NT512a Epistles to Revelations Midterm (Blomberg)

Which of the intended purposes still has application after the coming of Christ? What are a Christian's obligations according to "the law of Christ"?

(1) Believers must love one another, and in so doing they fulfill the entire law (vv. 13- 15; recall v. 6). (2) They must avoid gratifying the "flesh," that is, their sinful natures (vv. 16- 21). (3) By way of contrast, Christians will embody the fruit of the Spirit (vv. 22- 26). (4) Christians must bear one another's burdens, when they become too heavy, while not refusing to shoulder their own responsibilities (vv. 1- 5).(5) Proper financial stewardship, especially in supporting Christian teachers, likewise proves crucial (vv. 6- 10).

What arguments can be made to lend credit to traditional claims of authorship by Paul?

1. But the specific diction clearly reflects Paul's need to reply to the Colossian heresy, and the different style can be explained by Paul's extensive use of traditional materials, 41 and/ or a different amanuensis (scribe) given freedom to write Paul's thoughts in his style (recall above, p. 102). Particularly because Timothy is named with Paul in the opening verse (1: 1), several scholars have suggested that he participated more extensively in the actual composition of this letter than in others in which his name appears as a cosender. The theology of Colossians seems to differ as well, particularly in the arenas of Christology, ecclesiology, and eschatology. Chapters 1: 15- 20 and 2: 9 make some of the strongest affirmations of Christ's deity in the entire New Testament. In 1: 18, Christ appears as the head of his body, the church, rather than believers themselves making up all of the body (as in 1 Cor. 12 and Rom. 12). Finally, the eschatology of the epistles seems more "realized" and less future oriented (3: 1- 3). Colossians and Ephesians turn out to be remarkably similar in style and content. Each resembles the other more than any other letter attributed to Paul. Thus just as with similarities between 1 and 2 Thessalonians, these parallels have afforded further rationale for some to dispute the authenticity of one or both of these letters. But this argument alone typically leads people to doubt Pauline authorship of Ephesians (see below, pp. 303- 4), not Colossians, and if a pseudepigrapher were overly slavishly following a model of a previous letter in attempts to pass his composition off as the work of another individual, he would presumably choose an authentic letter of that individual to mimic. Thus the similarities between Colossians and Ephesians actually speak in favor of the authenticity of Colossians, even on the assumption of Ephesians' pseudonymity.

What does Paul's response to Sabbatarianism in Colossians 2 suggest about the application of Old Testament law to the newly formed Christian community? Which laws are still binding?

1. In verses 16- 17, Paul turns to other aspects of the Mosaic Law (but also of various Greco-Roman religions) that the false teachers were insisting be followed, responding much as in 1 Corinthians 8- 10 and Romans 14- 15: believers should not judge each other on these morally neutral matters. These two verses present some of the clearest teaching in all of the New Testament against Sabbatarianism— the conviction that Christians must keep a Sabbath (whether on Saturday or Sunday) as a mandatory day of rest. 67 All of the ritual or ceremonial laws of the Old Testament have been fulfilled in Jesus (v. 18) and need not be adopted by Christians, even though there are spiritual principles we can learn from each one of them. But only the moral law remains fully in force (recall above, pp. 132- 34).

1. What appropriate responses can be issued when Paul (and by extension, Christianity) is accused of supporting slavery because he does not challenge the institution of slavery directly? By focusing on Christian transformation, how was Paul subtly subverting the institution of slavery, and what other Pauline texts contribute to this subversion?

1. We must not envision slavery in ancient Rome as if it closely resembled the institution that bought and enslaved Africans in the American South (and elsewhere) until after the Civil War of 1861- 65. Slaves held almost every kind of job in the ancient workplace. These included senators, doctors, teachers, all kinds of craftsmen and manual laborers, as well as the more despised trades like rowers or mine workers. This is not to say that Roman slaves were not at times severely mistreated. Female slaves, in particular, were often subject to the sexual whims of their masters. But it is to point out that slaves with good positions and reasonable masters often lived better than many freed persons. 2. Again, unlike the American experience, slavery in the Greco-Roman world was not based on racism but on the subjugation of conquered territories. Thus no visual clues set slaves apart from their free counterparts; people of all the existing races and ethnic groups could become enslaved or freed. Individuals at times even voluntarily sold themselves into slavery in order to pay off debts. 3. There was little ideological precedent for the abolition of slavery. Among Jews, only the Essenes and the Egyptian Therapeutae publicly renounced the use of slaves, and in Greco-Roman philosophy only the sophists opposed it in any consistent fashion. While various slave revolts punctuated pre-Christian history, all without exception failed and most led to ruthless massacres of the insurgents. 4. Closely related to this last point, in a culture that had never experienced any alternatives and in which Christianity had no significant power base, attempts at the emancipation of slaves in general, who comprised perhaps as much as one-third of the Roman population, would almost certainly have failed and perhaps led to the destruction of Christianity in the process. 5. The eventual manumission of slaves in the Roman Empire was normal, with most domestic servants set free by age thirty. 6. Even after manumission, slaves often remained in relationship with their previous masters, at times still owing them financial obligations of various kinds. But the measure of freedom they received required them to provide for their own "room and board," which was often more difficult and at a lower standard than when they worked as slaves, especially when their masters were reasonably prosperous. 7. Perhaps most importantly of all, the main concern of apostolic Christianity involved the inward, spiritual transformation that occurred when human beings were reconciled to God and that enabled them to look forward to a glorious eternity with him, whether they ever experienced the outward, physical liberation from unpleasant circumstances in this world (recall 1 Cor. 7: 17- 24). 30

What textual evidence supports or denies each of these options. Based on cultural context, which option is most likely?

1. Whether one takes the traditional approach to Onesimus as a runaway slave or the more recent understanding of him appealing to an amicus domini, the letter to Philemon provides an excellent illustration of a letter of recommendation (also called a letter of introduction or an intercessory letter). 10 This kind of letter was common among the papyri, designed to introduce the bearer of the letter to its recipient and then to request a certain favor. Often the writer of the letter was a close friend or relative of the recipient and was promising to return the favor in some way. Of course in this instance, Onesimus is already known to Philemon but not as the new Christian he now is. The letter of recommendation naturally takes the form of deliberative rhetoric. 11 While brief, the epistle conforms to the standard Hellenistic letter structure, too, which may be outlined as follows:

1st and 2nd Thessalonians Year Written? Where? What type of letter is it? Who was it written to?

1st Greek city Paul evangelized on 2nd missionary journey. 1st Thess. P. Is writing from Corinth. Between 50 and 52. It's a parenetic or exhortational letter. The rhetoric is deliberative with a good dose of epideitic praise. Paul is writing to commend them and to deal with minding their own business and questions of eschatology. Specifically, what happens when a Christian does. 2nd Thess. 51-52 most likely. Presumably while still in Corinth. Advisory letter. 2nd Thess addresses that Christ is coming, but not that soon.

1. What are some of the key elements of the heresy that has infected the Colossian community, and what Christian doctrines could the heresy potentially affect?

A cautious application of "mirror reading" would suggest the following heretical elements: denial of Christ's full deity (2: 8- 10); requiring circumcision (2: 11- 15); insisting on certain dietary restrictions (v. 16a); participation in weekly, monthly, and annual religious festivals (v. 16b); "the worship of angels" (vv. 18- 19); and other legalistic ordinances (vv. 20- 22), particularly of an ascetic nature (v. 23). The false philosophy seems to have driven a sharp wedge as well between the spirit and the body, perhaps engaging in mystical exercises (3: 1- 4), without paying adequate attention to basic morality (vv. 5- 17). Thus the majority of scholars, ancient and contemporary, agree that the Colossian heresy combined in "syncretistic "fashion both Judaizing and Hellenizing elements. 36 The latter have often been linked more specifically to incipient forms of Gnosticism, particularly in light of the prominent role of the term plēroma (" fullness")— as in 2: 9- 10— which defined the Gnostic godhead. But Clinton Arnold's detailed study suggests that the distinctive twists to the philosophy can be accounted for by local folk superstitions, Phrygian religion, and various mystery cults, so that a uniquely Gnostic perspective need not be presupposed. Combining the elements of the philosophy disclosed by the epistle suggests that the heresy affected three major doctrines— Christology, soteriology, and anthropology.

What significant event in Rome helps enables a reader to understand a large amount of the content of Romans, and how did this event affect the church in Rome?

A crucial event in the recent history of the Roman church that enables us to understand large swaths of the contents of this epistle was the expulsion of Jews from Rome under the emperor Claudius in 49 (recall Acts 18: 2). As we saw there, according to the Roman historian Suetonius, this was due to the instigation of a riot led by someone named Chrestus (Life of Claudius, 25). Because the Latin for Christ is only one letter different from this (Christus), most historians think that Suetonius's statement reflects a garbled reference to Christian and non-Christian Jews squabbling over the truth of the gospel. But in 54 after Claudius's death, the edict was rescinded, and Jews would have begun to return to Rome. 6 In other words, for a full five years the church would have been almost exclusively Gentile. Suddenly, significant numbers of Jewish believers, many of whom preceded the Gentiles in coming to faith and helped to build up the Roman congregation, would have returned. It is only natural to imagine that many of these people might have wanted their leadership roles back. Even if not, the assimilation of a sudden influx of new people from a rival ethnic group is never an easy task for any church. No doubt some of the tensions between Jewish and Gentile Christians were not entirely resolved three years later in 57, and a large part of Paul's purpose in writing would be to try to unify these different factions. 7

In both of these passages, what is normative and what is culture bound? What is the only restriction placed on women in both of these contexts? What phenomenon in the church seems to have prompted Paul's exposition on this subject?

