Nutrition Exam 2 Review

Describe how surimi is made, its nutritional contents, and how it is nutritionally (which nutrients) different that shellfish.

Fabricated type of fish - less popular species; most common type is surimi - "minced meat" Deboned, minced, treated, mixed with gums, sugars, starch,egg whites, red coloring Nutritionally different - ↓ omega-3's, ↑salt, ↓ cholesterol

Describe meat slaughter conditions and how it affects the quality of the meat.

Fear, fasting, temperature extremes, exercise • Decreases oxygen, increases anaerobic oxidation • Results in glycogen converting to lactic acid, which affects (decreases) pH • ↑ acid = ↓ pH, which reduces quality of the meat

Understand hormone and antibiotic usage with meat (beef, pork, poulty)

• Antibiotics and/or hormones • Promote growth and health, withheld prior to slaughter • 2012 FDA - recommends antibiotics only be given by a veterinarian, and only when necessary for health • WHO recommends nations to phase out antibiotics • 2013 FDA ruling to phase out indiscriminate use • 2015 FDA issues Veterinary Feed Directive final rule on antibiotic administration Antibiotics Hormones Cows Yes Yes Sheep Yes Yes Chicken Yes No Pigs Yes No

Differentiate between yellow and red marrow, where do you find it, composition of each

Marrow - soft fatty center of bone • Yellow from long bones (adds flavor) • Red from other bones

Describe how meat is classified

• Classified by age and sex/gender

Describe gapping and how it occurs

Separation of fish flesh into flakes Occurs as steak or fillet ages Can also be caused by... Rough handling Processing before rigor mortis

Define crumbing

To be eating and dropping crumbs on the ground as one travels.

Which organization conducts inspections of fish processing plants.

US Department of Commerce, National Marine Fisheries Service

Describe and identify USDA menu patterns (adult and child program), and hospital menu patterns

USDA menu patterns: Hospital menu patterns:

Describe how grass fed beef is nutritionally different than conventionally grown beef

grass fed is higher in total omega-3, higher in the mineral calcium, magnesium, and potassium.

Mercury contamination is stored where in the fish? PCB?

mercury is found in animal proteins. PCB- polychlorinated biphenyls: fetuses, infants, and children- neurological and development problems. adults: EPA rates as "probable human carcinogens," memory/learning problems. found in animal adipose.

Define storage requirements for meat and preparation techniques

preparation: dry, don't rinse. trim. tenderize. cook at correct temp and for the right amount of time, salt after cooking. storage: wrap in foil, freezer plastic bags, or freezer paper. temperature < 0. time 6-12 months- beef 3 months- ground meat do not refreeze- decreases quality

Describe what the menu dictates in a FSO

price comparison, unit price, cost/serving, degree of processing, growing method

Identify nutrient content of meat; high and low in which nutrients

protein, fat, cholesterol, carbohydrates, water, vitamins, and minerals.

Define meniscus.

the curved upper surface of a liquid in a tube.

Describe veal

• 3 wks-3 months; milk fed, milky flavor, pale color, tender texture; can have restricted movement or free-range

Describe how adipose tissue is different than in the meat we discussed in chapter 7

*Adipose tissue - different; not marbled *Found under the skin and outside of muscle vs. intramuscular

Approximately how much or "rule of thumb" chicken or turkey would you purchase to serve per person

*Amounts - As Purchased = %yield low = A decrease in EP Chicken = ½ lb/person Turkey = 1 lb/person

Discuss light or darkness of poultry, why is it different? oxidation

*Dark meat has more myoglobin *Oxidizes easily because the iron in the myoglobin acts as a metal catalyst to speed up the reaction of the polyunsaturated fatty acids *Will degrade more quickly *Gives off odor *Legs can not be stored as long as breast Dark meat(legs) •More myoglobin •Iron in myoglobin helps oxidize PUFAs •Goes bad faster White meat (breasts) •Less myoglobin •Lasts longer

Describe preparation techniques

*Do not wash, pat dry *Do not stuff poultry OR if you do, make sure to reach 165°F internal temperature *Same cooking methods as other meats *Leave skin on for cooking, then remove

Define the four types of heat transfer. 1. Conduction 2. Convection 3. Radiant Heat 4. Induction

