

How might the limbic system produce an autonomic response?

local potential - just looking at the potential at one point Temporal summation is repated suumation at one point Spatial summation is summation from multiple axons at multiple points

Identify a local potential, temporal potential and spatial summation.

frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal (and limbic)

Identify the 4 primary lobes:

Minimally Conscious State

Identify the Altered state of consciousness: Severly altered consciousness with at least one behavioral sign of consciousness. Signs include following simple comands, gestrual or verbal yes/no, intelligle speech, and movements or affective behaviorsthat are not reflexive

Identify the Basal Ganglia?

Syncope (fainting)

Identify the altered state of consciousness: Brief loss of consciousness due to a drop in BP

Obtunded

Identify the altered state of consciousness: Sleeping more than awake; drowsy and confused when awake

Midbrain (mesencephalon)

In Parkinson's disease, 80 percent of cell bodies die in the...

T6 is "cut off" level for preservation of some important sympathetic input to the cardiovascular & respiratory systems

In a SCI, why is T6 an important cut off?

Impaired / abnormal coping behavior / response to acute stressors Suppressed immune function increased risk of disease / infection Disrupted circadian rhythm Depressive behaviors Hippocampal atrophy memory impairment Weight gain Diabetes Hypertension

In summary, what are the detrimental effects of chronic stress?

grey matter most likely in a ganglia

Information is integrated in what portion of the brain? white or grey matter?

At any age, a blow to the head may cause temporary loss of consciousness. Loss of consciousness results from movement of the cerebral hemispheres relative to the brainstem, causing torque of brainstem diffuse axonal injury / shearing Consciousness may also be impaired by large, space-occupying lesions of the cerebrum.

LOC or Loss of consciouness results from...

Lateral PFC: Goal-directed behavior - choosing action in context Involved in the goal-directed behavior loop Lesion = lack goal direction and behavioral flexibility

Label and note the function of the Lateral PFC What behavioral loop is this structure involved in? What would a lesion of this area result in?

Retina Optic nerve optic chiasm optic tract Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (thalamus) (optic radiation) Primary visual cortex

Label the visual pathway to the cortex

Acetylcholine: usually excitatory Amino acids Glutamate: excitatory Glycine and g-aminobutyric acid (GABA): inhibitory

Lis the fast acting nuerotransmitters

Magnetoencephelography (MEG) type of imaging used to show activity while performing a task

MEG

Dorsal - towards the top Ventral - towards the bottom Posterior - towards the back Medial - towards the midline Rostral - towards the front

Match the directional terms with the best definition as it pertains to the brain: Dorsal Ventral Posterior Medial Rostral

Insula - emotion and sense of self spinal cord - transmit information from brain to body, processing, reflex control cerebellum - balance and coordination frontal - voluntary motor control and higher order function (i.e. personality and decision making) brainstem - life support function (i.e. respiration, heart rate, etc.), arousal, cranial nerve nuclei thalamus hypothalamus - maintain homeostasis basal ganglia - motor control, decision making, reward and behavior temporal - memory, hearing, language parietal lobe - somatosensation and sensory integration occipital -vision

Match the lobes or parts of the brain / nervous system with their general function. Insula spinal cord cerebellum frontal brainstem thalamus hypothalamus basal ganglia temporal parietal lobe occipital

flow chart

Memorize flow chart on cerebrum ppslide 14

Primary Somatosnesory Primary Auditory Primary Visual Primary vestibular

Memorize the table on PP cerebrum slide number 15

4th fetal month, 3rd year of life

Myelation begins in the ____ fetal month; most shealths are completed by the end of the ____ year of life. This process occurs at different rates in each system.

4th fetal month 3rd year of life Remeber: -ability to walk -potty training

Myelination begins in the ____ fetal month; most sheaths are completed by the end of the ___ year of life.

around age two

Myelination of motor neurons not complete until ....

Cerebellum - posture & eye movements Cortex - awareness of head position, to corticospinal tracts Spinal cord - postural LMNs CN XI nucleus - SternoCleoMasteoid & trap Extraocular nuclei - eye movements Reticular formation - posture, nausea, level of consciousness

Name the functions of the pathways: SLIDE 12: MPORTANT Cerebellum (vestibulocerebellar) Cortex (vestibulothalamocortical) Spinal cord (vestibulospinal) CN XI nucleus (vestibulocollic) Extraocular nuclei (medial longitudinal fasciculus) Reticular formation (vestibuloreticular)

Day 18-21

Neurodevelopment begins in embryonic stage around day...

Hippocampus

Neurogenesis does continue throughout life in the human _____.

Activity

Nueronal Connections are _____ dependent

Unilateral

One Side

The central nervous system ends and peripheral nervous system begins where structures are no longer in cased in bone (distal to the spinal nerves)

One way to differentiate between the central nervous system is bone. Explain how so.

Contralateral

Opposite sides

Planning Divergent thinking Decision Making

What aspects compose goals directed behavior

A tract Lemniscus A column A facivulus A Peducle A Capsule Fibre(s)

Other terms for white matter include...

positiron emission tomography injection of radioactive compond/tracer looks at blood flow (minutes), metabolism, receptor binding

PET Scan (important)

MEMORIZE

Pg 503- 504 figure 26.12 and 26.13 and 26.15

CN III - Occulomotor or CN IV - Trochlear or CN VI - Abducens

Problems with what Cranial Nerves would result in Diplopia (double vision)

CN II - Occulomotor or CN III - Trochlear

Problems with what cranial nerves would result in abnormal pupil size?

the shape of their dendritic trees.

Pyramidal cells and stellate cells (neurons in the cerebral cortex) are named according to...

Stroke signs and symptoms by arety affected

Review SLIDE 32 of Support Systems

spatial awaremrnss vs langage function

Right hemisphere vs lefts hemisphere

Coordination and proprioceptionn

Romberg tests is used to assess...

Size of lesion

SIgns and symptoms depend on...

Rotational acceleeration or deceleration of the head - receprtors in semicircle canals - vestibular nuclei - occulomotor nuclei - extraoccular muscles

SLide 50 VOR Pathway - what reflex is used to stabilize sight while walking

Ipsilateral

Same sides

clumsy slow

Sensry Discrimination Disoerder - under responsive

avoiders

Sensory Modulation Disoreder - Over responsive

objective vs subjective

Sign vs Symptom

Signs are objective and symptoms are subjective

Sign vs Symptoms

movememnt of visual object on retina - pretectal area - Medial vestibular nucleous - Occulomotor Nuclei - Extraoccular muscles

Slide 52 Optokinetic Reflex pathway

motor control and higher order functioning such as personality and decision making

The frontal lobe is responsible for...

afferent vs efferent neurons

Soamtosensory vs Somatomotor nuerons

precentral gyrus

Somatamotor gyrus

cells in the area are specificlly aranged to correlate with one particular area of the body

Somatatopic arangement refers to ...

Acute- rapid onset (minutes-hours) vascular Subacute- maximal symptoms within days inflammatory Chronic- gradual worsening for weeks-years tumor or degenerative disease Stable Improving Worsening fluctuating

Speed of onset & progression patterns:

Age 4, around age 16-18 = s.c. ends at ~L1/2 in adults

Spinal cord stops growing around_____ but vertebral column continues until...

Third

Stroke is the ___ highest cause of death

disruption of contralateral sensory information, especially proprioception Rarely can have severe pain (thalamic pain syndrome)

Thalamic Lesions of the relay nuclei might result in...

impaired consciousness (vegetative state) PD, stroke, TBI

Thalamic lesions of the Intralaminar nuclei might result in...

MAgnetic Stimulation of specific area used to asses functional outcomes MEasures the response to stimulation and inactivation with little to no side effects

TMS (important)

pg 408

Table 20.1

used to measure heart and muscle activity

The ECG EMG and EKG (important)

Memory

The Temporal lobe is responsible for...

Brainstem

The ___ consists of many fiber tracts carrying motor and sensory information and is important for control of equilibrium, cardiovascular activity, respiration and other functions.

Cerebellum

The ___ consists of two large cerebral hemispheres and a midline vermis

Insula

The ____ can be found at the cortical surface deep in the sylvian fissure and is important for emotion and sense of self and is part of the limbic system

Longitudinal

The ____ fissure separates the right and left hemispheres of the brain...

lateral (sylvian) fissure/sulcus

The ____ fissure separates the temporal lobe from the occipital, parietal and frontal lobe.

central fissure/sulcus (of Rolando)

The ____ fissure seperates the parietal lobe from the frontal lobe.

Limbic

The ____ lobe is deeper than the 4 primary lobes.

Internal Capsule

The _____ is a collection of axons that run between the cortex and the thalamus and between the cortex and the brain stem

CNS Growth and remodeling continue, but later insults can cause functional disturbances and/or minor malformations.

The _____ is the most susceptible to major malformations between day 14 and week 20.

Basic Functions/ Cranial nerves (respiration, etc...)

The brain-stem is responsible for...

the brain (cranial nerves) or the spinal cord. Craniosacral

The cell bodies of the PNS are found in either...

Peduncles

The cerebellum connects to the posterior brainstem by large bundles of fibers called ...

is ipselateral (left side of the cerebellum functions with the left side of the body and vice versa)

The cerebellum differs from the rest of the brain in that function...

Balance and Motor Coordination

The cerebellum is responsible for...

Processing information

The cerebellum is responsible for...

Anterior and Posterior portions

The coronal plane divides the brain into what two portions?

commissural / connect the two cerebral hemispheres

The corpus collosum is a bundle of ________ fibers that serve to _________.

Commissural Fibers

The corpus collusum is an example of ___ fibers

Tegmentum

The floor of the Mesencephalon (Mid Brain) is called the _____ and consists of the red nucleus and substantia nigra (both invloved with motor control)

motor contro land higeher order functioning such as personality and decision making

The frontal lobe is responsible for...

Superior and Inferior portions

The horizontal plane divides the brain into what two portions?