A few Christians would still take this entire passage as normative, but they miss the changed significance of most hairstyles or head coverings today. Even in Paul's world there were honorable men who never cut their hair (e.g., the Jewish Nazirites). Many Christians, therefore, wonder whether any of this passage remains normative, yet Paul teaches elsewhere that all Scripture is authoritative and relevant in some way at all times (2 Tim. 3: 16). It is probably best to see the issue of head coverings as culture specific but the principle of honoring one's spiritual head, including by means of appropriate fashion and outward demeanor, as the timeless mandate. Verses 8- 9, after all, do ground Paul's injunctions in the way God created man and woman before the fall. But these verses come immediately after Paul's contrast between the man as the glory of God and the wife as the glory of the husband (v. 7), relationships that are clearly related to the roles described in verse 3.83 They do not directly qualify the commands regarding head coverings in verses 4- 6. Paul's supporting arguments in verses 13- 16 do deal directly with long and short hair, but each of these relies on culture-bound rationales. What is "proper" (v. 13), "disgraceful" (v. 14) or "glorious" (v. 15) varies from one culture to the next, at least with respect to personal appearance. While Paul regularly uses "nature" (v. 14) to refer to God's created order, the counterexample of the Nazirites demonstrates that it must mean "custom" in this context. Verse 16, at first blush, seems more sweeping, but all it need mean is that the first- century church had no different practice.

What circumstances in Galatia necessitated such a defense of Paul's apostolic authority?

A group of Jews, professing to be Christians, have come to Galatia after Paul has planted churches there, promoting the belief that circumcision as the sign of initiation into keeping the Mosaic Law is a requirement for salvation. Paul will refer to this practice as "Judaizing" In sum, it appears that Paul has learned of Judaizers changing the message he proclaimed to the churches of Pisidian Antioch, Iconium, and perhaps also Lystra and Derbe, in a fashion very akin to the confrontation with Judaizers that he himself had in Syrian Antioch. If the Apostolic Council of Acts 15 has not yet occurred, then Paul must be writing Galatians in the small window of time between the clash with Peter and the Judaizers in Syrian Antioch and the trip to Jerusalem to hash out the problem. The short lag time, coupled with the seriousness of the issue for Paul, explains the urgent and sometimes even harsh tone of the letter. 13

What is the danger of applying the category of carnal Christian to nominal practitioners of the faith?

A major danger associated with this doctrine resembles the problem with applying the category of carnal Christian to nominal practitioners of the faith. It is too easy to give oneself or others false hope that one is truly "in," even if just barely, when in fact the lack of ongoing commitment suggests that one was never "in" to begin with. That seems to be precisely the problem with those Paul mentions in verses 16- 17.

What is the textual critical issue in 1 Thessalonians 2: 7? Which of the variants is most likely the reading from the original manuscript and why?

A particularly difficult textual decision is required in verse 7. Many early manuscripts read "babies" instead of "gentle"; the TNIV has in fact reversed the decision of the NIV (which read, "We were gentle among you"), adopting the rendering "We were like young children." The external evidence slightly favors and the internal evidence strongly favors "young children" (i.e., "babies"). "Babies" and "gentle" differ by only one letter in the Greek (ēpioi vs. nēpioi), and it is more likely that the more jarring metaphor in which Paul describes himself as both the baby and the mother in the same verse would be altered to the concept of being gentle than that the change would have gone in the other direction.

How does the situation with the man in the incestuous relationship, which was first presented in 1 Corinthians, become resolved in 2 Corinthians?

A significant portion of the conflict has involved a specific individual who appears to have opposed Paul, who in turn wrote to the Corinthians that they should discipline the man (2: 5- 11). It is tempting to equate this person with the incestuous offender of 1 Corinthians 5, in which case the letter alluded to in 2 Corinthians 2: 9 could be 1 Corinthians, rather than the painful letter (unless those two are one and the same). But there are other possibilities (recall above, pp. 205- 8). Whoever the man is and whatever he has done, the church has responded appropriately, and the offender has repented (cf. 7: 8- 13)..159

Romans Year Written? Where? What type of letter is it? Who was it written to?

About 57 AD because Paul was imprisoned by Festus and released when Felix was succeeded. Written in Corinth. The contents of Romans discuss tensions between the Jews and Gentiles. A reason for this is due to the expulsion of the Jews in 49 AD by emperor Claudias. P's writing is to unify these ethnic groups. It is an Ambassadorial letter written to pave way for Paul's hope to visit Rome.

Based on the available evidence, reconstruct the most likely order of the communication between Paul and the Corinthians, including both written letters and personal visits by Paul and both written letters and personal emissaries bringing news from Corinth to Paul.

After the 1st letter to the Corinthians, Paul realized they were not satisfied by his response, and so he took a short trip by boat to see them while he was still ministering in Ephesus. Thus 2 Corinthians 13: 1 specifies that "this will be my third visit to you," even though Acts narrates only two trips— the visit during Paul's second missionary journey when he founded the church in Corinth (Acts 18: 1- 18) and another stop on his third missionary journey (presumably as part of his three-month stay in Greece in Acts 20: 2- 3). Second Corinthians 2: 1 most likely refers to this intervening visit between the two itemized in Acts since Paul explains that he made up his mind not to "make another painful visit" to the Corinthians. The period of time during his establishing the church there could scarcely have been so characterized, and the other visit that Acts narrates does not take place until after 2 Corinthians has been written. It also appears likely that Paul penned an additional letter in between the two we know of as 1 and 2 Corinthians. Modern scholars across the whole theological spectrum, therefore, almost unanimously understand this verse to describe a letter Paul wrote to Corinth in between the two preserved in the canon. We have already seen an unambiguous reference in 1 Corinthians 5: 9 to another piece of Pauline correspondence with Corinth that has not been preserved, so the proposal of a second such letter can scarcely cause objections in principle. On this reconstruction, 2 Corinthians 7: 8 and 12 refer to this same lost "painful letter," since verses 8- 13 describe the repentance of the offending man in response to that letter, a response that seems not to have occurred immediately after Paul's intermediate visit (1: 23- 2: 2). We may, therefore, conclude that the intermediate visit preceded the intermediate letter, and only after the latter did the situation in Corinth begin to resolve itself. 130

What features of the second half of the epistle suggest Paul's intention in writing Philemon?

Although this second half of the letter body finally comes around to Paul's actual request, we still remain unsure of just what he is asking. Nevertheless, several features suggest that he would prefer Philemon to free Onesimus. 24 First, he asks his "partner" (a term that could refer to their previous cooperation either in business or in ministry) to "welcome him as you would welcome me" (v. 17), and Paul is obviously not a slave. Second, in recognizing that this would deprive Philemon of recouping past losses or gaining any future material benefits from Onesimus, Paul promises to pay them himself (vv. 18- 19a).

In what specific ways does the entire letter of Philemon serve as a model of pastoral tact and psychology?

As Paul prepares in the first of these sections for the request he will make more explicitly in the second, he appeals to Philemon to act out of his friendship for Paul and not merely as submitting to an apostolic mandate

What are the three principles Paul offers for maintaining the appropriate use of Christian liberty?

As Paul rounds out his discussion, he repeats three key principles that have united chapters 8- 10. First, Christianity implies freedom from legalism in relation to everything that is not inherently evil (vv. 23a, 25- 27, 29b-30). Second, one must voluntarily curtail one's freedom in various situations for the sake of those who might otherwise be led into sin (vv. 23b-24, 28-32- 33). Third, in both cases, glorifying God remains the highest motivation (v. 31). The way these principles play out with the issue of food sacrificed to idols is that believers have full freedom to eat any meat sold in the marketplace, even if it was blessed by pagan priests and/ or sacrificed to the gods in an earlier temple ceremony. Believers may eat this food on their own or even when they are served it by pagan friends. The only restriction is if someone calls attention to the nature of the food in a context in which someone's conscience could be hurt— that is, in which they might join in the eating without believing they really had the freedom to do so.

1. How would one best respond to an interpretation of 1 Corinthians 7: 14 that espouses the view that if a parent accepts Christ, then the entire family will be saved on account of the believing parent's decision?

At first blush verse 14 would seem to teach that, if one parent in a family accepts Christ, all the family members will be saved! This misreading comes about because Paul regularly uses the verb "sanctify" to refer to believers. But its root meaning is merely to "set apart" or "place in an environment of holiness." Since Paul will stress in the next two verses that a believing partner cannot count on leading his or her spouse to the Lord, he cannot be referring to salvation in verse 14. Rather, he must mean that one Christian parent will bring an aura of holiness to the family and create greater opportunities for the other members to trust in Christ. 59

How should the discussion of Israel's election inform and direct our political affiliations?

At most, the current state of Israel might be the prelude to the fulfillment of prophecy; on the other hand it might be utterly irrelevant to it. Even on a literal interpretation of Ezekiel 37, Jews might be again evicted from the land one or more times before finally resettling it in fulfillment of Scripture. So it is dangerous for Christians to support the political policies of the current state of Israel uncritically, especially when it violates the principles of justice laid down in the Hebrew Scriptures. The problem of providing justice for Palestinians and Jews alike in Israel seems almost intractable, but Christian ethics demand that we work for a solution that treats both fairly.

What are the main principles on suffering that Paul presents in 2 Corinthians?

But God's comfort should not merely alleviate our affliction; in turn, we should be better equipped to comfort others who are afflicted. This is the first main principle on suffering that Paul presents in this letter. What Paul wants us to go away with is not the scenario of his sufferings but God's remarkable deliverance of him from them, not least in response to the Corinthians' prayers. Second, When Christians live above their grievous circumstances, it becomes more apparent to others that God's supernatural power sustains them (4: 7- 12). Here is a second principle on suffering and a reminder of how to cope. A third principle on suffering is to recognize the eternal glory that one day will far more than compensate for the worst of hardships in this life (4: 13- 18).

What is unique about the closing to Romans when compared to all of the other epistles attributed to Paul?

Chapter 16 comprises Paul's more formal closing. What is striking about it is how many people Paul greets, far more than in any other New Testament epistle, and yet this is the one church to date that he has never visited!