1 ▪ Conduction - heat transferred from flame/coil ➝ pan ➝ food (i.e., via direct contact) ◦ I.e., energy transferred via direct contact ◦ Best with copper, glass, dark/dull pans 2 ▪ Convection - heated water/air expand, ↓density, moves to surface; cooler water/air moves to bottom; creates circular movement ◦ Energy transferred via mass motion of molecules 3 ▪ Radiant heat - broiling, grilling, microwave; energy waves produced (radiation, infra-red, heat) ◦ Energy transferred via electromagnetic radiation 4. Induction - electric coil under ceramic surface; alternating current flows through the coil to produce a magnetic field, which then generates other smaller current ▪ Must use iron-containing cookware ▪ Does not produce a hot surface, no pacemaker or defibrillator

Mixing Techniques for Baked Goods 1 ▪ Conventional/Creaming 2 ▪ Sponge/Meringue 3 ▪ Single stage/Quick mix 4 ▪ Muffin 5 ▪ Pastry 6 ▪ Biscuit

1 ▪ Conventional/Creaming - used for cakes - 3 steps - cream, add eggs, add dry 2 ▪ Sponge/Meringue - sugar and egg whites beaten, fold into batter 3 ▪ Single stage/Quick mix - dry and liquid together at once 4 ▪ Muffin - dry and liquid mixed separately, then combined 5 ▪ Pastry - blend - fat cut into flour 6 ▪ Biscuit - all dry ingredients mixed, fat cut in, then liquid

Describe and identify all mixing techniques listed in slides. 1 ▪ Stir 2 ▪Beat 3 ▪Blend 4 ▪Bind 5 ▪Cream 6 ▪Whip 7 ▪ Fold

1 ▪ Stir - mix using circular motion 2 ▪Beat - moved vigorously back and forth 3 ▪Blend - mixed thoroughly until one 4 ▪Bind - adhere 5 ▪Cream - fat and sugar beaten, light airy texture 6 ▪Whip - air incorporated 7 ▪ Fold - gently incorporate

1 ▪ Scalding - 2 ▪ Poaching- 3 ▪ Simmering - 4 ▪ Braising(Lg) / Stewing(small pieces) 5 ▪ Boiling 6 ▪ Parboil 7 ▪ Blanch 8 ▪ Steaming

1) Scalding: 150°, large relatively still bubbles on top and sides of pan ◦ Ex. milk 2) Poaching: 160° - 180°, small bubbles, food partially or fully immersed ◦ Ex. eggs, fish 3) Simmering: 180°, gently rising bubbles ◦ Ex. keep meat tender 4) Braising(Lg)/ Stewing(small pieces): involve simmering; use small amount of liquid, brown meat first 5)Boiling: 212°F, water bubbles rapidly, for tough vegetables, meat, pasta/grains, beans 6) Parboil: boiling for only a few minutes (partial cooking) 7) Blanch: boiling a few seconds to remove skins; denature enzymes for storage; or sets color 8) Steaming - 212°F or higher, food placed above boiling water ◦ Vegetables - improves texture, color, taste, nutrients preserved

Discuss the methods or characteristics for determining the doneness of the baked chicken or turkey, and final cooking temperature

*Dry or moist cooking methods - age determines which method you choose *Younger bird either dry or moist *Older, tougher meat - moist Determining doneness: *Internal temperature of 165°F *Dark meat takes longer, so place thermometer in thickest part of the thigh *Color change - golden brown *Juices run clear, firm to touch *Bone showing at tip of leg *Wiggle drumstick, moves easily at joint

What are the precautions that should be taken when handling and storing poultry

*Handle and store carefully to prevent bacterial contamination *Camplyobacter jejuni and Salmonella *Refrigerate *Fresh - store at <40°F, up to 3 days *Purchase in vapor-proof wrapping *Keep on bottom shelf, colder, drip loss *Frozen *Whole - 0°F 6-12 months *Cooked leftovers - 4 months

Describe if antibiotics and hormones are allowed in raising poultry

*No hormones are allowed *Antibiotics can be used but... if animal is sick then it will be given antibiotics

Describe thawing method

*Refrigerator is best - microwave or under cold water is not recommended *Requires planning *Chicken - can thaw 3.5# in 1 day *Whole turkey - can thaw in 1 - 5 days, depending on weight * Thawing a turkey rule of thumb is about 24 hours of thawing for every 5 pounds of whole turkey.