Regulating metabolic rate, body temp and maintains homeostasis

The hypothalamus is responsible for...

Projection fibers

The internal capsule is an example of what type of fibers?

Regulate blood low increase in heart rate and Blood pressure pupillary dialation epinepjhirine and nor epinenphrine

WHat are the functions of the sympathetic nervous system?

around 21 days old

The nervous system starts forming when an embryo is _____ days old

Frontal Lobe

The prefrontal cortex, responsible for motor movemnt is found in what lobe?

Tectum

The roof of the Mesencephalon (Midbrain) is called the _____ and contains nuclei involved in vision and hearing

the first level of lumber vertebrae

The spinal cord ends at what level of lumbar veterbrae?

thirty one

The spinal cord is divided into ____ segments

the cerebral cortex

The surface of the cerebral hemispheres are refered t oas

forebrain

The telencephalon is a component of the...

4 plus the limbic and insula makes 6 lobes per hemisphere

There are ___ primary lobes.

motor control, motivation, attention, multitask

WHat are the main functions of the Basal Ganglia?

EPSP - Local depolarization is an excitatory post synaptic potential IPSP - Hyper polarizationis a n inhibitory post synaptic potential

WHat is EPSP and IPSP

Sensation, Motor

Typically dorsal areas of the spinal cord have to with_ ____ while ventral areas are associated with ____ control.

cross

Upper motor neurons ____ before innervating their target and therefor innervative the ipselateral side?

autonomic/visceral nervous sytem

Visceral motor or visceral sensory are terms referring to the...

Vertigo due to disturbance of spatial orientation in vestibular cortex Imbalance of vestibular signals results from damage to vestibular organs, nerve, nuclei, cerebellum

WHat is Vertigo

Limbic System A continuum that begins with fear or frustration and proceeds to anger, range, and violence, in that order. A highly volatile emotional reaction that escalates as the emotions mount.

WHat is the F^2ARV Continum?

the internal jugular vein

WHat is the main drain of the brain

nicotinic receptors

WHat type of receptors are located at the skelatol muscles and limbic areas

Dorsal Root ganglion

WHere would you find the cell body of a first degree Somatosensory Nueron

Pineal Gland Circadium rhythems, regulation of hormone secretion

Wha tare the functions of the Epithalamus?

PET scans and CT scans involve exposure to radiation but CT scanning has the advantage of being quick while MRI's are quite lenghty (especiialy for FMRI) PET scans are as long, shows brain activity and can be specialized in some cases

Whar were some of the Pros and Cons of the different methods of nuero imaging as discussed in lecture?

Serotonin - Generalized arousal level Norepinephrine - Attention (direction of consciousness) ACh - Selection of object attetnion Dopemine - Motivation, motor activity and cognition

What 4 nuromodualtors are important in consciousness and what aspect of consciouness are they affecting?

5 (IV) - Trigeminal: Chewing 7 (VII) - Facial: Movements of the Face (vexinator and food pocketing) 9 IX) - Glossopharangeal : Swallowing reflex 10 (X) - Vagus : Larnynx control 12 (XII) - Hypoglossal : Tongue Movement

What Cranial nerves are involved in swallowing?

The need to be motivated and engaged Learning how to learn

What are 2 core principals of nueroscience and learning?

When neurons compete for synapses, must have proper experience for normal development of the system

What are critical periods?

Abnormal, uncontrolled expression of emotions

What is Emotional Lability

Norepinephrine, Serotonin, and Dopamine Norepinephrin and Dopamine - Motivation ,Schizophrenia Serotonin and Dopemeine - aggression and harm avoidance Norepinenphrine and serotonin - Anxiety and irratibility

What three specific nuerotransmitters are important in emotion cognition and mood?

Somatic nervous system: Motor neuron activity increases muscle tension. Autonomic nervous system: Sympathetic activity increases blood flow to muscles and decreases blood flow to the skin, kidneys, and digestive tract. Neuroendocrine system: Sympathetic nerve stimulation of the adrenal medulla causes the release of epinephrine into the bloodstream. Epinephrine increases cardiac rate and the strength of cardiac contraction, relaxes intestinal smooth muscle, and increases metabolic rate.

What three systems create the stress response?

Lateral vestibulo spinal tract

What tract is important for controlling postural muscles in the limbs and trunk

THE MLF medial longitudinal faciculus

What tract is important that essesntailly connects everything in eye movement

PFC and the TPAC

What two areas maintain, manipulate, and update information in working memory?

falx cerebri separates cerebral hemispheres, tentorium cerebelli separates cerebrum from cerebellum

What two dural projections seperate parts of the brain?

Concentration gradient and dthe electrical gradient

What two forces determin ion distribution across the plasma membrane

IQ tests do not require complex decision making and therefore they can still take pen and paper multiple choice tests

Why might IQ tests not accurately gague damege to the lateral prefrontal cortex and the goal directed behavior loop?

Goal -relevent , short time

Working memory maintains ______ information for a ____ time.

Association Fibers

____ fibers connect one part of cerebral cortex to another in the SAME hemisphere

ganglia or nuclei

____ is a term that refers to a collection of cell bodies

White

____ matter conveys information

declarative (explicit) memory

____ memory requires attention during recall.

Cellular neuroscience

_____ considers distinctions among different types of cells in the nervous system and how each cell type functions.

Cognitive neuroscience

_____ covers the fields of thinking, learning, and memory.

Behavioral neucroscience

_____ examines the interaction among systems that influence behavior.

Afferent, Efferent

_____ fibers carry information toward the CNS and ___ fibers carry information away from the CNS.

Projection fibers

_____ fibers connect cerebral cortex to other structures in the brain and spinal cord.

Commissural fibers

_____ fibers connect cortex in one hemisphere to the OTHER hemisphere

Efferent

_____ fibers would carry motor information from the brain to the muscles.

Afferent

_____ fibers would carry sensory information from the body to the brain

Molecular neuroscience

_____ investigates the chemistry and physics involved in neural function

Somatic

_____ is synonymous with the body and voluntary

a synapse

a dendritic spine is indicative of

fear and emotional response, memory

amygdala

vison

bipolar

day 28

brain formation begins on day...

a peripheral nerve is recieving information from multile spinal nerves

how does a spinal nerve and a peripheral nerve differ?

Ipselateral contralateral - if the facial nerve is affected it will only be the lower mouth

if a cranial nerve is damaged the dysfunction is... If the tract is damaged the dysfunctiion is ...

the largest most myelinated and therefore proprioception is often the first sense affected in peripheral nueropathy

on what axons do proprioception signal move?

cell body

the soma is the...

vertebral arteres via the spinal arteries

the spinal cord receives blood from...

Around the sympathetic nervous system

Anatomically, parasympathetic refers to...

important for mood, arousal, sleep

Describe 5-HT (serotonin)

important for ANS function and at neuromuscular junction, also for arousal (in striatum), decreased HR

Describe ACh (acetcholine)

important for reward / goal oriented behavior / addiction and in motor control

Describe Dopamine

main inhibitory neurotransmitter, sedation / sleep

Describe GABA

main excitatory neurotransmitter, learning and memory

Describe Glutamate

magnetic resonance imaging grate images of soft tissue to include detailed brain and spinal cord anatomy T1 weighted - bright fat (shows anatomy) T2 weighted - bright water (shows leisons) instead of densitties intensities are used hyper vs hypo dense

Describe MRI (Important)

important for ANS function (sympathetic), mood, attention, increased HR

Describe Norepinephrine

Sympathetic - branches a lot / system wide effects Para - Doesnt branch much / target specific effects

Describe how the location of ganglia differ in the sympathetic and parasympatheitc nervous system

Can affect just one attentional ability or more than one Dual tasks are frequently used during therapy (divided attention). People with severe traumatic brain injury have deficits in total, selective, sustained, and switching attention. An example of a deficit affecting one attentional ability is the failure of children with autism to orient to others' eyes during conversations.

Describe impairde attention

occur with lesions to either the brainstem or the cerebrum. Damage to RF and/or ARAS interfere with consciousness. Damage to cerebrum interfering with hypothalamic/thalamic activating areas or with the function of the entire cerebral cortex may also impair consciousness.

Describe some of the causes of the disorders of consciousnenss

Preganglionic -Short- these act on another cell body Post ganglionic - Long - these work directly on the target organ Autonomic nervous system works as a TWO nueron system This goes for both sympathetic and parasympatheic Colections of cell bodies in the periphery are refered to as ganglia In the sympathetic nervous system, these ganglia are located closer to the spinal cord (T1- T4 and T10) Draw this shit out

Describe the length of pre and post ganglionc nuerons in the autonomic nervous system. Long or Short? pg. 176

INDIVIDUALS of the south east prone to stroke

Describe the stroke belt

Which way is up - otolithic organs (little rocks) - Head position relative to gravity Which way am I going - semicircular canals -Rotational movement

Differentaite between the structures that give the information of: "Which way is up?" and Which way am I going?"

Areas in the medulla regulate heart rate, respiration, vasoconstriction, and vasodilation via signals to autonomic efferent neurons in the spinal cord and by signals conveyed in the vagus nerve. Areas in the pons are also involved in regulating respiration.

How do the functions of the medulla and pons differ in the control of autonomic functions?

reflexive go strait to the superior colliculous and cranial nerves while voluntary saccades have input from the mid brain and lateral prefrontal cortex imporartant in goal directed behavior

How do the tracts of reflexive saccades and voluntary saccades differ?

Solve the problems of everyday life and the achievement of big tasks

How does Carey describe the function of the brain?