Who did Paul receive oral reports from about the state of the Corinthian church

Chloe

What does Paul believe about resurrection? of Christ? of believers? Why is this such a crucial topic for him? Paul begins by stressing the centrality of this doctrine (vv. 1- 2).

Christians may debate other issues; but without a belief that Jesus bodily rose from the dead, one cannot be saved (Rom. 10: 9). The verbs "received" and "passed on" are technical terms in both Greek and Hebrew for the oral transmission of basic religious teaching. What Paul goes on to describe was probably taught to him shortly after his conversion in A.D. 32. In other words, the list of witnesses to Christ's resurrection from the dead is not the legendary invention of a generation or two after the foundation of Christianity but a fundamental conviction of Jesus' first followers within two years or less after his death. One may argue that they were deceived or that they had some kind of subjective vision of Christ, but resurrection faith was integral to Christian belief from its earliest days onward.

1. What is the occasion for Paul's letter to the Colossians, and how is Paul's relationship with the Colossians different from his relationship with the majority of the churches to which he writes?

Colossians is the second letter Paul wrote to a church he did not personally found. The immediate occasion for the correspondence is the problem of false teaching in Colossae, described as an example of "hollow and deceptive philosophy, which depends on human tradition and the basic principles of this world rather than on Christ" (2: 8). It was written from Prison in 60-62AD.

1. What was going wrong with the Corinthians' use of their spiritual gifts? How does Paul reply? How is his reply structured— i.e., what are his main points, and what are the subordinate ones under those main points?

Even though Paul has just compared the more hidden gifts with the more public ones and suggested that in some sense the former prove more valuable, he really was not expressing a preference for one gift over another. The whole thrust of verses 12- 26 was the importance of all the gifts. But, in light of the Corinthian leaders overestimating their own importance, Paul wanted to level the playing field. Now he again appears to contradict himself, if verses 27- 31 establish a different kind of hierarchy. This would be a more fundamental contradiction because here he seems to reinstate leadership gifts like apostleship, prophecy, and teaching as the most significant (v. 28). More probably, the ranking implied by "first," "second," and "third" is that of the chronological priority of certain gifts. In order even to have a church there must be a missionary or church planter (the root meeting of "apostle"), one who proclaims God's Word (the function of a "prophet"), 95 and one who teaches the body of Christian doctrine to new disciples. Then, and only then, can all the rest of the gifts come into play.

What is the date and provenance of Paul's letter to the Romans? What information helps us to date and locate this letter so precisely?

Even though he has not founded the Roman church, he recognizes its strategic location and wants to minister to them, be encouraged by them and perhaps receive some material assistance for the arduous journey ahead (cf. also 1: 10- 13). The verb for "assist" in 15: 24 often refers specifically to financial assistance. 3 Meanwhile, he is embarking for Jerusalem with the collection for the impoverished Jewish Christians there (15: 25- 27), and then he hopes to be able to return westward (vv. 28- 29). Yet even before Agabus's predictions of hostilities in the Jewish capital (Acts 21: 11), he realizes that the situation may prove dangerous and that even the Christian Jews may not readily be reconciled to his law-free, Gentile-oriented ministry. Hence, he asks for their prayers in verses 30- 33. All of this information enables us to date this epistle precisely to the end of Paul's three-month stay in Greece at the close of his third missionary journey, just as he was getting ready to set sail for Syria (Acts 20: 2- 3). The reference to the greetings sent by Erastus, the director of public works of the city from which Paul was writing (Rom. 16: 23), would seem to point specifically to Corinth because an inscription has been discovered there bearing the name of precisely such an individual in that kind of position. Second Timothy 4: 20 also refers to a certain Erastus who "stayed in Corinth." At the same time, Paul's commendation of Phoebe, who was perhaps carrying the letter to Rome and who came from the church in Cenchrea (16: 1), could suggest that Paul has already made his way to that port city nearby Corinth. Because he is imprisoned shortly after his arrival in Jerusalem (Acts 21: 33) and remains there for two years until Governor Felix is succeeded by Festus (Acts 24: 27) and because that change of leadership most probably occurred in A.D. 59, we should therefore date Romans to about A.D. 57, roughly a year after Paul wrote 2 Corinthians.

Summarize in your own words the thesis of the letter to the Galatians. What four specific arguments does Paul use in Galatians 3 to support this thesis?

First, Paul appeals to the Galatians' personal experience— that is how they first heard the gospel and were saved (vv. 1- 5). Second, Paul develops an argument from the chronology of Jewish history: Abraham, the founder of the nation, so to speak, was justified by faith and not the law as a model for all the Gentiles who would one day be saved in Christ (vv. 6- 9). Third, verses 10- 14 argue that the law is unable to save anyone anyway, apart from pointing them to Christ. Fourth, verses 15- 18 round out this section by returning to the historical argument. The Mosaic Law came into effect substantially later than the principle of justification by faith with Abraham and thus does not annul the original principle.

According to Romans 8, what gifts are bestowed on those who are justified by faith in Jesus?

First, although Christians experience warfare between sin and righteousness, through the Spirit substantial victory over sin can be obtained (vv. 1- 11). Second, the Spirit not only works righteousness in us but makes us adopted sons of God with all the accompanying inheritance rights. Third, unity with Christ produces sufferings, but these pale in comparison with the coming glorification of all creation (vv. 18- 25). Fourth, the Spirit helps us in our weakness, even when we are unable to pray cognitively (vv. 26- 27). Fifth, believers can rest secure that nothing in all creation can separate them from God's love in Christ because the process of salvation God has set in motion is guaranteed to continue through to its completion (vv. 28- 39).

What principles can be drawn from Romans 9- 11 about the fairness of God's election and predestination?

First, it was fair in the context of Moses and Pharaoh (vv. 14- 18). Again Paul is not talking about election to eternal destinies; Exodus never tells us how Pharaoh reacted to the final tragedy of the loss of his army after numerous, previous "faked" acts of repentance. Rather, Paul talks about how God hardened Pharaoh's heart in response to Pharaoh's hardening his own heart (recall the sequence of events in Rom. 1: 18- 32) for temporal and even merciful purposes, namely, the salvation of Israel. 68 God's choices are fair, second, because God is Creator and can make vessels for noble or menial use (vv. 19- 21). But these are not irrevocable categories because 2 Timothy 2: 20- 21 can use the identical imagery and yet speak of those who cleanse themselves from ignoble purposes (by faith in Christ) and are saved. Once again, it appears Paul is speaking of election to various roles played during certain stages in one's temporal life. Third, when God does predestine to salvation, it is what theologians call single rather than double predestination (vv. 22- 23). In this section we have clearly reached the New Testament age, and Paul is talking about those called to form the Christian church, so presumably more than temporal purposes are in view. But the asymmetry between verses 22 and 23 is striking: (a) God prepares the vessels of mercy, but the vessels of wrath are simply "prepared" (the Greek could even be translated "have prepared themselves") for destruction; and (b) the vessels of mercy are prepared "in advance," whereas no such qualifier attaches itself to the vessels of wrath. 69 To those who object that the only logically coherent positions are either double predestination (both to salvation and to damnation) or no predestination (in the traditional sense of God's electing individuals to their eternal destinies), we may reply: (1) Our finite, fallen minds cannot always be expected to understand the entire logic of God's ways, but there is nothing demonstrably self-contradictory about single predestination. (2) This seems to be the consistent teaching of Scripture, inasmuch as the Bible regularly attributes a person's salvation entirely to the grace of God, whereas those who are damned are judged according to their works and have only themselves to blame. (3) This rings true to human experience: those who have become believers uniformly encountered circumstances outside their control that helped to make them open to faith in Christ, while unbelievers do not report any coercive powers that prevent them, against their will, from believing. 70 Fourth, God's election is fair because it enables Gentiles to be saved as well as Jews (vv. 24- 29). What would have been unfair is preserving the Jewish people as God's uniquely elect nation, especially since they had only seldom intentionally spread his word to other ethnic groups throughout their long history (despite Gen. 12: 3, which called them to bless all the earth's people groups).

In his two-chapter excursus on appropriate stewardship (2 Cor. 8: 1- 9: 15), what overarching principles does Paul offer?

First, sacrificial giving proves most praiseworthy (vv. 1- 4). Second, fully Christian giving emerges as part of the larger surrender of one's entire self to Christ (vv. 5- 7). Third, believers should demonstrate their sincerity by following through on their financial commitments (vv. 8- 11). Fourth, giving should be proportional to one's income (vv. 12- 15).

According to 1 Corinthians 4- 6, what are some attitudes the Corinthians should adopt toward the words of Paul and his companions, those who are true apostles?

First, verses 1- 5 describe them as faithful stewards. Second, verses 6- 7 point out that proper assessments should be scripturally based. Third, true apostolic ministry often involves suffering, including suffering unjustly (vv. 8- 13). Finally, and more positively, the apostles are specially related to the Corinthians (vv. 14- 21).

1. Several timeless truths about the characteristics of true Christian ministry emerge in Paul's defense of his own apostolic authority in chapters 10- 13. What are these principles that realistically portray the pressures and concerns of those who have been called to lead God's people?

First, we must rely on spiritual rather than fleshly authority (10: 1- 11). Second, we should limit our work to territories that have not been allotted to others (10: 12- 18). Third, we should reject every kind of "knowledge" that turns one away from Christ to Satan, regardless of any masquerade that may attempt to confuse the two (11: 1- 6, 13- 15). Fourth, we should not accept money for ministry whenever it might call the integrity of our message into question (11: 7- 12). Fifth, we may expect persecution even when we have full authority to be ministering as we are (11: 16- 33). Sixth, and finally, we must endure our "thorns in the flesh," in spite of any wonderful spiritual experiences God may have granted us (12: 1- 13).

What New Testament letters are alleged to be written by Paul from prison?

Four of Paul's letters have traditionally been viewed as coming from his Roman imprisonment described at the end of the book of Acts. If this tradition is accurate, then they must be dated to approximately A.D. 60- 62. The four letters in question are Philemon, Colossians, Ephesians and Philippians.

