Nutrition Exam 3

Potassium

- potassium is abundant in unprocessed foods so we see a lot of it and fruits, veggies. milk whole grains are some of the best sources -the AI is 4700 mg per day and most people are not really meeting their potassium needs most people are getting much less in this and although it's not on here one of the best sources of potassium is is actually avocado, one full avocado is about 950 mg of potassium a good amount of potassium from that

Vitamin B-6

-Family of compounds --pyroxidal ----Pyroxidal phosphate (PLP) -pyridoxine ----PNP --Pyridoxamine ----PMP vitamin B6 so vitamin B6 is actually a family of compounds that includes several members so pyridoxal, pyridoxine, and pyridoxamine all three can be phosphorylated to become active B6 coenzymes so basically this is just them in their phosphorylated form so pyridoxal phosphate, pyridoxine phosphate, and pyridoxamine phosphate which we can abbreviate PLP, PNP and PMP -the reason that I have this one highlighted in yellow PLP the phosphorylated version of pyridoxal is the most metabolically active form -so as a group they serve as coenzymes for over 100 metabolic reactions

Neural Tube Defects

-Spina bifida •Paralysis •Hydrocephalus •Learning disabilities -Anencephaly •Die shortly after birth -Okay so neural tube defects, one of the most common neural tube defects that occurs as a result of folate deficiency is called spina bifida but neural tube defects in general would mean a defect of the brain and or spinal cord and inadequate folate isn't the only cause but it is a big contributor so two main issues spina bifida is definitely the most common and anencephaly also occurs -so for spina bifida early in development a ridge, so this is only 2-28 days in gestation, so a ridge of neural tissue forms on what will be the back, this is showing that same Ridge right there we look like little seahorses at that 22 days and later this is going to differentiate into the spinal cord simultaneously the vertebrae are developing and eventually as both develop the vertebrae close over the spinal cord and without proper folate this doesn't happen right, so here's a healthy spine with a nice spinal cord you know enclosed within the spine here here is a spina bifida so that's not the case, so there's actually some spinal fluid there's some accumulation and typically outgrow that occurs as a result, this can cause a variety of issues now that the least severe of issues manifest as just like a little patch of hair on the bottom of the back but this would be a more severe type of their version of spina bifida and it can lead to varying degrees of paralysis of the lower limbs, learning disabilities and other issues result as well -in anencephaly, the neural tube doesn't close higher up so here we're talking about it not closing really low down on the spine, if it doesn't close higher up this is an even bigger issue cuz this would be by the brain and its causes a major portion of the brain and the skull did not form properly so these babies are usually severely malformed -so to prevent this again there are other reasons neural tube defects can can occur but the big reason is deficiency in folate so all women of childbearing age to get at least 400 micrograms of folic acid per day and then they encourage you to increase that amount when you're actually ready to conceive

Random Shit

-and then it's interesting cuz this this is what image from your textbook that advert that talks about Product 19 cereal you've heard of Product 19 right nobody has so I was interested in what product 19 actually is the part of 19 was a Kellogg's cereals basically you know what is enriched and fortified cereal and it had 100% of the daily value for 11 vitamins and minerals -so this came out in 1967 and it was discontinued those it had a really long run so from 1967 all the way until 2016 and the name has been explained in two ways 1 it is the 19th version of the cereal the 19th version of the cereal that they tried or it's the 19th products in development that there's no real solid answer on why it's called Product 19 considering it only has 11 vitamins and minerals as one would think it contains 19 so after I found out after I was looking into a product 19 I should have went down a wormhole bold food ads these being some of my favorites on this is from 1941 so this is advertising vitamin donuts for pep and vigor I'm so each donut is fortified with 25 units of vitamin B1 so this was on that they were starting to 425 things that Simon the nineteen-fifties add suggesting 7 Up yes soda 7 Up For Infants even suggest recipes that involve mixing 7 up with milk - since once you hook an infant on seven up it will be impossible to get some to drink nutrient-dense milk again nothing doesn't like 7 Up -This is my favorite but I know I had heard about this for a while back so this is Schlitz vitamin D beer has an old can of vitamin D beer beer is good for you but it's beer with vitamin D is extra good for you drink a daily for help with enjoyment this isn't an ad from a magazine that that was that was that was put out so this was out from 1936 to 1938 and the main issue is just what the price point was to high once people realize that and actually it was in there add Sunshine once people realize you can get vitamin D for free from the Sun

Folate in Foods

-foods with the most bio-available folate we often say include the Three L's liver, legumes and leafy greens these arre the things that we see the most folate, some other good sources be like avocado, oranges, and grains are enriched with folate so this began in 1998 that makes bread and cereal good source as well So Folate you may be wondering what the differences between Folate and folic acid, Folate is the natural form that's found in foods with folic acid is the synthetic version that is used in supplements -this is one case where the synthetic version is actually more bioavailable than the natural version and that's because folic acid is absorbed better than Folate and this is because it's already in the monoglutamate forms so it doesn't have to go undergo any processing and also natural food folates are kind of unstable compound so losses in vitamin activity can be expected during food processing so this can actually lower the amount of Folate in foods naturally -so again 1 case we're taking the supplements and its supplemental form actually provide you with a higher amount overall, higher absorption rate

Phosphorus

-phosphorpus this is the second most abundant mineral in the body, about 85% of it is stored in bone and teeth similar to calcium -phosphorus is found in baked goods, fish meats and dairy on the best sources are from animal products because it's in the form of fennec acid in plants so it's the more bioavailable from animal sources -in terms of absorption it's not the most absorbable mineral we observe about half of what we eat from plant sources so about 50% and then we absorb about 70% from animal products so much more bioavailable from those sources the RDA in men and women is 700 mg per day and average intake usually exceeds this amount most people don't have a phosphorus deficiency

Biotin overview

-so biotin functions as a carboxylase, deficiency is rare, and there is no upper limit

Vitamin B-12 in Foods

-so here are some rich sources so again animal products like me eggs dairy seafood and then some fortified sources as well soy milk and cereal -2.5 micrograms per day is the RDA

Riboflavin overview

-so riboflavin is important for FMN and FAD so important for carb and fat metabolism and activates other vitamins, deficiency is ariboflavinosis and and there's no upper limit or risk of toxicity

Niacin overview

-the main function of niacin is NAD and NADP, pellagra is the name of the deficiency and 35 milligrams per day is the upper limit so again I will probably not say what's niacin's upper limit but knowing that it does have an upper limit is something that I may ask so out of these options do any of them have an upper limit and you would know that niacin is the one

Vitamin C in Foods

-we get the best Vitamin C from raw foods so you know a lot of fruits we eat raw obviously some you can cook to make up different types of dishes but we get the best vitamin C content from raw fruits and vegetables -animal products are a poor source of vitamin C so we don't really see any of them on on this list -RDA 75 mg for women 90 mg for men -it's absorbed pretty readily so when consumed at the RDA about anywhere from 70 to 90% is absorbed so it is absorbed pretty well as long as it's taken in

Vitamin D in Foods

okay good sources of vitamin D include mushrooms, milk, fish, eggs it is possible to get to your daily amounts from food alone but it's difficult unless you're eating these things on a daily basis so a lot of us eat fish but we don't need it everyday so you'll see there's kind of minute amounts from other types of foods that's why supplementation is important in winter months -the RDA is 15 micrograms per day and this is based on no sun exposure so intake can be increased during March through October when the RDA can be achieved from the Sun - pretty much when we are not getting enough vitamin D from the Sun diet, fortified foods, and supplements are really our only sources

Vitamin E in Foods

so sources of vitamin E include plant oils, avocado, almonds sunflower seeds, sunflower seeds we are going to see a lot, its a great source of many vitamins and minerals which we will see moving forward -vitamin E is particularly sensitive to destruction by heat or processing so raw forms of these products will give the highest amount of vitamin E -you will notice a lot of these aren't meeting the RDA this is why a lot of people are deficient in vitamin E so getting a small amount from a variety of foods is important in order to meet vitamin E needs -the RDA is 15 mg per day for men and women so that makes us the fat-soluble vitamin needed in the largest quantity all the other ones are in micrograms and again most fall short of this requirement so many choose to supplement, another thing is we only absorb 50% of what we eat so we don't we don't actually absorb everything and is mostly stored in adipose tissue