Describe proper storage for refrigeration and freezing, how does freezing affect fish's quality and texture

*store in coldest portion of refrigerator, best consumed within 1-2 days of purchase, wrap tightly to prevent odors from coming in contact with other foods. freeze: extends keeping time of fish depending on type, store up to 9 months, downsides: reduces quality, dryer, tougher, less springy, less flavorful. *becomes dryer, tougher, less springy less flavorful.

1. baking 2. roasting 3. broiling 4. grilling 5. frying

1. Baking: - hot air 212-500°F, average 350°F ◦ Position of oven rack - middle ◦ Pan color/type: ◦ Shiny - reflects heat for cookies or cakes, light soft crust ◦ Dull - absorbs heat - browner, crisper ◦ Glass - heats food more rapidly, decrease temp by 25°F ◦ When opening the door to check - heat and moisture lost 2) Roasting: for meat (baste every 20 min), poultry, vegetables. Usually rec to sear meat 3) Broiling: food under intense heat source, for tender meat, poultry, fish 4. Grilling: food above heat source 5. Frying: cooking in fat, which lubricates; transfers heat; and provides flavor, browning, and crispness ◦ Medium to high heat: ◦ Sautéing - little fat ◦ Stir-frying - a little more fat ◦ Pan broiling / pan frying - hot pan, no added fat and pouring off as it accumulates. If not poured off = pan-frying ◦ More fat, high heat: deep frying➝ fat absorption

ch 8 Describe how poultry is classified and the various species of birds that are sold in the US

1. Chicken : Sex, Age, Class *Either, 5-6 weeks, Cornish game hen, *Either, under 10 weeks, boiler or fryer *Either, under 12 weeks, roaster *Unsexed male , under 4 months, Capon *Female only, over 10 months; Hen, fowl,baking or stewing chicken. *Male only, over 10 months, cock or rooster 2. Turkey: * Either, under 12 weeks, fryer-roaster *Female, under 6 months, young hen *Male, under 6 months, young tom *Female, under 15 months, yearling hen *Male, under 15 months, yearling tom *Either, over 15 months, mature or old 3. Duck: *Either, under 8 weeks, duckling *Either,under 16 weeks, roaster duck *Either, over 6 months, mature or old 4&5: Goose and Guinea *Either, Young *Either, Mature and Old 6. Pigeon: *Either, Squab *Either, Pigeon

Discuss how the following factors affect meat tenderness: 1.cut 2.age 3.heredity, 4.diet 5.marbling 6.slaughter conditions.

1. Cut • Exercised muscles tougher • Loin and rib area most tender 2. Age - older = tougher 3. Heredity - Angus, Wagyu 4. Feed (method of finishing) • Grain - higher fat, tender • Grass - higher omega-3 content (Conjugate Linoleic Acid), might be a cancer fighter 5.Marbling is basis of grading *USDA PRIME: Heavy marbling, looks like snowflakes but is evenly distrusted *USDA CHOICE: Moderate marbling, in delicate lacy streaks that is less evenly distributed than in Prime *USDA SELECT: Spotty marbling, scattered like rice grains 6. Slaughter conditions; • Slaughterhouse stress • Fear, fasting, temperature extremes, exercise • Decreases oxygen, increases anaerobic oxidation • Results in glycogen converting to lactic acid, which affects (decreases) pH • ↑ acid = ↓ pH, which reduces quality of the meat

Define these terms: 1.kosher meat 2.organic meat 3.variety meat 4.processed meat 5. mechanically deboned 6.restructured meat

1. Kosher • Jewish dietary laws • Meat from cattle, sheep, and goats (not swine) • Slaughtering method: • Rabbi present, single stroke of knife • Blood drained, arteries, and veins removed 2. Organic fed only grain, grass or milk, no hormones, antibiotics )only if sick) 3. Variety • Variety meats - organs, offal, sundry specialty • Organ • Kidney • Liver • Brain • Sweetbreads • Testicles • Muscle • Tongue • Tripe • Heart • Other - chitterlings, pigs and calves feet 4.Processed - changed from its original fresh cut 5.Mechanically deboned - physical break down of muscle and connective tissue • Grinding • Cubing • Pounding • Needling → 6.Restructured is a catch-all term to describe a class of imitation beef steaks made from smaller pieces of beef fused together by a binding agent. Its development started from the 1970s

Chapter 7 Describe the components of meat: 1. muscle tissue 2.connective tissue (collagen, elastin) 3.adipose tissue 4.bone