According to Romans, what is the relationship between justification and sanctification?

Freedom from Sin (6: 1- 23) As a result of our right legal standing before God (justification), we should grow in holiness throughout our Christian lives (sanctification).

1. What were the competing ideologies of ancient Corinth that Paul combats in his first letter to the Corinthians?

Gnosticism and Hedonism. In addition to these outside philosophies, what were several internal problems in the Corinthian church? Those involved in the problems of incest, lawsuits, and promiscuity (chaps. 5- 6); the "strong" Christians who ate food sacrificed to idols (chaps. 8- 10); the out-of-control women prophets and overindulgent rich at the Lord's table (chap. 11); and those who abused spiritual gifts more generally (chaps. 12- 14) all fell into the hedonist camp. Those who were promoting celibacy (chap. 7); the people afraid to eat the idol meat (chaps. 8- 10); and church members denying bodily resurrection (chap. 15) were clearly ascetic.

1st Corinthians Year Written? Where? What type of letter is it? Who was it written to?

He most likely wrote the epistle from Ephesus in A.D. 55. The structure of 1st Cor process as if checking off a list of issues plaguing them. It resembles a Hellenistic letter of petition. A request command-request structure. It sought to combat dualism, factionalism, triumphalism, divisions between rich and poor

What two shocking examples does Paul use to refute the Judaizers in chapter 4?

He talks about how the purpose of the law is To Increase Transgression and to deter Sin. Why was it surprising for Paul to use the term stoicheia in relation to Torah obedience? The term at least refers to rules and regulations from their pagan lives; it may also hint at demonic powers behind such religion. 48 To apply a term for paganism and demon-worship to the observance of the Jewish law was shocking indeed!

How is the letter body of Romans best divided? What is a good thesis statement for each of the main sections?

How do the subdivisions of the first section aid our understanding and presentation of the gospel? What is a good summary statement for each of the subdivided sections? The structure of the epistle falls as neatly into the Hellenistic letter paradigm as any of Paul's writings. Given his lack of first-hand knowledge of the church, and without denying the unifying emphases just discussed, this letter is his least "occasional" or situation-specific, and he has no need to deviate from the standard structure because of unique circumstances in the church he addresses. Thus he proceeds from greetings (1: 1- 7), to thanksgiving (1: 8- 15), to the letter body. A clear thesis initiates this largest of sections in his outline, describing the availability of God's righteousness by faith for Jew and Gentile alike (1: 16- 17). Subdivisions of this section logically proceed through the main theological elements of the gospel message— from the universal sin of humanity, to the justification by faith in Christ that the good news offers, to the lifelong process of sanctification through the Spirit (1: 18- 8: 39). What some have viewed as a digression, on the status of Israel in 9: 1- 11: 36, in fact plays a central role in the letter, given the need to reunify Jew and Gentile in the church. Then the informational part of the letter body comes to an end, and the ethical implications of the gospel follow immediately (12: 1- 15: 13). This section corresponds to the exhortational material often but not always found at the end of the body of a Hellenistic letter. Finally, Paul explains his travel plans and appends the lengthiest collection of closing greetings in any of his letters (15: 14- 16: 27). Questions of the authenticity of chapter 16 and the textual variants that disagree on where the letter originally ended will be taken up in our commentary when we reach the relevant verses.

How is the difficulty of the seemingly disjointed chapters 10- 13 of 2 Corinthians best resolved?

If 2 Corinthians 10- 13 did not originally precede chapters 1- 9, then how do we explain the abrupt change in tone at this juncture in the letter? Three major answers compete for acceptance. First, Paul could have known all along that he would have to include some pointed words for those Corinthians tempted to follow the false teachers. A second option treats chapters 10- 13 as the body of a letter that Paul wrote after chapters 1- 9. The third main possibility is that Paul was dictating this epistle over a period of time, as often occurred in ancient letter writing. Perhaps the overall evidence slightly favors the third option.

How many contemporary "Christian" examples of triumphalism can you identify? How would each of these best be modified?

In a word, the theological problem of the Corinthians throughout both epistles has been triumphalism or, as we have suggested in our titles to these last two chapters, a vastly overrated sense of their own maturity in Christ. Triumphalism remains an insidious danger in modern Western evangelicalism in the twenty-first century. In the mid-1970s, American evangelicals traded places with more liberal expressions of Christianity by becoming the more affluent wing of the church in the United States, and their riches have multiplied ever since. In some charismatic circles, we have watched the emergence of the "name it and claim it" heresy; other less explicitly heretical fellowships nevertheless remain enthralled with the miraculous, at times bordering on the bizarre, rather than reveling in the cross-centered gospel of power in weakness. As successful missionary and evangelistic ventures in various parts of the Third World explode with growth, a resurgence of postmillennialism sweeps certain circles. Some set dates or at least confidently proclaim that within one generation we will fulfill the Great Commission and usher in Christ's return. Meanwhile, our theologies of suffering remain anemic, and we threaten to give up our commitments to God and one another at the slightest signs of hardship. Other examples of a misguided triumphalism include church growth schemes that virtually guarantee success if precise formulas are followed; self-help literature, recordings, and seminars on countless topics that promise good results if one simply does what the instructions outline; and the assumption of many college and seminary graduates that their education entitles them to "successful" careers by the worldly criteria of income, size, and influence. The list could be extended at length, and the next generation will undoubtedly create new manifestations of this ancient temptation. Second Corinthians 8- 9 alone should challenge most Western Christians to reorder their personal and corporate spending practices in dramatic ways. And chapters 10- 13 remind us, just as 1 Corinthians 5 and 9 did, not to kowtow to the legalistic believer while ignoring the lost outside our churches. Precisely the opposite is required: sharp rebukes and, if necessary, discipline for the overly narrow religious insider who should know better, accompanied by imaginative forms of outreach to the outsider that bend over backwards to place no unnecessary obstacle in the path of anyone coming to Christ. 218

What three letters were sent at the same time, and what evidence in the text supports this conclusion?

In both Ephesians 6: 21- 22 and Colossians 4: 7- 8, Paul names Tychicus as the "mailman" or letter carrier. In both Colossians 4: 10- 14 and Philemon 23, Paul lists the same five companions who send greetings— Epaphras, Mark, Aristarchus, Demas, and Luke. This suggests that Paul sent all three letters at the same time. Philemon was apparently a member of the Colossian church. Philemon 2 and Colossians 4: 17 both send greetings to Archippus, a member of Philemon's household, which makes sense if that family lives in Colossae. Ephesus was the nearest major urban center to Colossae, a little over one hundred miles to the west on the Aegean coastline, so it would have been natural for all three of these epistles to be sent by means of one courier from Rome, stopping first at Ephesus after probably traveling by boat and then proceeding on by land to Colossae in the Lycus valley. Perhaps during Paul's Ephesian ministry he had met up with or even shared the gospel for the first time with Epaphras, the native of Colossae he credits with founding the church there (Col. 1: 7, 4: 12).

What methods does Galatians 1: 1- 2: 10 employ to emphasize Paul's God-given authority to tell people the true gospel?

In eight ways, Paul begins his letter by stressing that he has as much right to tell people the true gospel as anyone else does. 1) He begins by writing an unusually detailed and theological greeting, including his identity as apostle, that is, one divinely commissioned for mission, and he stresses the need for rescue from this "present evil age" (v. 3). 2) In striking defiance of the conventional custom, he omits any word of thanksgiving or prayer for the Galatians but moves directly to his astonishment at the Galatians' behavior. 3) The third feature appears as Paul begins the body of his letter. He immediately declares that there is no other gospel apart from his message and calls down curses against the legalizing perversion of the gospel that is seducing the Galatians (vv. 6- 9). 4) The fourth way he stresses his apostolic authority involves his conversion20— something he views as completely God initiated for which his pre-Christian life was in no way preparing him (vv. 11- 14). 5) Fifth, after his conversion Paul did not immediately consult the Jerusalem apostles but spent three years in and around Damascus (vv. 15- 17). 6) Sixth, when he finally did meet with the apostles, his contact was minimal, but they praised God for his ministry (1: 18- 24). 7) The seventh way Paul defends his apostolic authority involves his next meeting with the apostles in Jerusalem, a full fourteen years later (2: 1- 10). This time he met with them more extensively, but they endorsed his ministry of preaching salvation to Gentiles apart from keeping the Mosaic Law. 8) The eighth and final plank in Paul's defense brings us to a serious conflict in the early church. After Peter agreed that salvation was by grace apart from keeping the law (by endorsing Paul's message in vv. 1- 10), and even reasserted that position in Syrian Antioch, more conservative Judaizers arrived from Jerusalem, causing Peter to renege on his commitment (vv. 11- 13). 29.

1. Since food sacrificed to idols is not an issue with which twenty-first-century Western Christianity typically grapples, what is the overarching principle offered in chapters 8- 10 here that can be applied to relationships within today's church?

In the next three chapters both the ascetic and the hedonistic wings of the church come into play. The first group is refusing to eat meat sacrificed to idols. Many of these people may have been among the poorer Christians who were not able to afford meat on a regular basis and who associated eating it with the rituals in the pagan temple in Corinth. The second group has come to realize there is nothing inherently immoral in eating such meat, but they are not taking those Paul calls their "weaker brothers" into account. They ignore the problem that Christian liberty can become license. Paul's "yes, but ..." logic comes to the fore again, as 8: 1- 3 sets out the problem— Christian liberty can become license. Those who have the correct knowledge about the morally neutral nature of idol meat must temper that knowledge with love. As in the NIV margin, "We all possess knowledge" is probably another Corinthian slogan to which Paul's reply is, "Knowledge puffs up, but love builds up" (v. 1). 64

Philemon. Year written, where, to whom, why?