Vitamin A in Foods

this is the vitamin A content of various Foods so liver is the winner when it comes to retinoids and sweet potatoes are the winner when it comes to carotenoids so for all of the vitamins and minerals you'll be relieved to know that you don't have to memorize rda's I'm simply presenting them as a reference so this and what you should know is basically you know out of the fat-soluble vitamins which one do we need in the highest amount and things like that generalizations, but here is the RDA for men and women so for women it is 700 ug and for men it's 900 and the daily value is set higher so remember daily values are set higher in order for people to attempt to get a higher amount of that vitamin daily values are essentially goals

Water Needs

•AI -Men 15 cups -Women 11 cups -water needs vary greatly depending on body size and age and level of activity, some of you need a lot of water and some may need a little bit of water depending on your diet because you're all the same age but for the most part we can get a lot of our water from our diet -so here that this is showing a beer actually supplies about 90%, beer is 90% water, apples and oranges about 80 to 90% water, lettuce, tomato so we get a lot of water content from other things -recommendation is 15 cups for men and 11 cups for women so that includes all sources so that would be plain water plus dietary sources, now most people fall short of this AI so most people are dehydrated or chronically dehydrated and a lot of people are not consuming enough extra water as a result of their diet so some people don't eat a lot of fruits and vegetables which have the highest water content so they actually need to consume more water compared to people who eat a lot of fruits and vegetables

Sodium Needs

•AI is 1500mg/day -As little as 200mg/day meets physiological needs •Goals -Less than 2300mg/day •Average man 4200mg/day •Average woman 3000mg/day alright so the AI for people under 50 is 1500 mg per day this is interesting because just a little bit can meet our normal physiological needs so all you need is about 200 mg per day to meet physiological needs but salt and flavor food and there's no really severely damaging effects up to 1500 mg per day you know salt really flavors food and helps to enhance the flavor of food so it's really fine to have up to 1500 mg per day both reasonable and healthy -the UL is 2300 mg per day and so it's recommended to take in less than that now the average American man eats almost double that so about 4200 mg per day and the average woman about 3,000 mg per day so most people are far exceeding their sodium intake on a daily basis

Vitamin A Absorption and Storage

•Absorption -Retinoids •90% is absorbed -Dietary carotenoids •5-60% is absorbed •Storage -Mostly in the liver absorption of retinoids is very efficient so about 90% of what's consumed is actually absorbed that's really high so that allows us to take in lots of retinoids and that can be converted into Vitamin A -for carotenoids its much less efficient so anywhere from 5 to 60% is absorbed so often when you hear that you do animal products have the most available vitamins and minerals that's what we're talking about so the fact that even though you take in the carotenoids anywhere from five to 60% are actually absorbed and then usable, storage in this case is mainly in the liver -small amounts over 90% of vitamin A is stored in the liver, a small amount is stored in adipose tissue as well

Minerals in General

•Absorption and transport -Travel in blood in free form or bound to proteins •Storage varies -Trace mineral storage is very small •Excretion -Mostly urine •Deficiency -Calcium, Potassium, and Magnesium -Iron and Zinc •Toxicity -Trace minerals -no digestion takes place, absorption occurs in a number of ways usually actively or passively and once absorbed, minerals travel in the blood either alone or bound to protein -storage varies but in general the major minerals are stored in larger amounts than the trace minerals -some common storage sites include bone and within the fluids of the body -excretion usually occurs through urine although a select few are secreted by the liver into bile and then out through feces -of the major minerals calcium, potassium, and magnesium tend to be the ones most people are deficient in, iron and zinc are usually are the common deficiencies from the trace minerals -in terms of upper limits the trace minerals are much more at risk for toxicity but some major minerals have upper limits as well especially through supplementation

Vitamin B-12 absorption and digestion

•Absorption, Transport, and Storage -R-protein •Saliva à Stomachà SI -HCl and pepsin •Stomach -Intrinsic factor •Stomach à SI -Transcobalamin II •Enterocyte à blood à liver -all right so now if you remember in the last lecture I gave you a general idea of how the water soluble vitamins you know almost all of them are not digested but how they are absorbed and transported throughout the body this is the one exception and b12 is a very important exception because it's so large and complex it actually takes a lot to move it around the body and get it to where it needs to go, so it involves a number of carrier proteins to help move it around and it basically gets assistance as it moves throughout the body so this sort of outlines that overall process -now B12 initially is taken in its bound to protein in food (the purple guy here is the protein the green guy's the B12) and our saliva contains a protein which is called R protein and together these enter the stomach together so we have B-12 bound to protein and we have R protein entering the stomach -now in the stomach we know that hydrochloric acid and pepsin are found and these function normally these in a normal digestive process these functional to denature protein and it does the same here so what it does here is it actually detaches vitamin B12 from protein, vitamin B12 is free within the stomach so again it's a large complex molecule and it really needs help getting around so that help is provided by R protein so it links up with R protein in the stomach and it R protein also protects it from stomach acid and it helps deliver it to the duodenum -so in duodenum now b12 is safe to go on to its next step, it is released from R protein and binds to another protein which is intrinsic factor ( so here is intrinsic factor right here) and the IF-B12 complex, well intrinsic factor helps to enhance the absorption of B12 so that's sort of the purpose of it so I carries it through the small intestine and then it enhances its absorption, so so this IF-B12 complex is then absorbed by enterocytes, -so it's not shown here but the next step in this process would be B12 binding to another protein called transcobalamin II so from there it's delivered to the liver for storage so this would be after it's absorbed so it's been in the enterocyte so once it's in the blood and it's transported to the liver, transcobalamin II performs that act - the liver can store again liver can store B12 for about a year and then there's also a very small storage supply in muscle so yeah kind of gets passed on from one thing to another until it eventually makes its way to the liver where it's just stored

Biotin as a Dietary Supplement

•Advertised as a hair & nail supplement biotin is marketed as a supplement for the growth of hair and nails so it is advertised as a hair and nail supplement and it is hailed as one of the most important vitamins necessary to regrow hair and to keep nails strong, as far as I have been able to find, all of the evidence that promotes its efficacy is people who are slightly deficient or have a genetic disorder that prevents biotin from being absorbed -so there was one small scale study and this was cited in one of these products so I noticed that one of these products said here's our study that shows our proof and if you look at the study this is one of the graphs from their study that shows the hair shedding that occurred after Biotin supplementation and how it decrease after that supplementation occurred but the funny thing about this is that hair shedding occurs in a cyclical fashion so we experience hair shedding in September so there are all of these phases that go on with the hair follicle and most of our hair does fallout, a lot of it does shed in the month of September so essentially this chart means nothing, they were not compaing it to a normal individual that would not have taken biotin, this is what is expected of hair shedding in those months through those later months so to me the study meant absolutely nothing so to sum it up biotin has no direct effect on hair or and nails unless you're deficient which again is very rare, now taking it isn't going to hurt you but it's a waste of money if it's not actually doing anything

Vitamin C

•Also known as ascorbic acid. •Primarily functions as an electron donor -so vitamin C, vitamin C is also known as of asorbic acid and it functions primarily in redox reactions so that's its main role this is it in its reduced forms this it is oxidized form -overall vitamin C is the least stable of all the water soluble vitamins it's vulnerable and storage processing cooking will greatly reduce the vitamin C content of foods, it is estimated about forty to fifty percent is lost during cooking