Delirium

Identify the altered state of consciousness: Reduced attention, orientation and perception, associated with confused ideas and agitation

Stupor

Identify the altered state of consciousness:: Arousalable only by stong stimuli, including strong pinching of the achilles tendon

Coma

Identify the state of alterd consciousness: Unarousalable, no response to strong stimuli including strong pinching of the achilles tendon

Bipolar (internueron) Psuedo- unipolar (sensory) Multipolar (motor)

Identify the three structures of neurons and there function. Bipolar Pseudo-uni-polar Multi-polar

failure of anterior neuropore (cranial end) to close leads to anencephaly. Portions of the brain do not develop, skull does not form. about 0.1 percent of births Causes include: chromsomal abnormailities, maternal nutritional defiencices and maternal hyperthermia. At most these infants die with in the first weeks of life

In the Brain, what are some potential nueral tube defects?

mdPFC: perceives other's emotions, makes assumptions about what other people believe & their intentions. vPFC: connects with areas that regulate mood (subjective feelings) and affect (observable demeanor).

In the PFC, differentiate between the functions of the Medial Dorsal PFC (mdPFC) and the Ventral PFC (vPFC)

the dermatome becomes the DERMIS?

In the Somite

vison

In what system are bipolar nuerons commonly found?

Amines: dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin, histamine Peptides: hormones, neurotransmitters, neuromodulators (substance P, calcitonin gene-related peptide, galanin, opioid peptides) Nitric oxide: diffusible transmitter

List the slow acting nuerotransmitters

Somatic

The _____ nervous system innervates the skin, muscles and joints and is voluntary

Autonomic

The _____ nervous system innervates viscera and is automatic/ involuntary

Thalamus

The _____ or "gateway to the thalamus" is a constellation of nuclei that relay most of the information reaching the cerebral cortex from the rest of the CNS

Peripheral, Central

The _____ visual lands on the nasal retina The _____ visual field lands on the temporal retina

Problems with nueronal migratory processes amy result in ectopic nuerons and/or nueronal disorientation Minor problems: developmental dyslexia Major probelms: microencephaly, lissescephaly, macrogyria and other major deficits seizures

What are some potential cell migration and aggregation problems?

Orienting: ability to locate specific sensory information from among many stimuli Divided attention: ability to attend to two or more things simultaneously Selective attention: ability to attend to important information and ignore distractions Sustained attention: ability to continue an activity over time Switching attention: ability to change from one task to another

What are teh differnet types of attention

dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater

What are the 3 layers of menigies that cover the brain and spinal cord superficial to deep?

Focal Partial Seixures Generalized Seixures - Absence seizures: Are identified by a brief loss of consciousness without motor manifestations. - Tonic-clonic seizures: Begin with tonic contraction of the skeletal muscles, followed by alternating contraction and relaxation of muscles (~1 minute each). Often the temporal lobe is the sight of origin of seizure activity - in extreme epilsepy temporal lobe is removed

What are the 3 variations of Seizure

Aphasia Apraxia Agnosia Asterognosis

What are the 4 A's of Cortical Dysfunction

Cervical, Brachial, Lumbar, Sacral (sometimes lumbar and sacral is combined into the lumbosacral)

What are the 4 plexuses?

Epidural - artery rupture -usually lose consciousness / become comatose from moment of trauma, severe, deadly, need immediate attention Subdural—venous rupture-variable onset (acute, subacute, chronic), Intraparenchymal—within the brain—variable onset, increased pressure = headache, vomiting, drowsy, LOC, confusion, unequal pupil size, slurred speech, increased BP lethargy, seizures, unconsciousness

What are the different callsifications hematoma? (importatn)

-70mV - Resting Membrane Potential -55mV Gate Threshold +30mV top of peak -90mV is bottom of hyperpolarization

What are the different voltages associated with the different stages of action potential firing?

4 rectus muscles on anterior ½ of eyeball Horizontal movements -Lateral rectus (CN VI - Abducens): Abducts -Medial rectus (CN III - Occulomotor): Adducts Vertical movements -Superior rectus (CN III - Occulomotor): Up -Inferior rectus (CN III - Occulomotor): Down 2 Oblique on posterior ½ of eyeball (movement is opposite of what name implies) -Superior (CN IV - Trochlear): rotation & moves pupil DOWN when adducted -Inferior (CN III - Occulomotor): moves pupil UP when adducted

What are the six muscles that control eye movement and what are there corresponding cranial nerves?

Increases HR Increases BP Bronchodialation Increase in respiration Decrease bloodflow to GI system Pupil Dialation FIGHT OR FLIGHT norEpinephrine - Primary Nuerotransmitter

What are the themes of the sympatheic nervous system?

3 different types of memory: 1. Working: temporary storage and manipulation of information Ex. "Oops, didn't write that appointment down fast enough, will have to call back for the exact time!" 2. Declarative: facts, events, concepts, and locations Ex. "I KNOW the hippocampus is important for memory" Ex. "I remember meeting you, but tell me your name again?" 3. Procedural: knowledge of how to do actions and skills Ex. "Just like riding a bike"

What are the three different types of memory?

Autonomic Dysreflexia Poor Thermoregulation - risk of heat stroke Orthostatic Hypotension - fainting

What are the three key features of complete SCI at T5 and up?

Major arteries of the brain: Anterior cerebral-from internal carotid Middle cerebral-from internal carotid Posterior cerebral-from basilar (which is from vertebral aa.)

What are the three main arteries of the brain?

1. relay sensory information (relay station) except for olfaction 2. Integration of sensory information 3. Regulation of level of arousal and attention

What are the three main functions of the thalamus?

1. relay sensory information except for olfaction (relay station) 2. Sensory integration 3. Regulation of arousal consciouness and attention

What are the three main functions of the thalamus?

Major arteries of the brain: Anterior cerebral (ACA) -from internal carotid Middle cerebral (MCA) -from internal carotid Posterior cerebral (PCA) -from basilar (which is from vertebral aa.)

What are the three major arteries of the brain?

ACh, epinephrine, norepinephrine

What are the three nuerotransmitters used by the autonomic nervous system?

Habituation and Expierence-Dependent

What are the two types of nueroplasticity discuseed in lecture?

Usually occurs late in life; many causes exist. Generalized mental deterioration: disorientation impaired memory Impaired judgment Impaired intellect common causes multiple infarcts, Alzheimer's disease, diffuse Lewy body disease, Parkinson's dementia, and chronic traumatic encephalopathy.

What is Dementai?

Diffuse Lewy body disease: Progressive cognitive decline, memory impairments, and deficits in attention, goal-directed behavior, and visuospatial ability

What is Diffuse Lewy Body Disease?

preception of imbalance Dysfunction of somatosensory, basal ganglia, cerebellum, complete loss of vestibular function, brainstem /cerebellar tumor

What is Disequlibrium

Divergence and convergence contribute to the distribution of information throughout the nervous system (seen coomonly in vertibular nuclei and visual nuclei) Convergence: multiple inputs from a variety of cells terminate on a single neuron Divergence: single neuron with many branches that terminate on a multitude of cells

What is Divergence and convergence

Dysarthria: Speech disorder resulting from spasticity or paresis of muscles used for speaking Spastic dysarthria: Harsh, awkward speech Flaccid dysarthria: Breathy, soft, imprecise speech

What is Dysartha?

Caused by excess gluatate -Stroke -TBI -Nuerodegenerative Disease cell death due to overexcitation of neurons Overexcitation due to excessive glutamate released from nearby dying cells Excess glutamate results in increases in intracellular calcium that triggers a series of events leading to cell death

What is Excitotoxicity?

Antibodies destroy voltage-gated Ca2+ channels in presynaptic terminal decrease ACh leading to muscle weakness

What is Lambert-Eaten syndrome

Motor preservation: Uncontrollable repetition of movement

What is Motor Preservation?

involuntary back & forth movement of eyes) Imbalance of info to the VOR system

What is Nystagmus

A collection of blood (bleeding) Epidural Hematoma - above the dura Subdural Hematoma - below the dura Intracerebral/Inraparenchimal Hematoma - within the brain.

What is a Hematoma?

open in response to a neurotransmitter binding to the surface of a channel receptor on a postsynaptic cell membrane.

What is a Ligand gated chanel?

Metabolic Activity - blood flow and activity in the brain USefule for strokes to asses disruption of the blood flow

What is a PET scan/ Angiography most likely to be used for?

2 point discrimination

What is a test that is used in distinguishing between 2 close stimuli

adhesion ofnthe spinal cord to the veterbral column and puts pressured on the nerve roots and spinal cord. symptoms include: dermatomal and myotomal deficits in the lower limbs, pain in the saddle region and lower limbs, bowel and bladder dysfunction

What is a tethered cord and what are the symptoms?

open in response to changes in the electrical potential across the cell membrane.

What is a voltage gated channel?

Infarction (i.e. blockage of cerebral blood supply lack of oxygen to arterial targets) Embolus clot from somewhere else Thrombus clot remains in place, develops over time

What is an Infarction and what are the two subcategroies of an infarction?

Habituation is the process utilized by therapists to reduce pathological response to some stimulus (example is tactile defensiveness) A decrease in response to a repeated, benign stimulus One of the simplest forms of neuroplasticity. Effects are short term (if stimulus is removed) With prolonged stimulation - structural changes

What is habituation?

Forebrain malformation: if brain does not divide into two cerebral hemispheres Associated with facial abnormalities: a single eye (or no eye), a deformed nose, and cleft lip and palate Ranges in severity Die soon after birth - only mild facial abnormalities Typically some intellectual disability

What is holoprosencephaly

Forebrain malformation : If the brain does not divide into two cerebral hemispheres Asssociated with facial abnormalities: a single eye (or no eye) , a deformed nose, and cleft lip and palate Ranges in severity: typucally dies soon after birth - only mild facioa abnormalities typically some intellectual disability

What is holoprosencephaly?

The ability to form concepts and to reason Concept formation and reasoning involve memory and ability to process mental events. Scores on psychologic tests of intellect are unrelated to real-life behaviors, because drives, education, socialization, and social awareness strongly influence behavior.