1. Muscle Tissue • Muscle = protein • If used for movement = tougher 2. Connective Tissue • Ligaments and tendons • 2 main types of proteins 1. Collagen - gels with moist heat; ↑ flavor; ↑ toughness; ↑ with age 2. Elastin - no softening with cooking; mostly found in neck and shoulders 3. Adipose Tissue • Under skin • Cover fat - surrounds organs, muscles • Marbling - due to intramuscular fat; ↑ flavor and juiciness • Grain feeding (finishing diet) prior to slaughter: ↑ marbling • Type of feed influences adipose composition • Saturated = hard fat • Polyunsaturated = soft fat • White fat = younger, yellow fat = older and results from more carotenoids from feed • Hormones: promote absorption and metabolism of nutrients, ↑ fat and weight • Antibiotics to decrease boating and risk of acidosis 4. Bone • Identifies meat cuts, age • ↑ bone = ↓ % yield, ↑ AP price • Bones weigh more than muscle • Marrow - soft fatty center of bone • Yellow from long bones (adds flavor) • Red from other bones

ch 9 Describe the structural factors that make fish flesh much more tender than beef or poultry (myotomes, myocommata)

1. Muscle structure Myotomes - short muscle fibers Myocommata - large sheet of connective tissue (flaky) 2. Collagen - only 3% in fish (15% in land animals) Converts to gelatin at lower temp, thus breaking down 3. Low levels of the amino acid - hydroxproline - major component of the protein collagen Fish have less of it = more tender

Explain muscle composition of fish (% collagen, amino acid hydroxyproline)) and how it compares to other meat, hydroxyproline content?

1. Muscle structure Myotomes - short muscle fibers Myocommata - large sheet of connective tissue (flaky) 2. Collagen - only 3% in fish (15% in land animals) Converts to gelatin at lower temp, thus breaking down 3. Low levels of the amino acid - hydroxproline - major component of the protein collagen Fish have less of it = more tender

Describe: 1. Russian 2. Family 3. French 4. English 5. American style of meal service

1. Russian- •Most formal - also known as European •Individual service with highly trained waiters •Serve and clear from the left (as you stand behind them); beverages from the right •Service plates or place places (charger) plate part of each place setting •Many courses: appetizer, soup, fish, palate cleanser, entrée, salad (last) •Drinks refilled; all place settings removed; waiters crumb the table; dessert served, then finger bowl 2. Family- Food brought out from the kitchen in larger serving dishes •Guest serve themselves from the serving platters or bowls •Food is passed clockwise around the table •Table settings are removed before dessert, which is served by the host/ hostess or brought to table already portioned ind. •Req for some daycare centers 3. French- Also very formal, individualize table side service •Food brought out on a cart (guerdon), cooking completed on a small heater (rechaud) •Highly trained cooks and waiters •Food cooked and served at tableside = increased labor costs •Slower service 4. English- •Formal intimate gathering •Waiters serve courses • Or meat may be portioned out by host/hostess, handed to cohost who serves sides •Small group of people - 6 to 8 5. American style- •Meal plated and served from kitchen •No serving dishes •Most U.S. restaurants •Faster service

Distinguish and describe between the various purchasing options to include: 1. supermarkets 2.warehouse stores 3.Co-ops, 4.CSA 5.Food Service vendors. What type of purchasing options do large scale FSO's utilize?

1. Supermarkets: •Evolved since 1980's - "Super-Sized" •1900 - individual retailers→ departments→ non-food items→ services •Advertising, trade allowances, slotting fees for shelf space •Shopping psychology •Consumer considerations: •Cleanliness, convenience of location, courtesy, prices, speedy checkout 2. Warehouse stores: •Limited aesthetics •Membership required •Bulk •Less expensive ? •Original shipping containers •Bag your own items 3. Co-Ops •Membership required •Middle retailer cut out •Bulk items •Members contribute time •May offer limited selection 4. CSA •CSA group - subscription or for a number of weeks; you work some •Delivery or pick up from CSA group •Weekly/bi-weekly •Add-ons to buy •Farm to institution or individual home 5. Food Service •Commercial food services utilize food distributors (order on line and they deliver): •Sysco •U.S Foodservice •Food brokers •ISA, Inc.