Functions of Vitamin B-12

•Amino acid synthesis •Homocysteine à Methionine •Methylation -DNA function •Gene expression -Nerve transmission -the function: so B12 coenzymes assist in DNA synthesis, red blood cell formation, it assistant proper nerve transmission, and also plays a role in amino acid synthesis I just mentioned this when we talked about folate so along with folate, B12 is is required for the formation of the amino acid with methionine, B12 also functions in the process of methylation: this is the process of transferring a methyl group to a compound and this is especially important for DNA and nerve function, so genes can essentially be turned on or off through methylation, nerves can be protected, so this is an important switch and it also B12 is needed for the metabolism of fatty acids, so t plays a role in fatty acid metabolism as well that we didn't really talk about yet - it mainly plays a role in allowing certain fatty acids to be fed into the a citric acid cycle

Riboflavin Deficiency and UL

•Ariboflavinosis -Swelling, dryness, inflammation - •No UL -deficiency is known as ariboflavinosis which is easy to remember because riboflavin is sort of in there and this cuaases inflammation in the the tissues of the mouth and throat for the most part, swelling of the mucous membranes is common, dry lips, inflammed skin, cracking at the sides of the mouth is also very common, and then deficiency of riboflavin often leads to a deficiency of other vitamins since it's so important for their activation so if you are low riboflavin you tend to be low in the vtramins that it is activating - there's no upper limit and there's no documented toxicities of excess through diet or through supplementation

Water-Soluble Vitamins list

•B vitamins -Thiamin- B1 -Riboflavin- B2 -Niacin- B3 -Pantothenic acid- B5 -Folate- B6 -Biotin- B7 -Vitamin B6 -Cobalamin- B12 •Vitamin C •Choline -so now we are going to look at water soluble vitamins like I said this is the list of the water soluble vitamins, there is 10 total most of them are B vitamins so 8 of them are B vitamins, and then there is also vitamin C and choline we'll talk about that in next lecture but choline is not exactly a water-soluble vitamin we sort of categorize it with the water soluble vitamins

Thiamin Deficiency and UL

•Beriberi -Peripheral neuropathy and weakness, muscle pain and tenderness, difficulty breathing, anorexia, weight loss, poor memory, confusion •Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome •No UL -thiamine deficiency leads to a condition called beriberi and this was first described in Asian countries where white rice was the staple food and this was before grains were enriched deficiency was very common and led to death in many cases, the word comes from Sri Lanka and it literally means I can't I can't because the body's inability to metabolize energy leads to muscle wasting and nerves damage -we talked about wernicke-korsakoff syndrome so this is alcohol related thiamine deficiency and again this condition is due to increased excretion and decreased absorption so it's directly related to alcohol and the individual may be taking in enough thiamine but they're not able to absorb it or utilize it or it's just getting excreted in the urine -there's no upper limit and excess is readily excreted this is true for both vitamins and supplement and in this case a deficiency would appear in about 1 to 3 weeks of not meeting the RDA -useful to break these down into a couple of different categories to summarize: the vitamin, the function, deficiency and whether it has an upper limit or not -thiamine function is decarboxylation remember what that actually means and where that's applicable what parts of the metabolism that's applicable, deficiency is known as beriberi, and there is no upper limit

Calcium in Foods

•Bioavailability low in some foods -Bound to oxalic acid •RDA -1000 mg/day -next is calcium do calcium tends to be a common deficiency in many people and this is not necessarily due to low intake but the fact that bioavailability is very low -so this is showing the percent of calcium absorbed from different foods so we can get the most calcium from Brussels sprouts broccoli kale and cabbage, you get the least amount from spinach -a lot of these things again they have a good amount of calcium in them but it's not a bio-available source -many of these foods again contain oxalic acid which binds to calcium and that leads to poor absorption so again in terms of spinach, so spinach has 250 mg of calcium per serving so 250 mg but only 5% are actually absorbed all right so the RDA is 1000 mg per day, this is for people that are from 18 to 50 that would increase as you get older and most people fall short on a daily basis the RDA for calcium -about 99% of the calcium in the body is stored in bones and teeth

Functions of Calcium

•Blood clotting -Production of fibrin •Transmission of nerve impulses to target cells -Calcium influx -Release of neurotransmitters -Low calcium •Tetany •Muscle contraction -Permits the movement of contractile proteins -vitamin K we talked about his contribution to the formation of fibrin, calcium also participates in this process of linking layers of fibrin together so it also participates in the formation of a blood clot, calcium plays a role in nerve impulse to target cells, if calcium is insufficient nerve impulses can develop spontaneously that leads to a state of tetany -so sustained muscle contractions when a muscle so it plays a role in in nerve impulses and muscle contractions so when a muscle fiber is stimulated by a nerve impulse calcium ions are released and this increase in calcium along with sufficient ATP actually permit movement of contractile proteins within muscle to actually generate a contraction

Bone Development

•Bone consists of protein fibers, collagen, and minerals -Minerals form Hydroxyapatite •Compact bone (cortical) -Outer, dense shell of bone •Spongy bone (trabecular) -Inner hard, spongy network -so bone is made up of a network of protein fibers, collagen, and minerals -the minerals are mostly calcium and phosphorus which form a hydroxyapatite so this is the chief structural element of bone and hydroxyapatite makes bones strong and rigid while collagen and protein add like slight flexibility the outer part of bone is called compact bone or also known as cortical bone, the outer dense shell bone this makes up the bulk of our skeletal Mass about 75% is compact bone

Bone Maintenance

•Bone is constantly remodeling -Osteoblasts •Bone-building -Osteocytes • Biochemically active -Osteoclasts •Bone resorption -the remainder is spongy bone, trabecular bone which is hard layer that appears spongy, so spongy bone is abundant at the ends of long bones and it's the main site of mineral enty and exit -so bone is just constantly undergoing a process which is just basically known as remodeling and that's the lifelong process of building, breaking down and reshaping bone, so remodeling allows reserves of calcium and phosphorus to be pulled in times of need -so there are three main types of bone cells that participated in the process of remodeling is osteoblast, osteocytes, and osteoclasts -osteoblasts are the main bone-building cells that produce collagen and add minerals -osteocytes are the biochemically active cells they can take up calcium from the blood and help bones become more dense this is exactly the most abundant bone cell -lastly osteoclasts these are the most active cells during a Calcium deficiency and these dissolve bone by releasing acid and enzymes that actually you allow you to utilize the calcium that is stored in your bone when when deficiency occurs -osteoblasts most active from infancy to adolescence and then around 50 years of age osteoclasts become the most dominant especially in women and especially during and after menopause, estrogen normally inhibits osteoclast activity so once estrogen drops after menopause bone loss is common

Carotenoid Functions

•Can be converted to retinoids •May decrease risk of -Eye-diseases like macular degeneration -Cancers •Lycopene -Cardiovascular disease •Beta-carotene acts as antioxidant Okay so carotenoids again can be converted into Vitamin A most studies indicate the diets rich in carotenoids provide a helpful preventative feature as well so they can reduce the risk of certain diseases like those related to the eye certain cancers and cardiovascular disease there is significant evidence the diets rich in carotenoids reduce the risk of macular degeneration so this usually occurs later in life and causes a blind spot in the center of visual field so that is really sad so anytime you use the center of your visual field anything that you are focusing on, there is a fuzzy or blind spot that makes it so that you can't see clearly -there's some evidence that lycopene another type of carotenoid can reduce the risk of prostate cancer this is based on epidemiological studies of men who consume more tomato based diets which are particularly high in lycopene and then both beta-carotene and lycopene and a number of other carotenoids have been shown to decrease free ldls increase LDL receptors on cells which againallow more cholesterol to be taken into cells so there's less of a free-floating which reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease -then beta carotene is the most intensely studied out of all of them and it acts as an antioxidant protecting from free radical damage and we'll look at that in a minute when we talk about vitamin E

Vitamin D Toxicity

•Can occur with supplementation •Upper level 100 mg/day or 4000IUs -Excess blood calcium -Deposits of calcium in kidneys, heart, and lungs -Weakness -Joint pain -Kidney dysfunction -so toxicity can only occur through the use of supplements, you can't get a toxic amount from food or the SUn -the upper limit is 100 micrograms per day and one of the main issues is that sustained high doses of vitamin D causes an overabsorption of calcium which can lead to hypercalcemia, too much calcium in the blood, this can lead to calcium deposits in the kidneys and and other organs -weakness joint pain and kidney dysfunction have all been seen with toxic doses and megadoses of vitamin D