It was written from Prison, along with Colossians and Ephesians between 60-62 AD. This letter was written as a request from Paul to Philemon to welcome home his slave Onesimus who has now become "useful"

What is the practical application of this principle to daily Christian living?

Modern applications should consider ways in which we wrongfully mandate distinctions such as those that separated Jews and Gentiles in the first century. Some, for the sake of Jewish or Muslim evangelism today, insist that those who have become Christians out of these backgrounds (or even those who minister to them not from these backgrounds) observe those religions' dietary laws. In so doing, they make exactly the same mistake that these Romans were making. Voluntary restraint for the sake of winning others is commendable, but mandatory restrictions compromise the very liberation that the gospel promises. Recalling our application of Galatians, we need to expand our horizons to think about how Paul's principles in this section can help curtail racism, nationalism, and ethnocentricity in the church of Jesus Christ as well. Homogeneous groupings of believers may prove helpful in winning the lost to Christ, but they dare not characterize all subsequent Christian living! 105

Among the praise Paul lavishes on the recipients of the Thessalonian correspondence, what are the two main exhortations Paul offers? What circumstances within the church necessitated these admonitions?

Moral Living: He then defines God's will, as consistently in Scripture, in moral categories— being "sanctified" (v. 3a)— and applies this theme of holiness to a major area of temptation in the ancient (and modern) world— sexual impurity (vv. 3b-8). The word translated "sexual immorality" in verse 3 is porneia, the broadest of all terms for sexual sin in the Greek language, encompassing every form of intercourse outside of monogamous heterosexual marriage. 28 The second exhortation is Verses 11- 12 enjoin the Thessalonians to live a quiet life, mind their own business, and work with their hands. 30 Because Paul has to command some to do their own work and be dependent on no one else, many readers have found here the seeds of the problem of idleness that increases before Paul writes 2 Thessalonians 3: 6- 15. Both self-sufficiency within the Christian community and respect by outsiders are required

Galatians: Year Written? Where? What type of letter is it? Who was it written to?

Most favor a Southern Galatian detonation date before the Apolistic council48-49 AD. For a N. Gala it is between 51 and 53AD. is an apologetic letter and it uses deliberative rhetoric (this makes it distinctive)) it is written because a group of Jews professing to be Christian's have planted Churches and they have been promoting Mosaic Law. The purpose of this is justification by faith. Paul is saying that by faith in Christ, 32 rather than the works of the Law, we are declared "not guilty" of the sins we have committed (v. 16). But he also speaks of "Christ... in me" (v. 20), enabling him to live the kind of life he previously couldn't. So justification has a moral or relational dimension to it as well.

How should the domestic codes be applied today?

Most of the commands in the Colossian code are repeated and expanded in Ephesians, so we will reserve extended comment for our discussion of that letter (below, pp. 317- 19). Here we may comment briefly on the qualifiers and rationales Paul includes for his various injunctions. Wives' submission must model what "is fitting in the Lord" (3: 18). This phrase implies "that only that degree of subjection to the husbands which is 'fitting in the Lord' is to be countenanced." 83 In other words, if husbands want their wives to do something that would violate God's will, then wives must refuse. Husbands' love precludes harshness (v. 19), despite the long-standing tradition of the Roman paterfamilias, or head of household, having the freedom to behave however severely he desired

How could a sound exegetical approach to this text work to remedy the imbalanced accusations leveled at homosexuals?

No one reading this "vice list" need point the finger at anyone else; there is plenty in each person's life to work on without attacking others. In the contemporary Western world in which combating the gay lifestyle seems to dominate many evangelicals' political agendas, Christians need to expend far more energy showing Christ's love to those who often feel personally hated. Jesus modeled the compassion for sinners without condoning their behavior, which should characterize our relationships as well.

What are the translation issues that have often led to proof-texting in both halves of Philemon 6?

On the other hand, the translation in the NIV of verse 6 proves altogether misleading. The ambiguous Greek expression here is hē koinōnia tēs pisteōs sou—" the fellowship of your faith." Taking the case ending of the word for "faith" as an objective genitive yields the idea of "sharing your faith" and suggests that Paul wants Philemon to become an active evangelist. In some circles today this verse has become a favorite prooftext for encouraging personal witnessing. But nothing in the context of this letter has anything to do with Philemon proclaiming the gospel to others, while in fact the epistle is all about him demonstrating his love to his slave who has become a new believer. Moreover, other pairs of nouns in Paul's letters that reflect a similar construction of abstract virtues, with the second noun in the genitive case, most often reflect subjective genitives (e.g., Gal. 5: 19; 1 Thess. 1: 3, 5: 8; Rom. 1: 5, etc.). This grammatical category fits this context perfectly. Paul wants Philemon's normally warm interpersonal relationships to extend even to Onesimus, so he prays for "the fellowship produced by your faith" (cf. TNIV). 15 The second half of verse 6 is also susceptible to several possible translations. A word-for-word rendering. would read, "Might become active in the knowledge of every good thing which is in us [some manuscripts, 'you'] in Christ." It would appear that Paul's prayer for Philemon includes the hope that he will recognize that welcoming rather than punishing Onesimus flows from his Christian convictions. This meaning, too, is obscured more in the NIV than in the TNIV. 16

Aside from the traditional option that has assumed Onesimus is a runaway slave, what are the other explanations for Onesimus's departure from Philemon's household?

On the other hand, three interesting alternative explanations of Onesimus's departure from Colossae and encounter with Paul merit some attention. First, perhaps Onesimus had not run away at all. He could, in fact, have been sent to Paul in prison as a representative of the Colossian church, perhaps to bring Paul material aid of some kind. A second alternative option, popularized by abolitionists in the nineteenth century, takes the reference to Onesimus as Philemon's brother in verse 16 entirely literally. The term "slave" in this same verse must then be understood metaphorically as someone who had been estranged from his biological sibling. A third alternative option proves the most promising. This approach builds on the common Roman practice of seeking an amicus domini (" friend of the master") to mediate in serious disputes that have otherwise reached an impasse. It is clear that Onesimus has wronged Philemon in some respect, even if not by theft. Perhaps Onesimus fled (or was sent) with the intention of meeting up with Paul from the outset, in hopes that he would intervene and help settle whatever issue had put Onesimus and Philemon at odds.

2nd Corinthians: Year Written? Where? What type of letter is it? Who was it written to?

P. Is writing the majority of this letter in 56AD after he left Ephesus and traveled overland to to Troas and Macedonia to Corinth. It is described as an apologetic self-commendation. The theological heart of this Epistle and the Core of ministry is Reconciliation. (5:11-21) the reestablishment of a loving relationship between two estranged parties.

In the "allegory" of Hagar and Sarah, with whom would the Judaizers have associated themselves, and why? How does Paul skillfully turn this allegory on its head?

Paul appeals to the story of Abraham and his two wives, Hagar and Sarah, to create an allegory that stands on its head the application of the story that the Judaizers were probably making. 50 Following merely physical genealogies, one would observe that Jews were the descendants of Sarah, the free woman; and Gentiles, the offspring of Hagar, the slave woman. Paul, however, points out spiritual parallels that largely reverse these lines of descent: Christians (Jew or Gentile) are the truly free people, while (non-Christian) Jews remain enslaved to the law. Paul is not saying that this allegory is what the story in Genesis originally meant but that this is how it applies in his day. And just as Abraham and Sarah eventually sent Hagar away, so too the Galatians must expel from their midst the teaching that legal works are required for salvation (v. 30).

What exactly is Paul asking Philemon to do in this letter?

Paul in no way wants to coerce, and yet he also wants to ensure that Philemon complies! The clear portion of his request is that he wants Philemon to welcome Onesimus back home and thus not punish him as slave owners were free to do under Roman law, even including as extreme a reprisal as execution.

How does Paul's definition in 1 Corinthians 3 of a worldly or carnal (sarkinos/ sarkikos) Christian compare to the way Christians sometimes use the term today?

Paul makes a different kind of comparison. Now he uses the term "spiritual" to refer to mature believers, which he thinks the Corinthians should have become by now, as over against "worldly" (NIV) or "carnal" (KJV) Christians (sarkinos/ sarkikos) who are still immature.

To what types of sin does Paul link lawsuits among believers in order to shame the Corinthians in their factional behavior?

Paul underlines the seriousness of this issue by linking it to the continual practice of various forms of sexual immorality, idolatry, theft, covetousness, drunkenness, slander, and embezzlement (vv. 9- 10). The fact that Paul uses noun forms to characterize the people who commit these sins (" idolaters," "adulterers," etc.) suggests that he is not speaking of an occasional lapse but a regular lifestyle. Such people have no place in God's kingdom. But of course, one can repent, follow Christ, change one's ways, and be saved (v. 11).

What is the larger point of Romans 5?

Paul's larger interest, however, in verses 12- 21 is not the explication of the nature of sin but the elaboration of the wonder of salvation. Thus verses 15- 21 compare and contrast the sin of Adam with the salvation made available in Christ. In both cases, the actions of individual men began the process, their actions affected the entire human race, and one specific action provided the impetus for everything that would follow it. On the other hand, Adam's transgression brought sin and death, while Christ's crucifixion brings salvation and life. With Adam, one sin created the entire problem, whereas Christ's provision for salvation was a response to the many sins accumulated by humanity up to his day. Finally, the original sin led to the definite condemnation of those who imitated it, whereas Christ's cross work merely opens up the opportunity of salvation for all humanity. People must still appropriate it by faith in Jesus.

How does the issue of accepting money for ministry tie into this principle?

Paul's motive behind his approaches to both the debate over food sacrificed to idols and the issue of accepting money for ministry is to remove as many unnecessary obstacles as possible that might prevent people from coming to Christ.

Did association with and obedience to Jewish laws provide an upper hand in being justified?