Chapter 6 Calculate EP based from AP portion. Define percentage yield

Determine EP: # servings x serving size *•% Yield - edible amount after preparation Determine AP: EP ÷ % yield

Describe what affects tenderness of the meat

1.Slaughter conditions 2.Cut 3.Age of animal 4.Diet 5.Marbling 6.Aging 7.Tenderizing techniques/ processes

What qualities should be considered when selecting fish

1.Sniff test "Fresh fish" 2.aroma 3.Bulging, jetblack eyes 4.Tight scales 5.Firm flesh Stiff body Red gills Belly free of swelling or gas

List the factors that classify beef

Beef cattle • Classified by age and sex/gender Veal • 3 wks-3 months; milk fed, milky flavor, pale color, tender texture; can have restricted movement or free-range Calves • 3-8 months; baby beef - 8-12 months Steer • Castrated, gain weight quickly; no more than 4 years Bulls • Not typically eaten in the U.S. Heifers/ cows • Not as desirable, some prime cuts

Identify appropriate table settings

Goal - aesthetically pleasing •Components •Cover and linens • Flatware (# of courses) •Dinnerware •Glassware •Accessories •Cover - place setting for each diner • 20-24 inches •Linens - placemat/tablecloth, napkin • Tablecloth overhang of 8-12 inches •Napkin to left of fork, with open edge toward plate, open corner lower left •Napkin Folds Flatware • Standard - everyday 1 fork and 1 spoon • Dinnerware/ Glassware • Accessories • Keep to minimum • Salt and pepper (if individual portions, placed just above service) • Centerpieces/candles - in scale with table, low profile

What are the USDA grades for poultry and on what criteria are they based.

Grades: A.B. or C Based on: 1. Shape (carcass) 2.Fleshing (meat on body) 3.Fat (distribution) 4.Blemishes (pin feathers, discolor) 5.Broken bones, tears in skin

Describe the nutrient content of fish, and explain why fish are said to have a greater nutritional value than other sources of protein

High protein Lower fat; ↓saturated fat, ↑ omega-3 fatty acid (polyunsaturated) ↑ Vitamin A & D if higher fat content (for example, cod liver oil) Iodine - natural Calcium if bone eaten (salmon, sardines) Shellfish - ↑ cholesterol

Why do several shellfish have to be purchased alive?

Highly perishable

Discuss the factors that affect the pigment of fish flesh, slow-twitch and fast-twitch muscle, higher fat content and how this determines flesh color, flounder, salmon, tuna

Pigments - based on how the fish move to stay alive A. White - high concentration "fast twitch" muscle fibers (used forquick bursts and cruising) Example: flounder B. Red - high concentration "slow twitch" muscle fibers (used for endurance swimming) Example: salmon C. Pink - both (tuna) Differences between farm raised and wild Dark = ↑ fat content

Describe preparation, final cooking temperature

Same as with other meats and poultry Key points - DON'T OVERCOOK Short time, low heat Final cooking temp - 145°F

Describe steps and different measuring techniques for 1. wet and 2. dry ingredients.

Steps and measuring techniques for wet: Measure with graduated cylinders with lip for pouring ▪ Liquids - flat surface and eye level, read bottom of meniscus, except milk, honey and corn syrup; scrape out viscous liquids ▪ Eggs ◦ 1 large = 2 oz ◦ Less than 1 - homogenize, then divide ◦ Butter/margarine - 1lb = 2 C; 1 stick = 1/2 C ◦ Shortening - weighs less; 1lb = 2½ C ◦ Oils - liquid ◦ Solids - press into measuring cup, flatten to remove air or water displacement method Steps and measuring techniques for dry: Measure with flat topped cups, spoons for < 1/4 c Sugar ◦ Granular - 1 lb = 2 C ◦ Brown - 1 lb = 2 ¼ C - press / compact ◦ Understand light vs dark brown ◦ Confectioner's - 1 lb = 4½ C ▪ Flour ◦ 1 lb white = 4C ◦ If not sifted, remove 2 T ◦ Whole grain - stir, no sift ◦ Weighing is more accurate

Describe how purchased poultry can be processed; 1. dressed 2 .ready to cook 3. convenience parts 4. ground 5. formed

Style - degree to which it has been cleaned or processed 1. Dressed - blood, feathers, craw/crop removed 2.Ready to cook - no blood, feathers, head, feet, giblets (may or may not be put back in carcass) 3.Convenience - cut into parts to sell, ~70% sold Processing 4.Ground - with or without skin, breast preferred, % fat varies → 5. Formed *Whole - pieces still recognizable *Comminuted - nuggets, patties, chopped *Emulsified - very small pieces, mixed with fat and water