Vitamin B-12

•Cobalamin -Bacterial derived -Contains cobalt -all right vitamin B12 so this is also known as cobalamin and it's very unique among the water-soluble vitamins in several ways -first bacteria are the only organisms that synthesize it so we get B12 from bacteria -second it's the only vitamin that contains Cobalt as part of its structure -third it's actually the largest and most structurally complex out of all the vitamins (water soluble vitamins at least) - and then fourth it stored for the longest amount of time out of any of the water-soluble vitamins so it is pretty much b6 and b12 that are stored (B12 storage for about a year) -the only B12 comes from symbiotic relationships with microorganisms so animals provide the main natural rich sources of B12 -humans and many animals produce some from gut bacteria but it's not absorbed while because it's made in the large intestine so while we do produce some it's made in the large intestine and we don't absorb it from there -herbivores animals that don't eat meat at all, beavers and rabbits for example, are known to consume their own feces and this is not because they're they have nothing else to eat it's actually because that's how they're meeting there vitamin B12 needs since there is that production of B12 in the large intestine it unfortunately just gets secreted out in fecal matter -there are some a plant-based sources so algae-based food like seaweed, shiitake mushrooms have a little bit, Tempe can provide some B12 but not as Rich of a source that animals can provide so for most vegetarians and vegans it is recommended to supplement

Biotin

•Coenzyme that participates in carboxylation reactions •Needs and Upper Level -Adequate Intake is 30 mg/day -No UL -next is biotin so biotin was formerly known as vitamin B7 we skipped some numbers along the way that's because these were named and in order that they were discovered and some of them were deemed nonessential so this is formerly known as B7 and biotin participates in carboxylation reactions so not decarboxylation but carboxylation, so basicallythe opposite of decarboxylation reactions, essentially adding a carboxyl group to a compound or a molecule, thar is what biotin is going to do -biotin is abundant in whole grains, eggs, legumes, we also get some biton from bacteria that synthesize it in the large intestine -AI is about 30 micrograms per day with no upper limit and here you can see a couple of reactions that require biotin, it functions as a carboxylase

B-Vitamins

•Coenzymes -Function in energy metabolism -in general the primary role of B vitamins is to assist in energy metabolism, so specifically the act as coenzymes so all of these vitamins are going to facilitate something in a metabolic pathway, we have often heard that the B vitamins are the real energy-boosting vitamins and that is because they all play a role in some energy-boosting pathway so that's why I made you relearn that metabolism stuff because all of these are going to play some role in those pathways, this is a really good summary chart with summary image now they abbreviated all of the vitamins and they are shown in all of these little yellow circles and we can see the important roles of each of those vitamins in the central metabolic pathways so this is the breakdown of carbohydrates versus fats versus proteins and we can see these little balls are all over the place because all of those B vitamins are going to play a key role in again one or more of those pathways so keep that in mind, B vitamins are going to be the coenzymes in metabolic pathway -in terms of absorption so I'm not going to talk about the specific absorption rates but it's typically around 50 to 90% for these first five vitamins that I am talking about so that means how much of what you eat is actually absorbed so againit's about 50 to 90% and a lot of that is based on what you eat and how much you need that particular nutrient so you'll typically absorb more if your body is in need of that nutrient

Functions of Riboflavin

•Component of 2 coenzymes -Flavin mononucleotide (FMN) -Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) •Formation of other vitamins -Niacin -Vitamin B-6 -Folate -Retinoic acid •Antioxidant function -Glutathione -In terms of function riboflavin is part of two coenzymes that function in redox reactions, flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adanine dinucleotide (FAD) and both of these are electron acceptors in carbohydrate metabolism and also fat metabolism so they are going to play a key role there, to give you some more specific examples FMN serves as an electron acceptor in the electron transport chain so I did sort of a very general overview of the electron transport chain but in that process redox reactions are taking place and FMN is important in that in that case so it is an electron acceptor in the electron transport chain and actually it's in the first complex so it sort of takes those electrons from nadh and kicks off that whole process -FAD is an electron acceptor in carb and fat metabolism so you know it in its other form which is FADH2 so anytime we talk about FADH2 we are talking about riboflavin, riboflavin is part of that coenzyme so yeah for carbohydrate metabolism and we talked about beta oxidation, so in beta oxidation fadh2 is also you know one of the products of that so it is also important for fat metabolism as well -it also supports the formation of other vitamins so it plays sort of a supportive role in the production of niacin and vitamin B6, folate and retinoic acid in terms of niacin, niacin can actually be made from tryptophan but riboflavin is required in order to do that so it helps convert tryptophan into niacin, it activates B6 so there's a component necessary to make that vitamin active so it activates vitamin B6, it also activates folate and then it converts retinol ( a type of vitamin A) into retinoic acid so it plays a supporting role is some other vitamins -lastly FAD is involved in the redox reactions that generate glutathione and this is an important antioxidant that protect cells from oxidative damage so we will say or you might see cited in certain places that riboflavin is part of our antioxidant defense because it plays a key role in synthesizing that compound which is important for our antioxidant defense

Folate consists of

•Consists of 3 parts: -Pteridine -Para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) -1 or more molecules of glutamate •Polyglutamates •Monoglutamates -Folate is formerly known as vitamin B9 and Folate consists of three parts pteridine, para-aminobenzoic acid (which we just abbreviate to PABA) and one or more glutamate molecules -most types of folate exist with 3 known as polyglutamate so that would be 3 or more and this is the type is found most commonly in foods

Deficiency, Pharma use, and UL

•Deficiency -Anemia, convulsions, depression, confusion, irritated patches of skin •Pharmacological use -Carpal tunnel syndrome -Premenstrual syndrome -Nausea during pregnancy •UL 100mg/day -so in general most people in the states are not deficient B6, B6 is not you know it very common deficiency some people are a little bit on the lower side but not truly deficient and a number of conditions increase the need for B6 that can lead to deficiency, so for example alcoholism, certain prescription medications, really intense physical activity, certain chronic diseases all these would increase the demand for B6 where you may expect deficiency to occur since demand is higher -the the main symptoms associated with deficiency involve mainly three regions of the body the skin, the blood, and the nervous system and really that reflects the overall function of B6 -there is some evidence that B6 intake has a pharmacological use meaning that if you take it in the proper dose it will provide added benefits so it's there are some studies that indicate that it can reduce the risk of colon cancer and cardiovascular disease, B6 supplement have been known to treat carpal tunnel syndrome, PMS, nausea during pregnancy and also playing a role in the treatment for depression there is some evidence that it helps these conditions but again it's still under investigation and as long as it doesn't go past the upper level is seems to be safe to consume a pharmacological dose of vitamin B6 -another interesting thing about B6 is that it may increase dream vividness or the ability to recall dreams, so a lot of them people practice what is known as lucid dreaming, basically lucid dreaming is the ability to kind of like control your dreams as they're happening which is really kind of a an amazing concept, so B6 helps induce the certain type of sleep that allows you to enter that lucid dreaming area where you can actually control your dreams to some extent that's really kind of interesting, now to practice lucid dreaming you have to do a lot of things so you can you guys can look it up online if you're interested but apparently B6 can help in that process -so again there is an upper limit again it's stored in the body so that's why there's an upper limit so 100 mg per day and actually this is one vitamin you really need to watch because it can cause severe neurological damage in fact doses of 2-6 Grams now that's a lot higher than the upper limit but doses of 2-6 grams are so toxic they cause nerve damage leaving people paralyzed so that's how potentially dangerous vitamin B6 can be and that would only be through the use of supplements you can't possibly get that much B6 from food alone