Paul's reply points his audience further back in the life of Abraham when God declared him righteous because of his faith (Rom. 4: 3, quoting Gen. 15: 6). Whereas "justified" came from a forensic background, "reckoned" or "credited" reflects a commercial background— the language of bookkeeping that credits a particular sum of money to an individual's account. 35 Abraham's faith, rather than his works, was what was written in his spiritual ledger, so to speak

How can one respond to the claims that Paul misinterprets Genesis 22: 17- 18 and that his use of 430 years in Galatians 3: 17 is historically inaccurate?

Perhaps Paul had in mind the last time before the end of the patriarchal era that God renewed his promise, at that point with Jacob (Gen. 49: 20), which would then leave approximately 430 years until the Exodus and the giving of the law on Mount Sinai.

What might account for this difference?

Precisely because Paul had not visited the Roman church, he wanted to build as many bridges to the congregation through these greetings as possible.

What is the theological heart of 2 Corinthians?

Reconciliation

What does the application of Paul's teaching mean for today for those who would seek justification?

Robert Millet concisely captures the sequence and personal applications of the core concepts at work here: "Grace represents God's acceptance of me. Faith represents my acceptance of God's acceptance of me. Peace is my acceptance of me." 41 This peace, objective and subjective that comes from salvation is available for all humanity because just as Adam's sin led to the threat of spiritual death for all people, so Christ's death makes spiritual life available for all (vv. 12- 21).

Why does the time at which Paul pens this letter constitute a turning point in his evangelistic career?

Romans, therefore, marks a turning point in Paul's career from numerous perspectives. He thinks he is getting ready to move from east to west. In fact, he will soon be imprisoned, appear in a series of hearings before Jewish and Roman authorities, and finally appeal to the emperor. En route to Rome, he suffers the ill-fated sea voyage on the Mediterranean and ends up finding himself under house arrest for another two years in the imperial capital (where the book of Acts ends). Romans is also the first letter we know of that Paul has written to a church that he did not personally found. No one knows who did. Its roots may go all the way back to Pentecostal pilgrims returning from Jerusalem to Rome after A.D. 30 (or 33)— see Acts 2: 10. Prevailing Catholic tradition, of course, makes Peter the founder and places him there soon after he departs from Jerusalem in about A.D. 42- 44 (see above on Acts 12, p. 46). But there is no conclusive evidence inside or outside the Bible of Peter's presence in Rome prior to the 60s

What are the options for the place of imprisonment from which Paul writes these letters, and how do these locations interact with evidence of imprisonment in Acts?

Scripture itself, however, never specifies the location or time of the imprisonment (or imprisonments) referred to in these four letters. As a result, two other important suggestions about the time and place of Paul's penning these epistles have garnered periodic support throughout church history. We know from Acts 23: 23- 24: 27 that Paul spent two years in jail in Caesarea on the Palestinian coast (A.D. 57- 59), so perhaps he wrote one or more of the Prison Epistles from this venue. 1 But Caesarea is over four hundred and fifty miles from Ephesus, which would have been quite a distance to expect a letter carrier to traverse. What is more, in Philemon 22, Paul remains hopeful for his release from prison in the near future, an optimism not apparent in Paul's attitude or circumstances as described in Acts 23- 24. What is probably the earliest post-New Testament tradition about the setting of Colossians (the anti-Marcionite prologue to this letter) cites Ephesus as the place of Paul's incarceration, which would then date the letter to between 52 and 55. This would have made Paul's correspondence with the Ephesians and Colossians comparatively easy. Tychicus would only have had to travel across town to deliver the one letter and less than one hundred miles with the other. This hypothesis would explain how Onesimus, Philemon's runaway slave, could have reached Paul without great difficulty, though one wonders if a runaway would have stayed so comparatively close to his home. 2 As we will see in the introduction to Philemon, however, there are other explanations of Onesimus meeting up with Paul. At the same time, there is no explicit reference to an Ephesian imprisonment in the New Testament. The hardships Paul suffered in Asia (Minor), alluded to in 1 Corinthians 15: 32 and 2 Corinthians 1: 8, could support such an imprisonment but could just as easily refer to other forms of life-threatening harassment or persecution. Perhaps more tellingly, the account in Acts 19 of Paul's Ephesian ministry is not one of those portions of Acts in which Luke uses the first-person plural (the so-called "we" passages). Yet, as we have observed, he is present with Paul for the writing of Philemon and Colossians, with Paul sending greetings on Luke's behalf. For those who find Colossians pseudonymous (see below, pp. 287- 88), this proves less of a problem. But given the virtual unanimity of opinion that Philemon is genuinely Pauline, Luke's presence with Paul for the penning of this short letter still remains a problem. The strongest argument against the tradition of a Roman imprisonment is that Philemon 22 declares Paul's intention to visit Colossae when he is released, while in Romans 15: 24 Paul explains his plan to proceed from Rome in the opposite direction— westward to Spain. But Romans was written before Paul knew he would be arrested in Jerusalem and come to Rome as a prisoner rather than a free man. His two years under house arrest could easily have changed his plans, as could circumstances in the communities addressed in the Prison Epistles. A second problem involves the distance between Rome and the cities to which these letters were sent. The distance from Rome to Colossae, as the crow flies, was nearly nine hundred miles, well over twice as far as from Colossae to Caesarea! How could Onesimus have made that trip unaided, at least on his westward journey, and how could Paul expect a letter carrier to safely navigate the return trip, even if accompanied by Onesimus? On the other hand, if Onesimus was not a fugitive, he may not have set off without help, and the Roman mail service, outstanding by ancient standards, in fact regularly sent well-guarded couriers across its comparatively excellent roads even greater distances. If he were a fugitive, Rome was a natural slave haven and large enough that Onesimus could easily get lost in the population of a million or so inhabitants with little risk of being caught and returned to Asia Minor. The fact that the dominant early church tradition, including statements by Jerome, John Chrysostom, and Theodoret, supports Rome (in spite of the objections and notwithstanding other alternatives known in the early church) still makes this location the most likely site for Paul's imprisonment. Indeed, modern scholars who have supported an Ephesian provenance for one particular Prison Epistle have most often chosen Philippians rather than any of the other three, for reasons to be discussed below. At least Philemon, Colossians, and Ephesians, then, seem most probably to stem from Rome in about A.D. 61.3

How do the various interpretations of Romans 7: 14- 25 affect Paul's theology of sanctification?

Several arguments favor taking these verses as depicting a struggle that all Christians at one time or another face. (1) The verb tenses in verses 7- 13 and 14- 25 shift from past to present. (2) The sequence of the two parts of verse 25 suggests the tension persists after salvation. First, Paul praises God for his rescue in Christ, and then he describes the tension between serving the law and serving sin. (3) It is often only when people are filled with the Spirit and fully understand the unsurpassable holiness of God and the extent of their own depravity that the tension between what they should do and what they actually do becomes the greatest. 55 (4) Galatians 5: 17 likewise describes the desires of the sinful nature as in conflict with the Spirit in a context where Paul is clearly speaking of believers. (5) Chapter 8: 10 may sum up matters best: "But if Christ is in you, your body is dead because of sin, yet your spirit is alive because of righteousness."

What exegetical observations inform Paul's discussion of submission to governing authorities in Romans 13?

Several exegetical observations help us make progress in solving these conundra. First, to submit to someone does not always require obedience to that person. One may choose to disobey the order of a human authority if it violates God's laws, but one can do so in a peaceful and kind spirit and thus exhibit a certain respect for the office of the superior. 91 Second, it is just possible that the expression "governing authorities" in verse 1 (literally, "the authorities surpassing you") could be interpreted as referring to those who are morally superior and thus not suggest submission to evil rulers at all. 92 Third, the two occurrences of the verb "rebel" in verse 2 translate a present participle and a perfect indicative, both of which suggest ongoing action. Paul may not be precluding brief protests against injustice, but ruling out "determined and persistent rebellion." 93 Fourth, verses 3- 4 reflect the two main roles of government in the Roman Empire: rewarding (or giving public acclaim to) benefactors and punishing criminals. The expression to "do (what is) right" in verse 3 may well have this more limited sense of doing good with one's money or material possessions. 94 Thus it could be that Paul is arguing simply for submission to governments to the extent that they properly perform these two tasks. (While verse 4 has often been used as support for capital punishment, the Romans did not use the sword to execute individuals, so this passage may prove irrelevant to that debate. 95) Fifth, this entire passage plays a subversive role when one realizes that the emperors would not have believed they were serving Yahweh, the God of Jews and Christians. Finally, the special mention of paying taxes (vv. 6- 7) may be a response to the recent social unrest that would lead to a Roman tax revolt in A.D. 58 and may disclose Paul's desire that Christians not be perceived as similar "rabble rousers."

How does one balance Galatians' teaching about freedom from the law and its warnings against ungodly behavior?

Since no one can keep the law perfectly, the law as a whole or any particular commandment can never form a pathway to salvation. Rather, the cross of Christ must drive his followers to faith-based living (making them new creatures), which renounces anything they could be or do as meriting God's favor.

What is the process of the order of salvation?

So God knows in advance how all possibly created people would freely respond to the gospel (foreknowledge). He chooses a particular collection of those people to create and in that sense determines that their destinies will correspond to their choices (predestination). 63 The Holy Spirit then begins to work on the hearts of those God knows will respond in faith, and they freely choose Christ as a result (calling). When they accept him, they are declared righteous in God's eyes (justification).

What principles does this offer us for following up on situations where church discipline has been exercised?

So now Paul is concerned that they forgive him and welcome him back into their fellowship, lest prolonged alienation prove counterproductive (precisely what Satan would prefer). If the man has personally offended Paul, the apostle assures all the Corinthians that he extends his forgiveness as well.

What are the other competing options? Further complicating matters is the observation that 2 Corinthians 10- 13 breaks sharply from the largely relieved and congratulatory tone of the first nine chapters of the epistle and turns harsh enough in tone that it could qualify for the label of a painful, sorrowful, or even severe letter.