What is intellect?

a loss or lack of oxygen to an area

What is ischemia?

adjusting the shape of the lens in response to visual stimulation As an object gets closer, the light rays must be bent more so that they still converge on the retina; this is done by changing the shape of the lens accommodation Important function in the near triad

What is meant by accomodation

Ascending reticular activating system (ARAS)

What structure is important for Regulation of Consciousness

The Cerebellum

What structure is involved in coordination of movement so that movement is smooth rather than clumsy?

midbrain (mesencephalon), pons, and medulla oblongata

What structures are included in the brainstem?

Ventral Striatum, Cingulate cortex, Thalamic Nuclei, Fornix, Hippocampus, Parahippocampal Gyrus, and Amygdala

What structures are responsible for memory?

Cerebellum and the Brain-stem

What structures compose the Hindbrain?

ACh - Muscarinic - G-protein coupled (i.e. slow / metabotropic) epinephrine and norepinephrine - Adrenergic Receptors - Two groups exist, α and β, with subtypes for each "Beta blockers" are Beat 1 and decrease heart rate Beata 2 prevents airway constriction and is used in asthma treatment

What types of receptors correcspond to ACh What type of receptors correspond to Epinephrine and Nor epinephrine?

problem solving

When thinking of working memory think....

stress response

When you hear the HPA axis two wrod you should think od=f are ....

Ligand gated channel are typically found at the synapse and voltage gated channels are typically found at the axon in propogation of the action impulse

Where are ligaand gated channels and voltage gated channels typically found

Lower than the L1 vertebrae to avoid the spinal cord

Where are lumbar punctures performed at and why?

in the pons

Where is the vestibular nuclei located?

pre-central gyrus

Which Gyrus discussed in class is responsible for motor control?

Multipolar

Which morphological configuartion of nueron is the most common

Norepinephrine

Which nuerotransmitter is released by most sympathetic postganglionic nuerons?

ACh and at the internueron synapse???

Which nuerotransmitter is shared by both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system and where? (PP ANS and Stress slide 19)

behavioral neuroscience

Which of the following deals with interactions among systems?

brain stem

Which of the following regulates vital bodily functions?

Otolithic Organs

Which organs respond to head position relative to gravity (liner acceleration and deceleration) (which way is uP)

Refractory Period

Which period of the action potential ensures the action potential only moves in one direction?

left

Which side of the brain would likely be affected in a stroke if the imapirment seen was langauge impairmnet

Right

Which side of the brain would likely be affected in astroke if the impairment seen was spatial awareness

The Cornea - the transparent lens

Which structure of the eye is important for light refraction?

Aqueous humor Vitreous humor

Which structure of the eye provides nurishment to the cornea What structure of the eye maintains the spherical shape of the eyeball?

Central vestibular system

Which system discussed in class is a good example of convergence and diveregence?

Autonomic

Which system is important for control of the viscera?

vestibular cortex

Which target of the vestibular nuclei adffords conscious awareness of head movement

Pseudi-unipolar

Which type of nueron is the somatosensory nueron

Pseudo-uni-polar

Which type of nueron is the somatosensory nueron

Visceral nociceptive afferents have additional connections including: Somatosensory nociceptive afferents (contributing to referred pain) Somatic efferents (to produce muscle guarding)

Which type of nuerons produce muscle gaurding?

they fail to take into account the enviornment

Why are most scores on psychologic tests of intellect unrelated to life behaviors?

They come out of the cranium and foramen magnum

Why is the accessory CN, a cN?

Cortical Cortical plasticity & reorganization drive functional recovery after stroke (BDNF contributes). Can take years Reorganization after a nerve injury may be a factor in some chronic pain syndromes. Examples: musicians, SCI, phantom limb, stroke recovery, deafness, blindness

______ maps can be modified by sensory input, experience, learning, and brain injury.

3rd month, the spinal cord stops between l1 and l3 - this can result ina tetherd cord

after the ____ month in nuero devlopment, the vertebral colum grows faster thatn the spinal cord bc...

Imaging of the arteries contrast into arteries (WADA test) When an MRI machine is used for this the scan is refered to as an MRA

angiography (important)

Support systems pp slide 30,31,32

familiarize your self with the coartical areas affected by MCA and ACA and PCA

the largest most myelinated

in peripheral nueropathy what axons are effcted first?

Adrenal Medulla

the _____ is specialized to release epinephrine and norepinephrine directly into the blood.

Medial Temporal Lobe - the hub of declarative memory processing

the hippocampus, a structure cruical in moemory is found in what lobe?

PET scan (positron emission tomography)

what is a common imageery for blood flow and activity (metabolism)

stretch

wht type of sensation do muscle spindles respond to?

quick node-to-node jumping of action potential down a myelinated axon = faster signal cunduction than without myelin

Define Saltatory Conduction:

Trophia: Deviation of one eye from forward gaze when both eyes are open Phoria: Deviation from forward gaze apparent only when person is looking forward with one eye and other eye is covered Binocular fusion: Blending of the image from each eye to become a single image

Define Trophia Phoria Binocular vision

To control intractable epilepsy Conflicts between hands Compensation allows normal interactions and performance In right hand, can name object but not demo its use In left hand, can demo its use but can't name it

Define a Callosotomy and Why it might be done?

perception stream (ventrl) Action stream (dorsal)

Define the stream of visual information: 1. the where 2. the what

Ectoderm - sensory organs, epidermis, NERVOUS SYSTEM!!! Mesoderm - dermis, muscles, skelton, excretory, circulatory Endoderm - gut, liver, pancrease, respiratory

Describe what aspects of the embyo are transformed into stuructes of the infant?

Serotonin Modulates general level of arousal Mood*Modulates brainstem & cerebellar activity*Regulates spinal cord activity (sensory, motor, ANS) fast descending pain inhibition

Descrie the Raphe Nuclei, its function and primary nueromodualtor

Dopamine Initiation of behavior / movement Most dopaminergic neurons are in the midbrain. 2 areas: Ventral tegmental area (VTA): part of reticular formation Substantia nigra: part of basal ganglia circuit (motor control) VTA nucleus accumbens feelings of pleasure and reward. Morphine is habit forming because it inhibits inhibitory inputs to the VTA.

Descrine the VTA (Ventral tegmental area) , its function and primary nueromodulator

Which way is up - otolithic organs (little rocks) - Head position relative to gravity Which way am I going - semicircular canals -Rotational movement

Differentaite between wjat structures give the information of: "Which way is up" and Which way am i going"

Brocas Aphsia - Difficulty expressing oneself using language or symbols

Differentate between Wernickies and Brocas Aphasia

Multipotent can become any type of cell in that tissue (pluripotent can be any kind of cell) Neural progenitors limited proliferation, become neurons or glia Intermediate progenitors will become neuron

Differentiate between Multipotent and Pluripotent cells and Neural Progenitors

The patterns switch wherein the brain white matter is deeper to grey matter but in the spinal cord, white matter is more superficail to the grey matter

How does the pattern of grey matter and white matter differ between a cross section of the spinal cord and the brain?

V1 - Primary visual cortex -details of visual information V2 - Secondary Visual Cortex -motion & color analysis, fixation -analytical information V1: intensity of light, shape, size, location of objects V2: analysis of motion, color, control of fixation

How does the processing of information differ between V1 and V2

The WHERE pathway - motor planning (action selection)

How is information in the dorsal visula stream used?

How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?

Dorsal Horn: 1 Lateral Horn: 2 Ventral Horn: 3

Identify: Dorsal Horn Lateral Horn Ventral horn

preembryonic stage - conception to day 14 embryonic - day 15 to the end of the 8th week fetal stage - Week 8 to birth

List the timelines associated with the developmental stages in utero:

1. Primary Sensory Cortex 2. Secondary Sensory Cortex 3. Association Cortex 4. Motor Planning areas 5. PRimary Motor Cortex

What are the five Ctegories of Cortex?

MARMU Musculocutanous Axillary Radial Median Ulnar

What are the five branches of the brachial plexus

Amygdala (fear & disgust) Area 25 (sadness) Mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus (sadness) Ventral striatum (reward) Anterior insula (awareness)

What are the five structures involved emotion (both recognizing emotional stimuli as wella s generating and percieving emotions

Peripheral Spinal Brain-stem and Cerebellum Cerebral

What are the four regions of the nervous system?

1. Modified filtrate of plasma 2. Circulates from cavities inside the brain to the surface of the CNS and is reabsorbed into the venous blood system 3. Regulates extracellular matrix 4. Provides buoyancy (acts as cushion)

What are the functions of CSF?

Innervates organs, vessels, glands Automatic Contains both sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions

What are the functions of the ANS aka visceral nervous system?

localized Function Primary & secondary sensory Primary motor Motor planning Association

What are the functions of the Cortex?

-Provides sight for the recognition and location of objects. -Provides eye movement control. -Provides information used in postural and limb movement control.

What are the functions of the Visual System?

Goal directed behavior, decision making, involved in the goal directed behavior loop

What are the functions of the lateral prefrontal cortex?

Emotion

What are the functions of the medical prefrontal cortex

endothelial cells composing the endothelial lining of the blood vessels) and the astrocyctes

What are the important compenents of the Blood brain barrier

Alert Lethargic Obtunded Stupor Coma

What are the levels of consciousness

Also known as the pineal gland -circadian rhythms, regulation of hormone secretion

What are the main functions of the Epithalamus?

Glutamate and acetylcholine tend to produce EPSPs; glutamate is the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS—learning and memory GABA and glycine usually produce IPSPs; GABA is the most abundant inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS—sedative

What are the most prevalent IPSP and EPSP nuerotransmitters?

Episodic - specific personal events (the 'episodes' of your life) Semantic - acquired common knowledge, not based on experience (vocab)

What are the two categories of Declarative memory?

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic

What are the two divisions of the ANS

(1) Conveying Information from the body to the brain and from the brain to the body (2) Processing Information

What are the two main functions of the Spinal Cord?

1. Spinothalamic - sensory (pain) 2. Spinocerebellar - integration of info for movement 3. Trigeminalmeniscis - sensory

What are the vertical tracts in the brainstem *

the protein tau In Alzheimer's disease, pathological changes to the protein tau result in accumulation of neurofibrillary tangles inside the neuron. The neuron ultimately degenerates and dies.