Phosphorus deficiency/UL

•Deficiency -Bone loss, decreased growth, poor tooth development •Toxicity and Upper Level: -Upper Level is 3 g/day -deficiencies are going to be common in all The Usual Suspects people with poor diets, malabsorption issues, alcoholics and a less common causes deficiencies through the use of aluminum containing antacids which actually bind to phosphorus and prevent their absorption so Mylanta is one example of one of those so you know habitually using those types of products -upper limit of 3 grams per day which overtime causes poor kidney function muscle spasms and convulsions

Vitamin E Deficiency and UL

•Deficiency -Hemolysis and impaired immune function •Excessive amounts can interfere with vitamin K •Upper Limit for alpha-tocopherol set at: -1000 mg/day (1500 IU) -most people don't achieve 100% the RDA but severe symptoms of deficiency are rare so they do occur in people with fat malabsorption issues so people that can't absorb fat period so if you do have a deficiency it is characterized by erythrocyte hemolysis so the premature breakdown of red blood cells and impaired immune function -some other issues I mentioned premature aging and since it maintains a cell membrane Integrity cells will weaken faster, for athletes lack of vitamin E can weaken performance since it plays a key role in maintaining the membrane of red blood cells -the upper limit for Alpha tocopherol is 1000 micrograms per day which is quite High indicating that it is relatively non-toxic in high doses, mainly the issue is that it can interfere with blood clotting, preventing the absorption of vitamin K

Deficiency and Toxicity

•Deficiency -Hypokalemia •Weakness, fatigue, constipation, arrhythmias •Increased risk of stroke and kidney stones •Excess intake and Upper Level -Hyperkalemia •Due to poor kidney function •Irregular heartbeat, cardiac arrest -No Upper Level is set -deficiency and toxicity are both uncommon but they can be dangerous so deficiency of potassium is hypokalemia weakness, heart arrhythmias, constipation and this puts people at risk for stroke and kidney stones -potassium binds to calcium and prevents an excess from being excreted in urine that's why a deficiency would lead to kidney stones -high blood potassium is known as hyperkalemia which is a dangerous condition it doesn't typically occur through diet or supplements but when kidney function is poor so this is not something that you can really cause yourself but it's due to poor kidney function and this can lead to irregular heartbeat and cardiac arrest so there's no upper limits for healthy people since again hyperkalemia doesn't occur from intake alone

Vitamin K Deficiency and UL

•Deficiency -Newborns -Prolonged antibiotic use -Impaired fat absorption •No Upper Limit is set -deficiency is often a problem in newborns because little vitamin K passes through the placenta they absorb it poorly and they're not yet colonized with bacteria so infants are usually given vitamin K injections soon after delivery -besides newborns deficiency is rare but can occur due to prolonged use of antibiotics so people aren't producing it on their own, their killing their bacteria off that is doing it for them and people who have malabsorption issues -to date there's no upper limit for Vitamin K, this is the only fat soluble vitamin without an upper limit and storage seems to be pretty limited so while we do store it I guess it's not as well absorbed compared to the other fat soluble vitamins so there's no adverse health effects have been demonstrated in megadoses even after short or long term use this is an excellent study tool from your textbook so this indicates the all of those vitamins, the main function, summarizes the deficiency, people at risk, sources, the RDA, and issues with toxicity

Vitamin A Deficiency

•Deficiency leads to changes -Eyes •Night blindness •Conjunctival xerosis •Bitot's spots •Xerophthalmia So vitamin A deficiencies are not common in the States but they are in developing countries worldwide it is the leading cause of non-accidental blindness and we saw it plays an important role in Eye Health so deficiency leads to Progressive changes in the eye so Night blindness we just talked about and then some more serious issues so conjunctival xerosis occurs next which is severe dryness and this is due to lack of cell differentiation, in some cases a buildup of debris leads to these small opaque plaques with your known as Bitot's spots and then finally changes can lead to xerophthalamia which the entire surface of the cornea becomes extremely rough and dry and it does lead to blindness all of this is just due to lack of vitamin A

Dehydration and Water Toxicity

•Dehydration -Caused by a number of factors -Mild to moderate dehydration •Dry mouth and skin, Headache -Severe dehydration •Kidneys fail •Seizures, delirium, and coma can occur •Water toxicity •Hyponatremia -Kidneys can remove water fast enough -Headache, respiratory arrest, death -a number of conditions can lead to dehydration a number of conditions and also just not simply not taking in enough water heavy exercise hot weather medical conditions diarrhea vomiting all that can lead to dehydration signs of dehydration include dry mouth dry skin weakness headache dark colored urine and eventually blood pressure can drop so much that heart rate really sky rockets and if fluids aren't replenish death can result -on the other end of the spectrum too much water can also kill you so too much water cause hyponatremia which is technically caused by too much sodium in the blood but it's caused by too much water basically the water is diluting the sodium -when you consume more water than your kidneys can excrete cells swell and if the cells of the brain swell death can result -idk if any of you know how much water kill you but it takes about 6 liters of water to kill 165 lb person within an hour, you need to consume 6 liters of water in an hour and it's a little less than an hour, it is a little less than 2 gallon -it's not really as much as some some might think there's been a couple cases for athletes that drink too much plain water post endurance exercise so you know water that lacks electrolyte there were a couple of cases of girls that were on MDMA drug that makes you very thirsty and they consumed way too much water, in 2017 there was actually a girl that died in attempting to win a Nintendo Wii this is a horrible story this radio stations competitions put on which is called hold your wee for a Wii so basically they asked icontestants to drink as much water as they could without urinating

Functions of Calcium

•Development and maintenance of bones and teeth •Blood clotting •Transmission of nerve impulses •Muscle contraction •Cell metabolism -so calcium is essential for normal bone and tooth development which is definitely the primary function of calcium but being the most abundant mineral in the body that plays an important roles in blood clotting, nerve transmission, muscle contraction, and cell metabolism so take a look at a couple of these in more detail

Vitamin D

•Ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) •7-dehydrocholesterol -Cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) •25-hydroxyvitamin D -Calcitriol (1, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D) vitamin D Sol vitamin D is known as the sunshine vitamin since we can get pretty much all of our needs from the Sun alone at least during certain months of the year - few foods provide vitamin D so many people are deficient in winter months at least in New York and along our part of the world - two main forms of vitamin D ergocalciferol or vitamin D2 and cholecalciferol or vitamin D3 -D2 comes only from food while D3 comes from sunlight and then can also little small amounts can come from diet and supplements as well -so this figure showing a chain of events leading to the production of active vitamin D in the body from sunlight so our cells particularly our cell membranes contain a cholesterol like sterol called 7-dehydrocholesterol so this is within our skin -when sunlight hits the skin 7-dehydrocholesterol is converted into cholecalciferol which is also known as inactivated vitamin D3 so it remains inactive until it's chemically altered so it's there but it remains inactive -in the liver cholecalciferol is converted into 25-hydroxyvitamin d and then it's stored unless it's needed so that conversion takes place in the liver - when vitamin D is needed 25-hydroxyvitamin D travels to the kidneys where is converted into the active form which is calcitriol then calcitriol can circulate the body and perform its various functions this is also sometimes just called active vitamin D cuz this is the active form -so that whole kind of crazy series of events just to activate vitamin D

Overview of Minerals

•Essential inorganic elements •Major minerals -Need 100 mg or more daily -Found in larger quantities in the body •Animal products provide the best source •Composition of minerals varies -so minerals wo we are going to look at the major minerals -minerals are essential inorganic elements they are needed in small amounts for proper function so even though we're talking about the major minerals they're still not needed in super high amounts or super high doses and that's why didn't these fall under the category of micronutrients -they can't be synthesized in the body and health will decline in their absence -they are two main categories the major minerals and the minor minerals or the trace minerals so major minerals are needed in amounts of 100 milligrams or more daily -this is showing me major minerals that are found within the human body and the grams in the human bodies we're mostly made up of calcium and phosphorus potassium and so on -there are 7 major minerals, they are needed in doses of at least 100 mg or more daily calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chloride and magnesium all the ones that are listed here -minerals can come from plant or animal sources but animal sources tend to have the best bioavailability and the amount of minerals present in food depends on how they were treated before they became food so more or less you know the diet of the animal or the soil that the plant was grown in can drastically change the mineral composition -since minerals are already in the simplest chemical form the body doesn't digest or break them down there just absorbed