Some have suggested, therefore, that chapters 10- 13 are out of place chronologically and contain the heart of what originally was the intermediate letter written before 2 Corinthians 1- 9.132 There is, however, no ancient manuscript support for this theory nor any convincing explanation for why these chapters, if they were written earlier, would be tacked onto the end of a later letter rather than put at the beginning of it. And while the tone is certainly severe, the problems seem to be largely different ones. No solitary offender appears anywhere in 2 Corinthians 10- 13. Rather, an apparently new group of itinerant teachers akin to the Judaizers that troubled the Galatians have recently arrived from outside of Corinth and are leading some astray within that church.

What would be an appropriate summary of 1 Corinthians 7, Paul's discussion of marriage, celibacy, and divorce?

The chapter concludes with a reminder that marriage is intended to last for life (vv. 39- 40). But when a spouse dies, a Christian is free to remarry— as long as the new spouse is a believer as well— though for one last time Paul reminds his audience of his preference for the single life

What does Romans 3- 5 assert about one's worthiness to be justified through faith?

The essential problem with sin is that it falls short of God's glory and, therefore, disqualifies us from abiding in his presence (v. 23). We thus need God to make salvation possible in a way that does not require us to earn it. Mercifully, he has done precisely that in sending Jesus and, at the same time, has demonstrated his justice by not continuing to forgive people's sins without providing a full and final sacrifice for them (vv. 24- 26)

How does the genre of the letter help explain the structure?

The genre of the letter helps to explain the structure because the defensiveness of his tone when compared to his other letters clearly adopt deliberative rhetoric, making the identification of an apologetic from of speech reasonable.

Identify some elements in Colossians that differ from the undisputed Pauline letters, causing some to doubt Pauline authorship

The language and style of the letter differ considerably from Paul's undisputed epistles, with frequent paragraph-length sentences and sectarian vocabulary.

Taken together with other Pauline texts on the hope of a resurrected body (esp. 1 Thess. 4- 5 and 1 Cor. 15), what does 2 Corinthians 5: 1- 10 suggest about the interval between death and receiving an eternal, resurrected body?

The metaphors of verses 2- 4 present further exegetical riddles. Now Paul imagines putting on the new body, not as if one were undressing and changing clothes but as if one were putting on another garment on top of what one was already wearing (the verb ependuomai literally means "to overclothe"). Does this suggest that there will be no interval between death and receipt of one's resurrected body after all? This appears unlikely. More probably the imagery reflects Paul's preference for living until the parousia rather than experiencing the disembodied intermediate state between death and resurrection. 176 Either way, though, our new life is guaranteed, again by the Spirit's role in our lives (v. 5; the word for "deposit" is the same as in 1: 22). Verses 6- 8 further support the doctrine of an intermediate state. As long as Christians remain in their physical bodies on earth, they do not experience the immediate presence of God as they will in the afterlife (v. 6). Indeed, they must exercise faith that an unseen realm, which God inhabits, exists in the first place (v.7

What would be the most logical conclusions regarding eternal reward based on this passage and Matthew 20: 1- 16, the parable of the laborers in the vineyard?

The parable of the laborers in the vineyard (Matt. 20: 1- 16) portrays all of Jesus' followers receiving the same recompense for greatly varying degrees of work, precisely what we should expect if salvation is by grace through faith alone and not good works. 33 Interestingly, the doctrine of eternal degrees of reward in heaven was a Reformation-era carryover from the Catholic notion of purgatory. 34 Martin Luther, however, warned sharply against it (see, e.g., Works 51.282- 83).

What are the pastoral and personal implications of each of the interpretations of Romans 7: 14- 25?

The pastoral implications of adopting this position on verses 14- 25 are profound. Often individuals who appear to all outsiders as Christians, and who clearly exhibit the fruit of the Spirit, doubt their own salvation due to particularly sensitive consciences aware of how far short of fully pleasing God they still fall. Fellow Christians can often help them by pointing out that the disparities between desires and behavior that torment them would not likely cause such agony in unbelievers uncommitted to following God's ways. The tension they experience testifies to the genuineness of their Christian faith!

Why does Paul prefer the disembodied state to life here on earth?

Their preference would be to experience God more directly in the intermediate state, even if it meant being without a body for a time (v. 8). 177 But the time of their death is not theirs to choose, so that in whatever state they find themselves they still aim to please the Lord (v. 9) because when Christ does return and initiate the resurrection of all believers they will face him in judgment to give account for how they spent their lives (v. 10). This judgment, already depicted in 1 Corinthians 3: 13- 15, will provide a public demonstration of God's justice and mercy, not a first-time determination of the fate of the dead.

Name some specific issues in modern Christianity to which these three principles remain particularly relevant.

These same three principles, however, apply to countless issues that do affect Westerners and others— the drinking of alcohol, various fashions and hairstyles, recreational practices, forms of entertainment, certain kinds of meditation, therapies and self-improvement techniques in the business world, and so on.

What clues in terms of both content and structure does the text give us to alert us to Paul's central emphasis?

This tightly worded passage contains numerous items of crucial Christology: Christ's unlimited atonement (vv. 14- 15), as one who was more than an ordinary man (v. 16), bringing about in the salvation of believers the foretaste of the promised re-creation of the cosmos (v. 17), offering himself as our substitute, and experiencing the wrath and judgment of God we deserved (vv. 18- 19, 21). On the basis of Christ's sacrificial ministry, reconciling God and believers, we are called to be "ambassadors" of that reconciliation, including peace-making among believers (v. 20). Several specific items in verses 14- 21 merit further attention. Verse 16b has often been used to allege that Christians need not understand the Jesus of history; what alone matters is that they believe in the risen Christ by faith. But that is to rip the verse entirely out of context; in context, it means that believers may no longer assess people, including Jesus, as if they had never been saved. 181 The full significance of verse 17 is also often missed. The Greek literally reads, "If anyone [is] in Christ, new creation"! In other words, if the messianic age has arrived enabling people to be united to the Messiah, then the beginning of the re-creation of the cosmos is underway. More than just personal renewal is involved (cf. Rom. 8: 19- 22). Finally, the literal wording of verse 21a proves significant. Here Paul writes, "[ God] made him who had no sin [to be] sin on our behalf." As Murray Harris explains, "it seems Paul's intent [is] to say more than that Christ was made a sin offering and yet less than that Christ became a sinner. So complete was the identification of the sinless Christ with the sin of the sinner, including its dire guilt and its dread consequences of separation from God, that Paul could say profoundly, 'God made him... to be sin for us.'"

How does a closer look at Paul's intended meaning of this term enlighten the doctrines of soteriology and eternal security?

Throughout church history some Christians have used the category of worldly or carnal Christian to justify their belief that a person can make a superficial profession of faith at some point in life, show no signs of spiritual vitality, even for years on end, die in this state, and still be saved. That is scarcely what Paul has in view in this context! 31 Instead, the Corinthians are gifted believers (recall 1: 7), but they are employing their gifts for self-centered purposes rather than building up the body of Christ.

Based on Romans 5, what is a good conclusion about how "original sin" affects all of humanity?

Thus, this verse affirms two complementary truths: sin spread to all people because of Adam's initial disobedience, and all individuals voluntarily choose to sin as well. The relationship between these truths remains unexplained, though with our modern understanding of genetics, it is easier to conceive of behavioral tendencies being passed on to the entire human race by its progenitor. 44 At the same time, verses 13- 14 could suggest that those who for whatever reason (age, mental incompetence, etc.) do not consciously choose to reject God and his commandments will not be judged for their sins in the same way. They still die physically, but it may be that they will not experience spiritual death in hell.

1. What are the implications of relegating the domestic codes to ancient first-century society? of not doing so?

To be consistent, those who argue that this household code is simply socially conditioned would have to insist that Christians today follow all of the norms of family living in non-Christian society around them, too. Objections to the abiding applicability of this material usually fail to observe that in Christ "there is no striving for equality in the sense of equal plenitude of power, but rather an equality based on loving and serving one another." 85 To those who object that, since we have rightly abolished slavery, we should abolish submission in marriage, it is important to stress that the institutional equivalent to slavery would be marriage itself, which presumably we would not wish to abolish! Nor do most egalitarians insist on deleting submission and obedience from the commands to children. The point is simply that while there are parallels among the three parts to the household code, there are unique features in each of the institutions as well. And the injunctions to slaves and masters can profitably be employed by other categories of people responsible for working "above" and "under" others.

How can affirmations of the equality of all persons and the command to submission in the domestic codes be harmonized?

To those who argue that the Paul who wrote Galatians 3: 28 could not have commanded the submission of any category of believers to any other, it is important to point out that whoever wrote Colossians 3: 18, 20 and 22- 24 also wrote verse 25, which reaffirms the essential equality of all human beings by stressing that there is no favoritism with God. And unless one argues that the author of Colossians borrowed a preexisting household code and failed to eliminate material in it contradictory to his own views, one has to assume that 3: 11 can also be harmonized with commands to submit and obey. 81 Finally, if Paul's original sequence of thought did indeed move from 3: 17 to 18, then he appears to imply that the morality of the new covenant just outlined begins at home

Does 1 Corinthians 3: 17- 19 confirm or deny eternal degrees of reward in heaven?

Verses 12- 15 are often cited as support for the idea that Christians may experience differing degrees of reward in heaven. Without a doubt, here and elsewhere Scripture describes believers having entirely unique experiences before God on judgment day as their lives are reviewed. But neither this text nor any other teaches that we will have different statuses or varying privileges that last throughout eternity. After all, if the life to come is perfect, it is logically contradictory to speak of degrees of perfection

What is Paul's main point in Romans 1 about all sin, including homosexuality?

Verses 21- 23 characterize the essence of human rebellion as idolatry. Idolatry regularly leads to immorality, not least in the sexual arena. Not surprisingly, then, Paul presents sexual sin as "exhibit A" of human rebellion (vv. 24- 27). Interestingly, heterosexual and homosexual sins are paired here (vv. 24, 26- 27), with neither described as any worse or any better than the other.