What axoplasmic transport associated protein is implicated in Alzheimers disease

nearby axons innervate target of damaged axon Sprouting to the wrong target can cause problems. Example: synkinesis

What is Collateral Sprouting?

Refers to the recall of skills and habits. Is also called skill, habit, nonconscious memory, or implicit memory. Includes perceptual and cognitive skill learning; perceptual skills include object, pattern, and face recognition. Practice is required to store procedural memories. 3 stages of learning: Cognitive determine best strategy Associatvie refine for efficiency Automatic can divide attention Motor, parietal, striatum = motor learning SMA & lentiform nucleus = representation of task Cerebellum, parietal, motor = adjustment to environment

What is Procedural Memory?

Progressive supranuclear palsy: Interferes with the speed and quality of thoughts and with goal-directed behavior

What is Progressive Supranuclear Palsy?

Droopy eyelid - caused by: Horners syndrome of the sympathetic system or lesion of CNIII

What is Ptosis?

'Glia' derived from the Greek word for glue Form a critical support network for neurons Transmit information Cells are categorized by size and function

What is a glial cell?

Tempoparietal assocoaition cortex (TPAC)

What strucutres are involved in perceptual integration

Lateral prefrontal cortex

What strucutres are involved in the organization and categorization of information

Ascending Reticular Activating System (ARAS) - when activated ARAS produces arousal of the entire cerebral cortex

What system is largely responsible for regulation of conscoiusness

large amounts of extracellular sodium Na+ ions and chloride, small amount of potassium K

What three ions are the most prevalent in the propogation of the action impulse?

1. Chronic lower back pain 2. diabetic nueropoathy 3. fibromyalgia lowest incidence huntingtins disease

What three nuerologic disorders have the higheset incidence per 100,00 in 1 yesr in wealthy countries

functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) an electro cap is palceed on the skull to show imaging of an activity

fNIRS

turn off the "self-destruct" program

What are nuerotrophins?

Regulation unconscious and involves hormones many internal organs can function independently of CNS input. two efferent neurons, with a synapse outside the CNS.

What are some distinctions of the autonomic motor system frommthe somatomotor system?

Functional -rapid changes in blood oxygenation (watching as someone performs a task) - Diffusion tinsure imaging and diffusion weighted imaging (DTI and DTW) -diffusion of water in axons/ water movement. ( used for TBI and stroke) DTI looks at white matter tracts (TBI!!!) DWI looks at fluid movement and for lesions or areas of ischemia OTHER USES of MRI: -Spectroscopy - chemical content /biomarkers -Angio and venography contrast can be used to enhance clarity of tumor FLAIR ( fluid attenuated aversion recovery MRI)- T2 image where abckground is suppresed so that lesion is brighter

What are some of the different types of MRI? (Important)

Sensory integration, communication, spatial awareness

What are some of the functions of the parietal association area

Dysphagia - difficulty swallowing (XII) Dysarthria - difficulty speaking (IX) Diplopia - double vision Dysmetria - can't control distance of movements

What are the 4 D's of Brainstem Disorders

Norepinephrine- attention/arousal of the brain, sympathetic nervous system Dopamine- reward/ pleasant sensations/feeling of satisfaction, signaling motor control in the basal ganglia Serotonin- mood Acetylcholine- learning and memory, nueromuscular junction and autonomic nervous system

What are the 4 main diffuse modlatory systems and name their function?

1. Sensory & motor to face / neck, & ANS 2. Vital / 'life support' functions 3. Sleep / wake cycle 4. Level of consciousness / attention

What are the 4 main functions of the brain stem?

Sensory & motor to face / neck, & ANS Vital / 'life support' functions Sleep / wake cycle Level of consciousness / attention

What are the 4 main functions of the brain stem?

Leak channels Modality -gated channels Ligand-gated channels Voltage gated channels

What are the 4 types of membrane channels allow ions to flow across the membrane?

1. Primary Sensory 2. Secondary Sensory 3. Primary Motor 4. Motor Planning 5. Association

What are the 5 categories of Cortex?

Collection of nuclei important for motor control

What are the Basal Ganglia?

Aphasia - Inability to understand and convey speech and emotion (Brocas and Wernickies) Apraxia1,2 - Motor planning dysfunction Agnosia - Inability to interpret sensation and therfore recognize things Astereognosis - Ability to identify and object with out sight

What are the Four A's of Cortical Dysfunction?

Somatomotor, Somatosensory, and Autonomic

What are the three vertical systems?

Language impairment and impairment of the upper extremities

What are two deficits associated with MCA stroke?

Disorder of the protein channels... Disease that involves dysfunction of ion channels Cause some cases of epilepsy and migraines Channelopathies affecting skeletal muscles cause paralysis or slow relaxation following muscle contraction

What is Channelopathy?

Disturbance of spatial orientation in vestibular cortex Imbalance of vestibular signals results from damage to vestibular organs, nerve, nuclei, cerebellum

What is Vertigo?

Cerebrovascular accident also more commonly refered to as a stroke

What is a CVA

A map of visual info from retina to cortex

What is a Retinotopy

Saccadic eye movemnts - rapidly shifthing gaze from one object to another Smooth pursuit - following a moving object with gaze Vergence - Convergence: both eyes coming together to focus on a near object - Divergence: both eyes moving outward

saccadic vs smooth pursuit eye movements vs vergence eye movements (both convergence and divergence) also

The presynaptic axon terminal, or synaptic bouton, is a specialized area within the axon of the presynaptic cell that contains neurotransmitters enclosed in small membrane-bound spheres called synaptic vesicles

what is the synaptic button?

keeping eyes fixed on a target when moving head

what is the vestibualr occular reflex (VOR)

12 Cranial Nerves and Function

Rostral

Another directional term for Anterior is...

Ventral

Another directional term for Inferior is...

Dorsal

Another directional term for Superior is...

Frontal

Another directional term for a Coronol section is a _____ section

Fissure

Another name for a sulcus or the plural sulci is a _____.

subarachnoid / provide buoyancy to

CSF is found in the ______ space and functions to ______ the brain

EEG (electroencephalogram) MEG (magnetoencephalography) TMS (transcrainial magnetic stimulation) PET (Positron emmission topography) CT (computed tomography) MRI ( magnetic resonance imaging) fNIRS (functional near infrared spectroscopy) .... angiography

Define the abbreviations of Nuero imaging: EEG MEG TMS PET CT MRI fNIRS

Focal: limited to a single location (ex. tumor on the spinal cord) Multifocal: limited to several non symmetric location (ex. a tumor that has metastasized to several locations) Diffuse: affects bilaterally symmetric structures but does not cross the mid-line as a single lesion (ex. Alzheimer disease is diffuse b/c it affects cerebral structures but does not cross the mid-line as a single lesion)

Define: Focal Multifocal Diffuse

Generation of new nuerons Occurs normally in the hippocampus & olfactory bulb, can be influenced by lifestyle Stem cells (can self-renew) may be involved in brain remodeling following a neurological injury. Neural precursor cells migrate toward the ischemic area after a stroke though many do not survive

Describe Nuerogenesis

Yaw - left and right Roll - ear to shoulders Pitch - looking up and down

Describe Yaw, Roll and Pitch movemnts of the head

Cones are responsible for color vision (put your C's together) Rods are responsible for Dim Light

How do the functions of rods and cones differ?

Vegetative State

Identify the altered state of consciousness: Complete lack of conscoiousness, with out alteratin of vital functions. Vegetative state is distingusihed from the coma by the following signs; spontanoues eye opening, regular sleep-wake cycles, normal respiratory pattern

Axodendritic synapse Axosomatic synapse Axoaxonic synapse Pre/Post synaptic synapse

Identify the following: Axodendritic synapse Axosomatic synapse Axoaxonic synapse Pre/Post synaptic synapse

Dorsal : Sensory Lateral : Autonomic Ventral : Motor

Identify the functions of: The Dorsal horn Lateral Horn Ventral Horn

Dorsal Column: 4 Lateral Column: 5 Anterior Column: 6

Identify: Dorsal Column Lateral Column Anterior Column

Nuclei

In the central nervous system, groups of cell bodies are commonly referred to as _____?

Arnold - Chiari deformity: inferior cerebellum and medulla are elongagted and protrude into the vertebral canal. Medualla and pons are small and deformed. Hydrocephalus is present Sensory and motor disorders may result sucha s problems with tongue and facial weakenss, deafness, meakness of lateral eye movements, and coordination problems

In the hind brain, what are some potential nueral tube defects?

Grey, Grey

In the spinal cord the synapses between sensory and motor and internuerons occurs in the _____ matter. the cell bodies of the inrenuerons and motor nuerosn are also found in the ___ matter

Failure of posterior nueropore to close resuls in bony defect causing spina bifida Severity depends on amount of nueral tube left open Materanl nutritional defiecits associated with increased incidence.

In the spinal cord, what are some potential nueral tube defects?

Thalamic projections to mPFC FIGHT! Thalamic projections to amygdala FREEZE!