Vitamins

•Essential organic compounds -Energy metabolism -Growth -Maintenance •Fat-soluble vitamins -A, D, E, K -Stored in adipose tissue and the liver -vitamins are essential organic substances they don't provide energy but they do regulate a wide range of bodily processes so there's two main categories of vitamins water soluble vitamins and fat soluble vitamins and we're going to focus on the fat-soluble vitamins in this lecture will look at water soluble in the next couple, fat soluble vitamins are mostly stored these are the fat soluble vitamins by the way a d e and K fat soluble vitamins are mostly stored in adipose tissue and then also in the liver depending on the vitamin and since they're readily stored fat, soluble vitamins can build up to reach toxic levels in the body so for a lot of these are going to see upper limits of the fat soluble vitamins A&D or the most toxic in a sort of megadosing situation and they can be so dangerous as they can result in irreversible organ damage so again really important to take a look at what supplements you're taking and make sure you're not consuming too much toxicities in general are difficult through diet alone it is almost always through the use of supplements of the fat soluble vitamins D and E deficiencies are the most common in the United States

Niacin

•Exists in 2 forms: -Nicotinic acid -Nicotinamide •Used to synthesize niacin coenzymes: -NAD+ -NADP+ -niacin is known as B3 and it exists in 2 forms nicotinic acid and nicatinamide and either form can be used to synthesize the coenzymes NAD+ and NADP so these are required for redox reactions and play again essential roles in energy metabolism -the difference between so this the difference between NAD+ and NADP is whether they function in catabolic reactions or anabolic reactions so NAD known better as nadh so that mainly functions in catabolic reactions and we know that this is the big generator of ATP, we get some NADH in glycolysis, we get a whole bunch in the TCA cycle and that is how we make lots of ATP so without niacin we do not have any energy we do not have any ATP being synthesized -NADP+ functions in anabolic reactions so these are reactions that are going to build molecules so maybe building protein, building structures within the body, taking prestructued metabolites and making them into something larger, also very important metabolic functions within the body -in term of sources so it's found in poultry, meat, fish, and enriched bread, mushrooms, peanuts and niacin is heat stable so this is one of the few water-soluble vitamins that is not vulnerable to these losses during cooking so it is heat stable

Absorption and Bioavailability of Minerals

•Factors that influence absorption and bioavailability -Physiological need -Bioavailability •Competition •Phytic acid •Oxalic acid •HCl •Vitamin C -there are a number of factors that influence mineral absorption and bioavailability for that matter: the first is physiological need at the time of consumption so minerals that are needed are actually absorbed more rapidly than those that are not, so they're absorbed or taken in much more readily than and minerals that are readily available, second is bioavailability which can be altered in a number of ways in some cases like when you consume large amounts of minerals at once they compete for absorption this is a main problem with supplements two very commonly known competitors are iron and zinc so they compete for absorption sites -these are some other ways to bioavailability can be altered sophytic acid is in many plants and its functions in phosphate storage, but it can decrease bioavailability because it binds to minerals and it prevents their absorption, so phytic acid alone can decrease bioavailability -cooking will reduce phytic acid to some extent but for the most part it makes it into a larger molecule that can't be absorbed -phytic acid tends to bind calcium phosphorus zinc, iron and it will lower the bioavailability of those minerals -oxalic acid is found in leafy greens and it also binds minerals making them less bioavailable so for example spinach has lots of calcium but only 5% of it can actually be absorbed due to the presence of oxalic acid, that doesn't mean you should eat less plants, spinach for that matter it's just something to consider -the last two actually enhance bioavailability so vitamin C for instance can increase the absorption of iron when consumed in the same meal so a lot of people that are either told to prescribed or recommended to have iron supplements will so with a glass of orange juice it helps to take in the iron -hydrochloric acid can increase by level of bioavailability by digesting food and changing the structure of certain compounds so basically it helps to release minerals from food, helps release minerals from phytic acid so it can just assisst in that process of releasing the mineral -so people who habitually take antacids may lose some of the benefits of an acidic environment within the stomach

Vitamin E

•Family of compounds -4 tocopherols •Alpha, beta, gamma, delta -4 tocotrienols •Alpha, beta, gamma, delta Okay so vitamin E, vitamin E consist of two families the 4tocopherols and 4 tocotrienols both have Alpha Beta gamma and Delta types they all vary in biological activity but the most biologically active forms are the tocopherols particularly alpha, alpha tocopherol

Water in the Body

•Fluid contains solutes -Electrolytes •Intracellular fluid: -Potassium and magnesium are major cations -Phosphate is a major anion •Extracellular fluid: -Sodium is a major cation -Chloride is a major anion -the fluid found in these compartments is not just water, so it contains solutes like electrolytes electrolytes are positively and negatively charged minerals located within bodily fluids so 2 major types are the cations and anions and here we can see an idea of the major cations and anions in intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid so there are six minerals total that make up our electrolytes so that's sodium, potassium, chloride, phosphorus, calcium and magnesium -the intracellular fluid is primarily potassium and magnesium cations with phosphate anions -the extracellular fluid contains mostly sodium and chloride ions -the body controls the amount of water in each compartment mainly by regulating electrolyte concentrations now of course this can get thrown off balance due to a number of issues but that electrolyte balance really plays a key role in how much water is kept in each compartment

Folate

•Folate polyglutamate digestion -Glutamates are cleaved -Absorption -Converted to other forms •Tetrahydrofolate (THF) -Active form -okay so unlike the other water soluble vitamins this is the first time we're seeing this type of situation, Folate undergoes sort of a digestive process if it's in the polyglutamate form so before Folate can be absorbed glutamates are actually cleaved off so here is an example of a polyglutamate with 5 so 5 glutamates here and eventually it gets down to one and then it can be absorbed so this is sort of the digestive process of folate so glutamates are cleaved off one of a time and until it becomes monoglutamate, and then in this form it can be readily absorbed into into enterocytes, now within cells it undergoes conversions to the active form of folate which is known as THF or tetrahydrofolate, so this is the actual active form so it's converted after it hits the monoglutamate form -so a small amount of folate is stored in the liver but any sort of excess would be excreted in urine

Choline

•Found as free choline or as part of another compound (lecithin) -okay so choline so now we're out of the B vitamins and we're onto the last two water soluble vitamins and choline is the most recently recognized essential nutrient it was added in 1998 and it's not a B vitamin since it doesn't function as a coenzyme and actually the amount needed is much greater than the other B vitamins but it is water soluble that's why we group it with the other water soluble vitamins -so for now its not technically a vitamin itself but it's a water-soluble vitamin-like essential nutrient, so it is found in food either as free choline or as a part of another compound so we talked about lecithin a while back so it make cell part of lecithin which is found in eggs and some other foods, so foods that are of animal origin are high in choline, grains, fruits and veggies also have very small varying amounts of choline -this is a AI for men and women 450 and 500 mg, and the UL is 3.5 G per day that's actually quite a bit and that can lead to low blood pressure and GI issues

Pantothenic Acid: Function/deficiencies

•Function -Essential for formation of acetyl-CoA •Deficiencies rare -there's no upper limit and the AI is about 5 mg per day, the main function of pantothenic acid is to form coenzyme A, essential for making acetyl CoA and acaetyly CoA have often been called the gateway molecule in metabolism because it plays an important role in the metabolism of all three macronutrients and also alcohol so that is why it is given that name, again so if energy is required it can be catabolized, and that energy can be utilized or acetyl CoA is one of the main molecules that is used to build larger molecules one example is fatty acids so acetyl CoA is the product that we use when we break down fatty acids but it's also something we use when we need to make fatty acids, so when we make fats within the body using acetyl CoA so it is important for catabolic and anabolic reactions -a deficiency is rare and it's only been observed when experimental induced because its in almost everything in at least minute amounts you would have to experimentally induce deficiencies in order to observe the effects and much of what we know comes from prisoner studies so using prisoners, giving them these specific diets and then giving them these specific diets and then seeing evaluating the effect, very controversial but that is how we know about pantothenic acid and in terms of those deficiencies it's nothing really that bad: headaches, minor GI problems, dizziness this is really all that is established -prisoners do consent to it, they are often paid some sort of compensation as result of it but a lot of what we know about nutrition comes from these prisoner studies -pantothenic acid is needed for coenzyme A, a deficiency is rare/none and there is no upper limit