What does this passage, along with all other post-Pentecost passages about stewardship in the Bible, teach on the issue of tithing?

What fairly qualifies as sacrificial or generous cannot be tied to a percentage but must be decided on a person-by-person, situation-by-situation basis. 193 Freedom in giving "runs the risk of some people giving less than ten percent," but "it also opens the doors for unlimited generosity well beyond ten percent." 194 Giving should be voluntary, not coerced; but once one understands the principle of verse 6, one will want to give generously (v. 7). These blessings cannot be limited to material resources as verses 8- 11 clarify: Paul is referring to all forms of grace that enable believers to do good, reap righteousness, and become rich in every way that God knows will contribute to that person's spiritual growth. 196

What ancient cultural practices need to be remembered when interpreting both of the passages in 1 Corinthians on gender roles?

Whether an external head covering or just long hair, why should women have it, and men not, when Christians gathered for worship? In the Greek world, married women who wore shawls on their heads often did so to show that they were no longer "available." Pagan prophetesses, however, bared their heads and loosed their hair during the ecstatic frenzy that accompanied their worship. For men, a head covering may have resembled the Roman priests' togas pulled over their heads while they were worshipping their gods. If long or short hair is the issue, then it is noteworthy that overly short hair or shaven heads on women could be a sign in the Greek world of being the more "masculine" partner in a lesbian relationship, while overly long hair on some Greek men indicated homosexuality. Whichever historical-cultural background one follows, Paul's point almost certainly is that head coverings in Corinth symbolized either sexual or religious faithfulness versus infidelity.

How does such an attitude quell factional problems such as lawsuits in the church?

While Paul recognizes that fallen people must have mechanisms for settling their disputes, the Christian ideal would be never to seek redress merely for oneself. This does not mean that believers cannot fight for justice for others who have been oppressed or disenfranchised. Neither does it mean that they may not have to resort to secular courts for issues that involve non-Christians. But the question Christians must ask themselves with any contemplated legal action is if the publicity will bring the gospel into disrepute or enhance the way outsiders perceive it. 48 Given the increasing proliferation of Christian mediation ministries, at least in the U.S., there is little excuse for "in-house" complaints ever to move outside the church.

1. Summarize a concise statement based on Colossians about each of the doctrines of Christology, soteriology, and anthropology.

With respect to Christology, most non-Christians, many liberal "Christians," and numerous members of cults or sects deny Christ's deity. A few descendants of ancient Gnosticism, particularly within the New Age movement, still deny his full humanity. Concerning soteriology, traditional Catholicism and certain forms of cultic religion deny the completeness of his atonement. Legalism and nomism, as noted under Galatians, run rampant throughout our church and world. Focusing on anthropology leads to perhaps the most pointed applications for today's evangelical church. Paul's insistence on the inseparability of doctrine and ethics, worship and obedience, or the inward life and outward practice, calls into serious question the claims of individuals and groups professing faith in Christ who refuse to allow him to transform major areas of their personal or corporate ethics— whether in the bedroom or in the boardroom.

1. How are these issues best translated and understood?

With verse 7, however, the NIV gets back on track, as it acknowledges Philemon's history of loving behavior with both Paul and many other believers. These very characteristics give the apostle hope that Philemon will treat his slave kindly as well.

How has his list of sins been taken out of context and used abusively, especially in recent evangelicalism?

Yet we must not lose sight of the forest for the trees. The larger point of this subsection is to demonstrate that all have sinned, not to rank sins according to some hierarchy of wickedness. Verses 29- 31 cover the waterfront of human evil, including such "mild" transgressions as greed, gossip, and arrogance!

Identify the timeless principles 1 Thessalonians sets forth for constructing a proper doctrine of eschatology.

a. 1. Christians ought not to grieve the loss of Christian loved ones in an unchristian way. b. 2. The reason for Christians' hope is delineated in verse 14. Believers can rejoice that Christian loved ones live with Jesus and will come back with him when he returns. c. 3. Christians living when Jesus returns will have no advantage over those who have already died (v. 15), so they need not worry if they do not live to see the parousia (his coming again). d. 4. All believers alive on Earth when Christ returns "will be caught up together" with those accompanying him "to meet the Lord in the air" (vv. 16- 17). e. 5. Paul's message is intended to encourage and comfort (4: 18; cf. 5: 11). f. 6. The time of the end cannot be predicted, but we can prepare for it (5: 1- 10).

1. If we accept the order of 1 and 2 Thessalonians as presented in the New Testament, what are the key themes addressed in 1 Thessalonians that must be further developed or readdressed in 2 Thessalonians? Compare the theses of each of these letters.

a. 1st Thessalonians: Chapters 4- 5 introduce at least two issues on which some further instruction is needed: working hard and minding one's own business, and questions about eschatology, specifically about what happens when a Christian dies. Both of these issues will reappear in slightly different form in 2 Thessalonians. b. 2nd Thessalonians: The message that Paul seems to have successfully communicated through 1 Thessalonians about the parousia is that no one needed to doubt Christ's promise to come back soon. But it is quite possible that the Thessalonians overreacted because the essence of the message of his second letter is "but not that soon!"

How do both 1 and 2 Thessalonians lend credit to a posttribulational view of the rapture?

a. 1st Thessalonians: Likewise, here in 1 Thessalonians 4: 17, the imagery suggests the posttribulational understanding of the rapture. Jesus is descending from heaven to earth at the second coming, and his followers form a welcoming party to meet him part way and then escort him back to the earth in triumph. 38 Interestingly, it is precisely posttribulationism here that best supports seeing Paul as premillennial. For why bring Christ back to Earth unless to begin his earthly reign, which some Thessalonians feared their deceased fellow Christians would miss? 39 b. The expression "our being gathered to him" (v. 1) naturally suggests the same event as in 1 Thessalonians 4: 17, that is, the rapture. Tellingly, what Paul does not say is that his congregation cannot have missed Christ's return because a secret rapture must precede it in which believers are taken from the earth. Yet if Paul believed in a pretribulational rapture, that would be the obvious thing to say: as long as all living Christians still reside in this world, the end cannot have come. But if Paul understood the rapture to occur at the same time as Christ's return (see above, pp. 147- 48), and if some of the Thessalonians had mistakenly adopted the notion that Christ might return without everyone seeing him, then their error is understandable. 60 Given that later Gnosticism believed in a spiritual resurrection, in which the new age broke into this world and believers were perfected without a universal, visible, cataclysmic intervention such as the public return of the Lord for all to see, it is possible that the Thessalonians had been misled to adopt similar views here.

How do 1 and 2 Thessalonians together support a balanced application of Christian eschatology to twenty-first-century end-times watchers?

a. Faithful, moral Christian living, as we share our faith with unbelievers (as churches and individuals) and share our good with needy believers (who are willing to do their part as best they can), remains our central task, however long or short our wait. b. A similar balance is needed in the debates about the rapture. Pretribulationalists sometimes promote a "sinking ship" mentality, whereby they refuse to obey the whole counsel of God's Word in terms of Christian involvement in the world and seek only to "save souls." Posttribulationists sometimes adopt a "siege mentality" similar to secular survivalists, who are convinced that they will suffer the worst and who hoard goods in order to prepare for the onslaught of those who will attack them. Both of these extremes prove highly dangerous. We should never seek suffering for its own sake or claim to know that we will escape the worst of it. Rather, we must pray that God will help us mature and use us for his kingdom work whatever comes our way.

In what ways do internal and external evidence counter the argument for 2 Thessalonians' pseudonymity?

a. Internal: Similarities in both style and form would be natural if Paul had to address the same community about several of the same topics. If the situation had deteriorated, it would likewise be natural for Paul to employ a more distant, less personal tone. Likewise, his focus would have to narrow to the most urgent issues at hand. b. As for the use of preexisting tradition, whether Jewish or Christian, Paul displays no consistent patterns throughout his letters as to when he depends heavily on such material and when he goes his independent way. c. External: External evidence, however, for Paul's authorship of this letter is strong: Polycarp, Ignatius, Justin, and the Didache knew of the letter in the first half of the second century. In the mid-second century Marcion's and the Muratorian canons include it. Irenaeus, toward the end of the second century (Against Heresies 26.4), and later church fathers uniformly cite it as Pauline. d. Pauline authorship but concludes that it is unreasonable to call a letter pseudonymous that i. (1) is concerned about previous communication attributed to the author, ii. (2) refers to what the author taught orally and in a letter, and iii. (3) stresses its own genuineness (2: 2, 15; 3: 17). This conclusion, which supports Pauline authorship, seems the soundest.

What does the structure of Romans 14 highlight as most important in this chapter?

structure: 14: 1- 12 stresses freedom and acceptance; 14: 13- 15: 6 highlights the importance of not causing others to sin; and 15: 7- 13 stresses freedom and acceptance again. 104

What happens to a person's sin nature after he or she is justified by faith in Christ?

the juridical sense (God no longer looks upon them as sinners).

What were the Corinthians doing wrong in celebrating the Lord's Supper? What would contemporary application of Paul's response to this problem look like?

the more well-to-do Christians are bringing more food and drink than the other participants, and they are overeating and getting drunk at the expense of poorer Christians in the communal meals that the early church shared (what Jude 12 calls "love feasts"). Verses 27- 34, therefore, warn the Corinthians not to eat or drink in a selfish fashion, lest God should judge them, even with sickness or death. "In an unworthy manner" in verse 27 translates the Greek adverb "unworthily" (anaxiōs). It does not imply that those who are or who feel "unworthy" (an adjective) must refrain from the Lord's table. Communion is precisely for sinners! It does mean that those who are unwilling to share their material goods with needier Christians in their midst should not partake. "Without recognizing the body of the Lord" (v. 29) in this context most probably means "not being adequately concerned for the rest of the church." "The body of the Lord" is, on this view, just a synonym for Paul's favorite expression, "the body of Christ." 89 Derivatively, it is possible that Paul also means that those who partake should understand the significance of the death of Christ.