In the sympathetic nervous system, what structures are specicifacally associated with Fight and Flight

incidence- new casses per year per 100,00 people Prevalence- is the old and new cases per 1000 people

Incidence vs prevalence

Oh- (I) Olfactory: Transmitting impulses to the brain from the smell receptors in the mucous membrane of the nose, Sensory Oh- (II) Optic: Sight, Sensory Oh- (III) Oculomotor: extrinsic eye muscles that enable most movements of the eye and that raise the eyelid, Motor To- (IV) Trochlear: superior oblique muscle of the eye, Motor Touch- (V) Trigeminal: Sensation in the face and motor functions such as biting and chewing, Mixed/Both Functions And- (VI) Abducens: movement of the lateral rectus muscle in humans, responsible for outward gaze, Motor Feel- (VII) Facial: muscles of facial expression and anterior 2/3 rds of the tongue, Mixed/Both Functions Virgin- (VIII) Vestibulocochlear: transmits sound and equilibrium (balance) information from the inner ear to the brain, Sensory Girls- (IX) Glossopharyngeal: Lots of Shit*, Mixed/Both Functions Vaginas- (X) Vagus: Parasympathetic control of the heart, lungs, and digestive tract, Mixed/Both Functions And- (XI) Accessory: sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles ,Motor Hymens- (XII) Hypoglossal: Innervates all the extrinsic and intrinsic muscles of the tongue, except for the palatoglossus, Motor

List the 12 pairs of cranial nerves (Oh, Oh, Oh, To, Touch, And, Feel, Virgin, Girls, Vaginas, And, Hymens

nucleus- transcription of DNA to RNA; Mitochondria- production of ATP; Rough endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes- translation of RNA into protein Golgi apparatus- processing and packaging of proteins Cell Membrane (lipid bilayer)

List the fnction of the organelles 1. Nucleus 3. mitochondria 3. rough endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes 4. Golgi apparatus 5. Cell Membrane

1. Goal oriented behavior 2. Sensory integration, problem solving, understanding language and spacial relationships 3. Emotion , motivation , personality

List the functions of the Association Cortex: 1. Dorsolateral Prefrontal Association 2. Parietptemporal Association 3. Ventral and Medial dorsal prefrontal association

Emotion, motivation, and self awareness Emotion loop Lesions cause apathy, loss of abilit to feel emotions, lack of self awareness and of social cues, impulviveness

Locate the Medial PFC List its Function What behavioral loop is this structure importatn in What would a lesion of this structure result it?

Self control and whats relevent Social behavior lop Lesion = lack empathy, guilt, regret, embarrassment = inappropriate / risky behavior, poor judgment, poor social skills, emotional lability

Locate the Ventral Prefrontal cortex List its function What behavioral loop is this structure involved in What would a lesion of this area result in?

Lacunar infarct - small deep arteries, leaves cavities (lacunae) behind Watershed - border areas / anastomoses of cerebral arteries (UE deficits) A watershed area is a region composed of theborder area between two meeting aterial supply hemispheres

What are Lacunae and Watershed in regards to a stroke?

Agonists are drugs that bind to the receptor and mimic the effects of naturally occurring neurotransmitters. Antagonists are drugs that prevent the release of neurotransmitters or bind to the receptor and impede the effects of a naturally occurring transmitter. Cocaine: Blocks removal of DA & NE from synaptic cleft Amphetamine: Increases release of DA & NE

What are agonists and antagonists and what are some common examples?

Language Impairment, Difficulty understanding spatial relationships, Upper extremity impairment, neglect

What are common deficits seen in MCA stroke

projections off the synapse important for learning and memory 1:1 spine to synapse ration abnormal numer or morphology of spines have been linked to intellectual disabilities

What are dendritic spines ? Function? synapse ratio?

NOT RELEASED AT THE SYNAPSE Alter neural function by acting at a distance away from the synaptic cleft. Effects manifest more slowly and usually last longer than those of neurotransmitters, which happen in seconds; the effects last from minutes to days.

What are nueromodulators?

Lenticular dysfunction = movement disorder Caudate / ventral striatal dysfunction = behavioral abnormalities Apathy, with a loss of initiative, spontaneous thought, and emotional responses Excessive activity caudate, anterior cingulate cortex, and ventral prefrontal cortex circuitry obsessive-compulsive disorders (OCDs).

What are some common disorders of the basal ganglia?

Minor problems - developmental dyslexia Major problem - microencephaly, lissencephaly, macrogyria and other major deficits Seizures Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

What are some common disoreder resulting from problems with cellular level development

Autoimmune, metabolic abnormalities, viral infection, trauma, toxin exposure

What are some common ways in which myelin is damaged?

Habituation - general term to describe decreased response to repeated (benign) stimulus (think sensory) Experience-dependent plasticity (think learning & memory / glutamate receptors) -LTD- receptor downregulation -LTP- receptor upregulation (silent to active synapse) Axonal injury & sprouting (think peripheral nerve damage) Functional reorganization (think recovery from stroke or TBI) Excitotoxicity after TBI (think excess glutamate & calcium) Effects of rehab on plasticity (think timing & intensity and task specificity of rehab)

What are the KEY points to remember about Plasticity?

Sclera - white of eye, tough 'wall' of eyeball Conjunctiva - membrane under eyelids attaches to sclera

What are the Sclera and Conjunctiva of the eye?

Aspects of consciousness include: Generalized arousal level Attention Selection of object of attention, based on goals Motivation and initiation for motor activity and cognition

What are the asdpectrs of consciousness?

Mental status Cranial nerves Autonomic function Motor function Somatosensory function Coordination Spinal reflexes Gait

What are the eight categories of nuerologic function that can be testeed in a comprehensive exam?

Cervical enlargement and lumbarsacral enlargement, they are collections of cell body to control the upper and lower extremitites.

What are the enlargements on the spinal cord and what are their function?

fovea - center of retina, only cones, high visual acuity Macula - central line of vision, surrounds fovea

What are the fovea and the macula of the eye?

-Determine whether there is a neurologic disorder. -Whether signs and symptoms are consistent with given diagnosis. -Whether patient requires referral to another provider. -Determine what neural systems require more investigation.

What are the purposes of a screening examination? (BOX 3.2)

Vidsion, Touch, hearing, smaell, taste and vestibular

What are the sensory modalitites?

Anger, fear, disgust, happiness, sadness, surprise

What are the six basic emotions?

Amygdala Ventral Striatum Anterior Insula Medial prefrontal cortex medial thalamic nuclei (medial thalamus) Area 25

What are the six key structures for emotion an emotional regulation?

Lowers HR Lowers BP Bronchoconstriction Slows respiration Increase blood flow to GI system Pupillary constriction Principle functions are energy conservation and storage Nuerons originate craniosacral ACh - is primary nuerotransmitter

What are the themes of Parasympathetic nervous system?

Transient ischemic attack: Brief, focal loss of brain function with a full recovery from neurologic deficits within 24 hours Completed stroke: Neurologic deficits from vascular disorders that persist more than 1 day and are stable Progressive stroke: Deficits that increase intermittently over time

What are the three Episodal classifications of stroke?

Longitudinal fissure Lateral (sylvian) fissure Central fissure

What are the three prominent fissures (sulci)?

Encoding: Processes information into a memory representation. Attention & emotional arousal contribute Consolidation: Stabilizes memories Synaptic (LTP) systems Retrieval: Retrieves memories.

What are the three stages of declarative memory?

pre-embryonic, embryonic, fetal

What are the three stages of development in utero?

Cognitive - Determining best strategy Associative - Refine for efficiency Automatic - can divide attention

What are the three stages of procedural memory

Movement and behavior regulation

What are the two main functions of the basal ganglia?

LTP of excitatory glutamatergic synapses LTD of excitatory glutamatergic synapses Different forms of LTP and LTD can occur simultaneously depending on the type and location of the synapse. Presynaptic via changes in neurotransmitter released Postsynaptic via changes in receptors Plasticity occurs at dendritic spines where synapse:spine ratio is ~ 1:1

What are the two main types of plasticity for learning and memory

History- speed of onset classified Tests and measures- determine probable cause

What are the two parts of a neurological exam?

1. From the dorsal route of the spinal cord 2. Directly into the brain stem via cranial nerves

What are the two routes in which viseral sensory info reaches the CNS

Infarction (i.e. blockage of cerebral blood supply lack of oxygen to arterial targets) Hemorrhagic (rupture of blood vessels = bleeding)

What are the two stypes of stroke and what are the differences between the two?

P-type ganglion cells- small in size; (parvocellular); smaller receptive fields; detect color and detail; 90% of all ganglion cells; M-type ganglion cells- large in size; (magnocellular) large receptive fields; detect low contrast stimuli (light/dark),and movement; 5% of all ganglion cells; (M for movement)

What are the two types of ganglion cells and how do they differ?

1. Infarction (i.e. blockage of cerebral blood supply lack of oxygen to arterial targets) -Embolus clot from somewhere else -Thrombus clot remains in place, develops over time 2. Hemorrhagic (rupture of blood vessels = bleeding) Subarachnoid sudden headache with brief LOC May involve the main arteries, smaller branches, the capillary network, or arteriovenous formations Lacunar infarct small deep arteries, leaves cavities (lacunae) behind Watershed border areas / anastomoses of cerebral arteries UE deficits

What are the two types of stroke?

MacroGlia: 1. Astrocytes (CNS) - star shaped Act as scavengers / clean up Can be stimulated by signals from adjacent neurons or mechanical changes - Ca2+ wave to neighboring astrocytes through gap junctions Can release glutamate and affect neuronal signaling Help form BBB 2. Oligodendrocytes (CNS) - form myelin 3. Schwann Cells (PNS) - do everything but for PNS the only type of glial cell in the PNS!!!! Microglia: Microglia (small, CNS) - CNS immune system Activated during CNS development and following injury, infection, or disease neuroinflammation' Good = clean up and remove unwanted debris Bad = cell death Correlation between abnormal glial activity and neural damage in stroke, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and multiple sclerosis

What are the types of glial cells

MCA

What aretery is mosre commonly associated with stroke?

Medial tmporal lobe Medial temporal cortex Hippocampus

What astructures are involved in declarative memory processing

No rough ER in the cytoplasm of the axon so all proteins and organelles needed in the axon must be transported from the soma. This transport occurs on the microtubules. Is both anterograde and retrograde. Requires tau protein for microtubule stabilization

What axoplasmic transport?

Cerebral Cortex Basal Ganglia Hippocampus Amygdala

What composes the Telencephalon?

Linear acceleration/deceleration Ex. vertical and horizontal movements Not rotational movements Semiciruclar canals repond to rotational movments

What do odelithic organs respond to ?

goal directed tasks

What does Carey note as the underlying factor of the brains information processing?