Sodium Function

•Function -Helps absorb glucose and some amino acids -Required for normal nerve and muscle function -Aids in water balance -within the body sodium does three main things first it assists in the absorption of glucose and some amino acids -remember we talked about what 1 so sglt1 sodium-glucose Transporters so those are Transporters that take in both sodium and glucose at the same time so that's what we're talking about here amino acid same story so sodium and amino acids are taken into cells together, second it is required for nerve transmission and muscle contraction, basically the shift of sodium and other minerals through a membrane leads to a nerve impulse or a muscle contraction, third it aifs in fluid balance that's largely determined by the concentration of electrolytes again within the body and that includes sodium -for absorption, absorption is very good for sodium almost all the sodium that is consumed is absorbed so we have no problem with absorption

Functions of Choline/ Deficiency

•Functions -Cell membrane structure •Phospholipids •Sphingomyelin -Precursor for neurotransmitters -Helps export VLDL from liver -Source of methyl •Deficiency may result in liver and muscle damage -okay in terms of function so this is similar to what we looked at back in the fat lecture so it's important for the structure and function of cell membranes, it's a component of phospholipid heads which make up a cell membrane -spingomyelin is another type of lipid that is found in the myelin sheath that surrounds nerve cells so both of these important in cell Integrity making up cell membranes, making the protective layers that surround cells, choline is a precursor for neurotransmitters -1 easy way to remember this is in the name so one neurotransmitter that this is actually part of is acetylcholine so its a neurotransmitter associated with memory and also muscle control -choline also assist in vldl transports so it helps export vldl from the liver -deficiency is associated with liver and muscle damage

Biotin functions/deficiencies

•Functions -Coenzyme for carboxylase enzymes •Oxaloacetate •AA metabolism •Fatty acid synthesis -DNA stability •Deficiencies are rare -Genetic disorders -Raw egg ingestion •Avidin -so we're looking at glycolysis, this would technically be the transition reaction, here's acetyl-CoA, here's the TCA cycle, so biotin can convert pyruvate into one of the Krebs cycle intermediates so since acetyl-CoA is needed for so many important things it makes sure that there is enough of these TCA cycle intermediates so that that process can still take place, there is actually a name for these reactions in which we make TCA intermediate so those are known as anapleurotic reactions and they re-establish TCA intermedius so they're capable of making TCA intermediates from other compounds so this is showing one of thosereactions here so the conversion of pyruvate into the specific intermediates axlooxatate (don't need to know) that is why it listed over here, biotin is important for the metabolism of certain amino acids so we can see those amino acids over here so either they are converted to acetyl-CoA or as intermediates of the TCA cycle so amino acid metabolism and then biotin is also needed to convert acetyl-CoA to fatty acids like I said when fatty acids are broken down they yield acetyl-CoA and use acetyl-coA to build fatty acids so that requires these carboxylase enzymes in order to do it -deficiencies are rare but they do occur especially with some genetic disorders, there are a couple of genetic disorders that don't allow the individuals to actually take in or store biotin in that case we found see a deficiency, deficiency is characterized by hair loss, impaired growth, convulsions, so it could be pretty dangerous but it's really only seen in people with that genetic dsorder -the other issue is people who consume raw eggs, not that there's a lot of these people but they can develop biotin deficiency because raw eggs contain a protein called Abaddon and this binds to Biotin and makes it too large of a molecule to be absorbed so it prevents absorption and this is found in raw eggs actually found the egg white so cooking denatures this protein so when you cook the eggs you denature that protein Avidin so that that process doesn't take place but some studies have demonstrated Avidin activity in 4 minutes of cooking or less so in some cases like soft poached eggs or over easy egg typically over easy you are going to have to have the eggs fully cooked and their is very little Avidin activity but if you like your whites uncooked than it increases the potential of a biotin deficiency, you would have to eat a lot of raw egg whites for this to happen but it is possible

Functions of Phosphorus

•Functions -Component of bone and teeth -Component of •ATP •Creatine phosphate •DNA and RNA •Phospholipids •Other enzymes and cellular messengers -so phosphorus is needed for the health of bones and teeth, except hydroxyapatite and its utilized by pretty much every cell in the body so it's a component its the P in ATP, its part of creatine phosphate so it is important for energy metabolism, its part of DNA and RNA, phospholipids and cell membranes and part of various enzymes throughout the body -deficiency is rare again but again it can contribute to bone loss and poor tooth development so coinciding with the main functions of phosphorus

Chloride Functions

•Functions: -Maintain extracellular fluid volume and balance with sodium -Aids in the transmission of nerve impulses -Component of HCl -Used during immune responses •Deficiency -Rare -Symptoms include weakness and lethargy •Upper Level -3600 mg/day •May contribute to high blood pressure -it functions as mainly functions as the anion in extracellular fluid so along with sodium, chloride helps maintain the extracellular fluid volume and balance it aids in, similar to sodium, it aids in a transmission of nerve impulses -chloride is part of HCL hydrochloric acid produced in the stomach and it is used in an immune response, so during an immune response when white blood cells attack foreign cells, chloride is actually utilized in that mechanism -deficiency is highly unlikely in the states again due to high salt intake, weakness and lethargy are observed if it does occur and the upper level of 3600 mg per day which is basically set based on preventive measures against hypertension and all the issues associated with high sodium

Potassium functions

•Functions: -Major cation in cell -Many of the same functions as sodium -in terms of function, potassium is the major cation found in intracellular fluid and it works closely with sodium so many of the functions are similar -they both maintain proper fluid balance, transmit nerve impulses and muscle contractions so I mainly it functions as an electrolyte -like sodium potassium is absorbed very well about ninety percent of what's consumed is absorbed

Vitamin A Toxicity

•Hypervitaminosis A •Upper limit is 3000 mg/day of retinol -No upper limit for carotenoids -Hypercarotenemia •Three kinds of vitamin A toxicity -Acute, Chronic, Teratogenic long-term supplement use can lead to hypervitaminosis so the upper limit for vitamin A is 3000 micrograms per day, there's no upper limit for carotenoids, so this is just for a retinol excessive retinol intake can lead to hypercarotenemia which makes skin appear orange it was suggested that Trump suffers from hypercarotenemia and but given the foods that cause it and Trump's poor diet it is unlikely probably self tanner, makeup, or chloraprep an application that use for brow lifts and whatnot -okay so in terms of access there are three pathogenic toxicity is associated with vitamin A excess: acute chronic and teratogenic you'll notice the signs and symptoms vary greatly depending on acute or chronic so a lot of these are are pretty minor and some of them more severe acute is by one-time superdose and chronic is is consistent super doses also is teratogenic and this refers to the severe malformations that occur in a developing fetus if megadoses or high amounts are taken during pregnancy I'm a lot of these are cranial facial malformations that occur again this is activating these embryonic Pathways many of which should not be activated particularly during pregnancy cause it interrupts normal embryonic development