Use by date, Sell by date, expiration date

Use By or Best By •Freshness or quality assurance date—The last day the product will be of optimum quality. It is not a safety date. Sell By Date (Pull date)— The suggested date for retailers to remove the product from the shelf. It is not a safety date. The last day a store will sell an item, even though the food may be safe for consumption for a little while longer. Dairy and other perishable and semi-perishable items have a pull date that indicates the last day a store should sell the item. Such items are often priced very low and are a good buy if used within a short period of time. Expiration date •The last day a food should be consumed. Certain products that will "expire," such as baking powders, yeast packages, and refrigerated dough's, need to show expiration dates to let consumers know whether they are still capable of making baked products rise.

Which federal legislation governs the inspection of poultry for wholesomeness

Wholesome Poultry Act 1968

Describe histamine.

bacteria will break down the amino acid and then becomes the toxin

Describe the relationship between exercise, connective tissue, and the tenderness of meat

• Muscle = protein • If used for movement = tougher • Connective tissue • Ligaments and tendons • 2 main types of proteins 1. Collagen - gels with moist heat; ↑ flavor; ↑ toughness; ↑ with age 2. Elastin - no softening with cooking; mostly found in neck and shoulders

Define rigor mortis, and describe the changes that occur as meat ages

• Rigor mortis • Contraction of muscle fibers 6-24 hours post slaughter • Reverses after 1-2 days • Cook before or after, usually happens during transport • Helps bind water in the muscle

Purchasing Food Practice Problem: •A recipe calls for 4 oz portions of lettuce for a chef salad. 150 portions are needed. How much lettuce is needed for EP and AP? The yield is 0.76 lb •YOU Calculate now

•4oz X 150 portions = 600 oz •600 oz ÷ 16oz = 37.5# •37.5# EP ÷ 0.76 = 49.34# AP •Order 50# Note: there are 16oz in 1#

Describe a cycle menu, and what determines its length

•Cycle menus - it loops back / repeats after the last day •1 week - short stays, room service •3 week cycles improve cost control •4 week cycles less monotonous •Institutions - Nursing homes and long-term care

Describe considerations in making purchases to keep cost down in a FSO

•Understanding food costs •Meat •Most expensive menu item •Limit portion size •Use as ingredient in other dishes •Less tender cuts are usually less expensive •Larger pieces are usually less expensive •Add more plant protein alternatives - legumes or eggs •Fish •Frozen/canned are less expensive •Shellfish are more expensive •Farm raised vs wild •Mercury concerns •Dairy •Non-Fat Dried Milk powder sometimes less expensive •Cheese •Block cheese is cheaper than sliced, grated, or shredded •Aged more expensive •Processed cheese is only 51% cheese and 49% other •Grains/Bread •Processing increases costs •Dry cereal - consider cost of packaging, size (bulk vs. convenience) •Seasoned grains and pastas •Buy bulk •Always check unit pricing •Fruits and vegetables •Consider how you will use •Fresh, frozen, canned, dried •Seasonality affects price •Brand, grade •Marketing

Describe unit price and how you utilize it

•Unit price (compare) •Cost per serving

Describe and be able to differentiate between each of the different ways that fish can be purchased: whole, drawn, dressed/pan dressed, steaks, fillets, and sticks

⅓ lb steak, fillet/person ½ lb dressed/person ¾ lb whole or drawn/person

Define dry heat preparation methods to include; baking, roasting, broiling, grilling and frying. Describe nutritional factors concerning each method.

▪ Higher temperatures than moist heat ▪ Heat transferred by air, radiation, fat, metal

Chapter 5 Define moist heat preparation methods to include; scalding, poaching, simmering, stewing, braising, boiling, and steaming. Describe nutritional factors concerning each method.

▪ Moist - heat transferred to food by water, liquid, or steam ◦ Can result in destruction/leaching of flavor compounds, texture, vitamins, and/or minerals ◦ Softens and tenderizes plant cellulose and fibrous meat proteins ◦ Liquid can contribute to flavor, color, texture, or appearance ◦ Methods - scalding, poaching, simmering, stewing, braising, boiling, parboiling, blanching, steaming