Prefrontal Cortex and Temporoparietal Association Cortex

What does PFC and TPAC stand for?

Complimentary effects = both produce similar effects (salivary glands) symp = thick saliva, para = watery saliva Cooperative = Different effects that work together to give same outcome (urination: bladder contraction partly by para, symp increases tone = enhace contractile effect Usually have antagonistic effects with exception of bladder, reproductive organs (erection = para, orgasm = symp)

What does it mean when the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems are refered to a complimentary and Cooperative

Ongoing controversy about long-term effectiveness of compensation, remediation, and motor control approaches to stroke rehabilitation. Current research indicates that intensive, task-specific therapy produces significantly better motor function compared with the remediation approach.

What does the current research indicate regarding the best method of stroke treatmetn?

Refers to the functions of a number of structures that surround the corpus callosum;

What does the limbic system refer to?

Cingulate Uncal Central Tonsillar What about the associated structures???

What herniations of the brain are commonly herniated with an increase in intracranial pressure?

EPSP - Soduim IPSP - Chloride

What ions re used in EPSP and IPSP?

Diffuse Nuerodegenerative disease resulting in: Personality changes Rapidly progressing memory impairment Disoriented Paranoid Motion blindness getting lost (can't interpret flow of visual info) Emotional lability

What is Alzheimers Disease

Amnesia is the loss of declarative memory. Retrograde - loss of memories for events that occurred before the trauma or disease that caused the condition. Anterograde - inability to form new memories

What is Amnesia?

Put the P of Apraxia with Planning Apraxia - Motor Planning dysfunction Aphasia - inability to understand or express speech

What is Apraxia? Apahsia?

uncordinated movement (vestibular is impaired with eyes closed + vertigo & nystagmus

What is Ataxia

Autonomic dysreflexia - overactivation of sympathetic NS by in response to noxious stimuli below lesion A. result of lack of cerebral inhibition of tract neurons conveying noxious stimulus info that facilitate sympathetic system B. features include rapid increase in BP, headache, skin flushing & sweating (above lesion level), chills / goosebumps C. can be life threating (if BP too high) D. Position change may help

What is Autonomic Dysreflexia?

both eyes ...

What is BitemporalHemininopsia?

causes interference with the release of ACh from the motor axon. Produces acute, progressive weakness, with loss of stretch reflexes; sensation remains intact.

What is Botulism?

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is modified filtrate of plasma. CSF circulates from cavities inside the brain to the surface of the CNS and is reabsorbed into the venous blood system. Regulates extracellular matrix Provides buoyancy (acts as cushion)

What is CSF and its functions? imortant

CTE occurs following repeated head trauma; an acquired frontotemporal lobe degenerative disease. Causes behavioral and personality changes, memory impairment, parkinsonism, and speech and gait abnormalities Can only de diagnosed at autopsy

What is CTE (Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy)?

movement and postural disorder due to permanent, nonprogressive damage of the developing brain typically results in cognitive, somatosensory, visual, auditory, and speech deficits Common example of growing into a deficit. Spastic: damage to axons adjacent to the lateral ventricles Muscle stiffness & toe walking = scissor gait Dyskinetic: damage in the basal ganglia Hyper or hypotonia = stiffness and abnormal posturing, respectively Jerky or slow writhing movements Ataxic: damage to cerebellum = uncoordinated, weakness, shakiness Hypotonic: ?? = floppy, cannot move Mixed Hemi, quadra, or diplegia

What is Cerebral Palsy?

Cushings = overactive HPA (too much cortisol) = high blood pressure, weight gain/ fat between shoulders, bone loss / wekaness, depression, memory impairment, etc Addison's = underactive = muscle weakness, weight loss, darkening of skin, low blood sugar, depression, etc.

What is Cushings Syndrome vs. Addisons Disease?

Diffuse Axonal Injury (DAI) common in TBI stretching damages axons, causes inflammation Basal ganglia, superior cerebellar peduncle (connects to midbrain, cerebellar efferents), corpus callosum, midbrain Changes in white matter tracts detected by DTI correlated with PCS

What is DAI?

Explicit Memory - Requires attention Recollections that can be easily verbalized; are also called conscious or explicit memory. Requires attention during recall

What is Declarative memory?

Learning and Memory -LTP -LTD Complex process long-lasting changes (synaptic & network) Motor learning Initially large, diffuse regions are activated After learning, only small distinct regions show increased activity during the task New proteins are made, new synapses form, old synapses change, firing patterns change - altered excitability of the neuron Dendritic spines

What is Expierence-Dependent Plasticity

Atrophy of frontal and temporal cortices causes frontotemporal dementia. Two subtypes - Primary progressive aphasia - Behavioral frontotemporal dementia

What is Frontotemporal Dementai?

Nervous system damage occurring early is not evident until the damaged system normally becomes functional.

What is Growing into Deficit

Autoimmune Involves acute inflammation and demyelination of peripheral sensory and motor fibers Occurs 2 to 3 weeks after a mild intestinal infection Abnormal sensations & muscle paralysis (eye & facial muscles commonly affected, chewing, swallowing, respiratory) Rapid onset followed by gradual recovery OT for ADLs (self-care)

What is Guillain-Barré Syndrome?

Horner's syndrome unilateral lesion in descending sympathetic pathway to head ipsilateral drooping eyelid, pupillary constriction, skin vasodilation without sweating on ipsilateral face & neck Occurs as side effect of therapeutic block of sympathetic ganglion in the treatment of complex regional pain syndrome

What is Horners Syndrome?

Hydrocephalus-buildup of too much CSF -setting sun eyes and an enlarged head is a common sign in infants

What is Hydrocephalay? (important)

The buildup of too much CSF when it fails to drain through the venous system resulting in swollen ventricles, enlargement of the head in infants

What is Hydrocephalus?

Conversion of silent synapses to active synapses Activation of NMDA receptor integration of AMPA receptor into postsynaptic membrane More receptors = more ions coming into the cell = increase excitability Occurs in Hippocampus, motor, somatosensory, visual, auditory cortices and cerebellum

What is LTP

Powerful pushing away from the less paretic side in sitting, during transfers, standing, and walking. high risk for falls Resistant to attempts to adjust their posture passively to a symmetrical position. Is sometimes called pusher syndrome or contratraversive pushing. Lesion to posterior thalamus impaired sensation of postural alignment Lesion to vestibular nuclei in medulla Can recover, motor recovery takes longer (~6 months post-stroke)

What is Lateropulsion and MORE IMPORTANTLY what are the associated structures.

Autoimmune Involves demyelination in brain & spinal cord Vitamin D deficiency may increase risk Women > men Numbness & tingling, bladder dysfunction, visual impairment, weakness, altered reflexes Variable onset & prognosis PT and OT helpful to maintain or improve physical function avoid high temperatures and excessive exertion Signs and symptoms: weakness, lack of coordination, impaired vision, double vision, impaired sensation, and slurred speech; disruption of memory and emotions also possible Diagnosis is difficult; MS usually manifests with one sign that may completely resolve. Onset common between 20 and 40 years; women are three times more frequently affected Four types of MS, all named according to the course of disease progression Relapsing/remitting Secondary progressive Primary progressive Progressive relapsing Avoid high temps and overexertion because high body temp believed to interfere with activity of membrane proteins in axons ensure adequate vitamin D3, stress management, regular exercise and proper medical management to try to slow disease progression

What is Multiple Sclerosis?

An autoimmune disease that damages nicotinic ACh receptors at the neuromuscular junction. Repeated use of a muscle leads to increasing weakness. Onset of myasthenia gravis in women typically occurs between the ages of 20 and 30 years; in men, onset most commonly occurs between the ages of 60 and 70 years. Drugs that inhibit the breakdown of Ach usually improve function because they increase the amount of time Ach is available to bind with remaining receptors. Refer to Pathology 6.1 in the text.

What is Myasthenia Gravis?

The interpretation of sensation into meaningful forms. Active process of interaction b/t brain, body, & environment. Involves: memory of experiences motivation expectations selection of sensory information active search for pertinent sensory information

What is Perception?

The ability of the brain to form new connections and the ability of the nervous system to change.

What is Plasticity according to Carey?

Presynaptic facilitation: More neurotransmitter is released. Presynaptic inhibition: Less neurotransmitter is released.

What is Presynaptic facilitation and Presynaptic inhibition?

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) Can enhance or inhibit motor learning and memory formation, depending on the frequency and experimental protocol used. Used to induce a transient "virtual lesion" to assess the impact different brain areas have on motor learning. Magnetic stimulation of the brain is thought to induce synaptic plasticity via LTP- or LTD-type mechanisms.

What is TMS?

Timing: -onset (acute vs. chronic) -duration (3 months) -Episodic vs. continuous -Occurrence (when happens, how long and how often) Triggered: always occurs immediately following a specific movement and only following that movement (i.e. NOT at rest) OM: pure directional nystagmus that may change direction = CNS, mixed direction that does not change direction but worsens with ipsilateral gaze and goes away with fixation = PNS Provocative testing: (look for trigger)Dix-hallpike & HINTS, OH—be sure c-spine OK for testing! Other testing: CNs, coordination, Romberg, tandem gait

What is TTOPO in regards to the differentiation between dizzyness Compliants

Receptive field- the area of retina that when stimulated with light changes the cells membrane potential smaller receptive field ultimately takes up more cortical real estate in V1 smaller receptive field - larger the area of visual cortex

What is a Receptive field?

Occlusion or hemorrhage of arteries supplying the internal capsule is common. Disruption projection axons severe consequences with small lesion (depends on location) Contralateral motor impairment Contralateral loss of somatosensation

What is a Subcortical White Matter lesion and what are some common deficits?

What is a TIA? Completed Stroke? Progressive Stroke?

An area of skin supplied by a specific spinal nerve typically with a 1:1 pairing with slight overlap

What is a dermatome?

a protein that changeds congifuatior that opens an ion channel in the metabotropic nueromudulator process and can also act as sencondary messengers are involved with cell growth, movement and cell death Implicated in MS, schizophrenia, neuropathies

What is a g protien coupled receptor

Hemorrhagic (rupture of blood vessels = bleeding) Subarachnoid sudden headache with brief LOC

What is a hemmoraggic stroke?

Learning is a concept central to nuerorehabilitation Restoration maximizes function

What is a key concept of nuerorehabilitation according to Carey?

open in response to mechanical forces, temperature changes, or chemicals.

What is a modality gated channel?

Motor Unit - alpha motor neuron + it's muscle fibers NMJ - where motor neuron synapses on muscle fiber ACh releases Calcium

What is a motor unit and what is a nuero muscular junction?

A muscle or group of muscles supplied by a specific spinal nerve with significantly more overlap than dermatomes

What is a myotome?

Social behavior and social decision making difficulties with impulse control, inappropriate social behavior, aggression, inability to pick up on social cues Social behavior loop

What is a one word association for the Ventral Prefrontal Cortex what deficits would likely be seen with damage to this area What loop would this be important for

Emotion

What is a one word function for the limbic system

Emotion (could also include motivation) emotion loop Appathy

What is a one-word association with the medial prefrontal cortex? .... and therefore what basal ganglia loop is it important in? damage to this area migth result in...

A general term for a web or network of something

What is a plexus?

anything with the name thalamus in it... thalamus hyputhalamus subthalamic nucluos ad th epithalamus (pineal gland)

What is a quick wayt oremeber the stuructures of the diencephalon

An area of skin innervaeted by a single afferent nueron

What is a receptive field

A sensation is epxerienced when an external/internal stimuli interacts with a sensory receptor

What is a sensation?

disruption in blood flow resulting in lack of oxygen to the tissue - cell death via excitotoxicty

What is a stroke?

Nervous system damage occuring early is not evident until the damaged system normally becomes functional.

What is meant by growing into deficiet?

it has components in all regions of the nervous system

What is meant by stating a system is considered a "vertical" system?

Inflammation of meninges

What is meningitis?

Membranes of the cerebrospinal system may be affected by disease. Inflammation of the membranes that surround the brain and/or spinal cord Signs and symptoms Headache Fever Confusion Vomiting Neck sickness

What is meningitis? (important)

Any pathologic change involving peripheral nerves Often involve destruction of the myelin surrounding the largest, most myelinated sensory and motor fibers Results in disrupted proprioception (awareness of limb position) and weakness

What is peripheral nueropathy?

Identifying an object by touch without visual information

What is sterognosis?

the formation of connections

What is synaptognesis

homeostasis -survival, basic emotions, hormonal

What is teh mai function of the hypothalamus?

Branches of the peripheral nervous system distal to the spinal nerve

What is the Dorsal Ramus, Ventral Ramus, and Rami communicants

thalamic relay of viual information to the primary visual cortex

What is the LGN

Consists of adjustments to view a near object: The pupils constrict, the eyes converge, and the lens become more convex The accommodation reflex requires activation of the visual cortex and an area in the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex (frontal eye field).

What is the Near Triad and what are the involved structures?

The theory that emotions are crucial for sound judgement

What is the Somatic marker hypothesis?

Some processing and all sensory information except smell

What is the Thalamus responsible for?

VOR: action of VESTIBULAR information on the eye position during FAST movements of the head Optokinetic reflex: use of VISUAL information to stabilize images during SLOW movements of the head

What is the VOR VS. What is the Optokinetic Reflex

When one eye is exposed to bright light the other eye constricts -Afferent - Optic Nerve (CN II) -Efferent - Oculomotor (CNIII) pupillary reflex only refers to the action of one eye

What is the consensual reflex and how does it differ from the pupillary reflex?

Collateral - nearby axons innervate target of damaged axon Sprouting to the wrong target can cause problems. Example: synkinesis Regenerative - injured axon's target is also injured so it sprouts to a new target

What is the difference between Collateral Sprouting and Regenerative Sprouting?

Conjugate (same direction) vs. vergence (toward or away from midline)

What is the difference between Conjugate eye movement and Vergence eye movement

On center turn on when hit by light anf off center turn off when hit by light how it acts according to the light in its center is opposite of how it acts when light hits its surrounding thus allows one to pick up contrast and edges of a stimulus

What is the difference between on center and off center cells ?

Fast-acting: those that act directly by activating ion channels (ionotropic) Transmission requires less than 1/1000 of a second. Slow-acting: those that act indirectly by activating proteins in the postsynaptic neuron (metabotropic) Transmission requires 1/10 of a second to minutes.

What is the differnce between fast acting, direct nueotransmitters and slow acting, indirect nuerotransmitters?

Specification of movement with visual guidance - Dorsal stream (the Where stream)

What is the function of the Posterior Parietal Cortex (PPC)

important for attention and arousal

What is the function of the Reticular activating system?

Innervation of the upper extremities

What is the function of the brachial plexus?

visual identification - Ventral stream (the What stream)

What is the function of the occipitotemporal region?

Control of pupillary reflexes

What is the function of the pretectal area?

Discrimination of shape size and texture

What is the function of the primary viual cortex

Analysis of visual information for color and motion

What is the function of the secondary visual cortex

Visual orientation and coordination of head and eye movements

What is the function of the superior colliculus

Higher order processing and emotion

What is the function of the telencephalon?

CT scan

What is the gold standard scan used when storke is suspected that shows detailed boney images as well as a lack of oxygen and disruption of blod flow

A functional group with in the structures of the cerebellum and is involved with emotions and the processing of some types of memory

What is the limbic system/Lobe?

THE MLF! A pathway that connects the cranial nerve nuclei in your brain stem that control extraocular movements

What is the medial longitudinal facisculus?

virtigo

What is the most common symptom of vestibular dysfunction?

vestibulocochlear

What is the name for cranial nerve VIII (8)?

Olfaction (smell)

What is the only sensory that does not need to pass through the thalamus (the gateway)?

Primary role is to maintain optimal blood supply where needed Also regulates body temperature, metabolism, visceral activity

What is the primary role of the sympathetic nervous system

Speed of onset & progression pattern are key factors in determining need for referral

What is the purpose of the nueron exam?

(typically around -65mV to -70mV) book says 70!!! value of electrical potential across the membrane when NOT transmitting information—MUST BE ACTIVELY MAINTAINED to be ready to fire!

What is the resting membrane potential?

-70mV?

What is the resting membrane voltage

post central gyrus

What is the sensory gyrus

Maintains goal-relevant information for a short time. Is essential for language, problem-solving, mental navigation, and reasoning. Complex mental multitasking requires working memory and is central to cognition. PFC and the TPAC maintain, manipulate, and update information in working memory.

What is working memory?

Speed of onset and progression pattern

What key factors determine the need for a refereal to a nuero exam?

Arachnoid

What layer of meninge is defined as the delicate membrane loosely attached to the dura?

Dura mater

What layer of meninge is defined as the tough outer layer with two layers around the brain and one around the spinal cord?

Pia mater

What layer of meningie is defined as tightly apposed to the surfaces of the brain and spinal cord?

Goal directed behavior loop

What loop of the basal ganglia is the lateral prefrontal cortex going to be associated with?

Impaired signal conduction Motor, discriminative touch, proprioceptive, reflex deficits Neuropathic pain

What might happen if myelein is damaged?

Serotonin

What neurotransmitter does the Raphe Nuclei release

Dopamine

What neurotransmitter does the VTA release

Dopemine

What nuerotransmitter doe the VTA relaease

ACh

What nuerotransmitter does the PPN release?

Norepinephrine and Epinephrine

What nuerotransmitter does the locus scurrilous and medial reticular area/zone release?

ACh, Calcium

What nuerotransmitter is important at the nueromuscular junction? What is another ion is important for muscular contraction?

Thorasic Lumbar (T1 - L2) Traveling out to the body

What portion of the spinal cord will cell bodies for sympathetic nuerons be found and where would you find those nuerons axons traveling to?

the VOR Optokinetic Reflex

What reflex is important for stabiliazation of visual information while walking? What reflex is important when following a moving object across the visual field?

CT scan (computed tomography)

What scan is the best to assess stroke?

The caudate, putamen, and globus pallidus, subthalamic nucleous, and substantia nigra

What structures compose the Basal Ganglia?

Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Epithalamus (pineal gland), Subthalamic nucleus

What structures compose the Diencephalon?

the Diencepehelon and the telencephaplon

What structures compose the cerebrum

Diencephalon + Telencephalon (cerebral hemispheres)

What structures compose the cerebrum?

the Hipocampus

What strucute of the MTL (media ltempraol lobe) is imprtant in declarative memory?

Cortisol - Stress Epinephrine and Nor-epinephrine

What two nuerotransmitters ar erelased by the adrenal glands (the kidneys) in the HPA axis

Myelin and increased diameter

What two structural adaptations allow for a faster action potential?

Damage to RF and/or ARAS interfere with consciousness.

What two systems are largely importnat to consciousness

Spinal Nerve

the area in which nerves entering the dorsal root and nerves leaving the ventral root meet is refered to as ...

parietal and frontal

the central sulcus divides the ______ and ______ lobes.

multipolar neuron

wha tis the most common nueron

endoneurium around each axon, perineurium around each fascicle, epineurium around all the fascicles

what are the layers of myelin around the nueron?

nerve growth factor - is released by postsynpatic cell to presynaptic cell required to keep cell alive

what is NGF?

Anything with the name thalamus

what is a quick and easy way to list the structures of the diencephalon?

excitattory (positively charged ions such as sodium or potassium ) /inhibitory postsynaptic potential (negatively charged ions such as chloride)

what is an EPSP/ IPSP

an ion channel opening , a longer multistep process

what is an ionitropic and metabotropic

Nuerons

what is the functional unit of the nervous system

multi-polar neuron

what is the most commonly found neuron

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