Enrichment of Grains

•In U.S. most products from milled grains are enriched with 4 B-vitamins and iron: -Thiamin -Riboflavin -Niacin -Folic Acid -we looked at the milling process a while back and how grains are sort of stripped ofimportant nutrients, so the enrichment process attempts to compensate for those losses, that's the whole purpose of enriching things to try to put back what was lost during that processing so thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folic acid, and iron can all be added back but that still doesn't compare to the nutrients that are lost overall, so a lot of people say that oh it is enriched this just like it was in its normal form but really that's not true and this graph here really drives that home so this is the increase in nutrient content and if we're comparing brown rice and white rice we can see how much more of each nutrients we're getting just by consuming food and it's sort of raw form or unprocessed form so for instance brown rice has about 100% more vitamin B6, it has about 75% more potassium, it has almost 200% or 150% more zinc, 425% more magnesium so that's just comparing brown rice to brown rice -here we can see whole wheat bread vs. white bread this again is real whole wheat bread so not that way the manufacturers like to dance around it and give you what they deem whole wheat but real whole wheat bread has at least 200% more of each of those nutrients compared to white bread -this what we are talking about when we mention those small shifts so those small ships in a diet to really get the most bang for our buck when it comes to eating food, so switching from white rice to brown rice and switching from white bread to whole wheat bread would give you a lot more of a nutrient dense product so those are good, simple alternatives

Osteoporosis

•Insufficient calcium intake •Diagnosed when bone loss increases and strength decline -Bones are fragile and likely to break -Compression fractures in vertebrae lead to dowagers hump -so probably one of the most recognizable issues associated with a deficiency in calcium is osteoporosis so as we discussed this leads to calcium being released from bone and then overtime this can weaken bones and there's strength declines, bone loss substantially increases and in many cases and individual would seek medical attention due to a fracture or an actual break so the bones become so weak that you know fracture very easily and these are just some of the more common types compression fractures, hip, wrist fractures are some of the most common and for compression fractures they lead to downagers hump so an abnormal curvature of the spine

Functions of Vitamin A

•Key functions -Growth and development -Gene expression and cell differentiation -Epithelial tissue -Vision -Immune function -Antioxidant okay so vitamin A plays a number of important roles it functions in growth and development gene expression and cell differentiation it plays a vital role in the maintenance of epithelial tissue vision, the immune system and it's functions as an antioxidant retinoid-based facial creams are popular since it regulates the turnover of skin cells so that's what we're talking about here for epithelial tissue so it regulates the turnover his skin cells, it can inhibit the formation of acne and can reduce inflammation and redness of the skin that's why we see a lot of those retinoid based skin creams and oral treatments as well from a mad science perspective retinoic acid is really powerful stuff it can actually change so we say it plays an important role in gene expression and cell differentiation it can actually change the fate of stem cells so if you cut the tails so this is a this is a tadpole here this is the lower limb this was the tail if you cut the tail off of a tadpole and you treat it with retinoic acid, legs will develop, a certain concentration of retinoic acid again this is the mad science version but this is sort of stimulating these embryonic Pathways that lead to the development of legs instead of a tail, similarly tadpoles exposed to retinoic acid during limb development can form extra limbs so depending on the concentration of retinoic acid that's present they can form extra limbs so it's kind of an interesting concept in retinoic acid and shows how powerful this stuff really is

Regulation of Water Balance

•Kidneys are main regulators -Pituitary •ADH -Renin •Vasoconstriction •Aldosterone -this is a basic overview of how water balance is regulated in the body -so when water intake is insufficient, the blood becomes more concentrated and blood pressure falls, so in response to lower blood pressure the pituitary gland releases ADH which is antidiuretic hormone we talked about antidiuretic hormone sure so it helps to retain water so when the blood becomes more concentrated less dilute blood pressure falls and that really triggers the pituitary gland to release release ADH and basically conserve a little bit of water that is still within the body -low blood pressure also triggers a Cascade of other reactions so the kidneys release an enzyme called renin and through a series of events this leads to vasoconstriction, the constritcion of blood vessels another thing that happens is the release of the hormone aldosterone this is gone by the adrenal glands aldosterone signals the kidneys to retain water and some minerals in time of need so all of these are sort of working together to make sure that we have enough water within the body -under normal circumstances water is balance is regulated in this manner

Calcium Regulation

•Low blood calcium -Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is released •Kidney reabsorption •Synthesis of calcitriol •High blood calcium -PTH and calcitriol production decreases -Calcitonin produced -so the concentration of calcium in the body is tightly regulated by hormones so we kind of talked about this little bit when we vitamin D -so when blood calcium Falls parathyroid hormone is released and parathyroid hormone raises calcium levels by increasing the kidneys reabsorption of calcium, so prevents it from being lost in the urine, parathyroid hormone also promotes the synthesis of calcitriol so again that's the active form of vitamin D that will increase calcium absorption in the intestines so all these are mechaisms to increase the amount of calcium that is taken in -when calcium is high less parathyroid hormone is released and more urinary calcium can be excreted through the urine and in addition to the action of parathyroid hormone the thyroid secretes calcitonin which blocks calcium loss from bones so prevents it from being released from Bones so during high calcium that wouldn't be necessary

Functions of Vitamin D

•Maintain blood levels of calcium and phosphorus -Low calcium •Increased intestinal absorption -Little to no calcium •Calcium released from bones all right so the main function of vitamin D is in the regulation of calcium but it also play some other minor roles -when blood calcium is low, vitamin D is activated and we saw that whole process -Once vitamin D is activated it promotes the intestinal absorption, increased intestinal absorption of calcium and phosphorus from Foods so it basically increases gene expression for intestinal calcium transporters which enhance the transport of calcium -so low calcium will trigger an increase in calcium and phosphorus transporters that will allow the body to adjust and allow more calcium to be taken in -when calcium and phosphorus are dangerously low, minerals are released from bone to restore levels so calcium can be released from bone in the long run this will weaken bones but it will sustain calcium levels for the time being so that is why not only vitamin D but calcium together are important to sustain these levels on their own so that it doesn't have to be tore away from bones

Functions of Water

•Maintains blood volume •Transports nutrients and oxygen •Basis of body fluids •Lubricants joints •Participates in chemical reactions •Temperature regulation •Waste removal -water plays several vital roles in the body it is the liquid that maintain blood volume, it transports nutrients and oxygen throughout the body it's the basis for all other fluids in the body saliva, bile, urine sweat -it helps to lubricate joints and cushion the knees and the other joints in the body -it's involved in a number of chemical reactions, hydrolysis reactions -it plays a key role in the regulation of temperature and also waste removal -temperature regulation usually people that are dehydrated or chronically dehydrated are cold so if you're well hydrated you have enough water throughout your system and that usually works as an insulator to keep you warmer

Benefits and Toxicity of Calcium

•May help protect against -Colon cancer -Formation of calcium oxalate kidney stones -High blood pressure •Upper Level -2500 mg/day for adults 19 to 50 years -Increased risk of developing kidneys stones and hypercalcemia -so benefits to getting adequate calcium in your regular diet, first it has been shown to protect against colon cancer -second dietary calcium not supplemental can protect against the formation of oxalate kidney stones which are actually the most common form -calcium binds to oxalate in the small intestine preventing it from being absorbed and concentrated in the kidneys -so this refers to getting the proper amount through dietary sources and not exceeding the upper limit -a calcium rich can also protect against high blood pressure -too much calcium particularly through the use of supplements can have adverse health effects the upper limit is 2500 mg per day and normally again the amount of calcium is carefully controlled but in high amounts it can lead to kidney stones or hypercalcemia, other observed issues headache kidney failure decrease absorption of other minerals so it is kind of interesting that the proper amount of calcium will prevent kidney stones but too much calcium will cause them to actually occur so this has to do with that tight regulation of calcium within the body and like with anything moderation is key so getting a consistently you know high dose of calcium specially through supplements is not that beneficial depending on the individual but in most cases

Vitamin B-12 Deficiency

•Megaloblastic Anemia •Neurological changes and nerve degeneration •Elevated plasma homocysteine concentrations •No UL -since B12 assists in the formation of red blood cells, we can also have the problem of megaloblastic anemia from deficiency -pale skinm, low energy, shortness of breath are some other signs of deficiency -another issue is neurological changes so this usually manifests as sensory disturbances like burning, tingling, numbness, walking and balance can be an issue, mental function is impaired in some cases as well including a loss of concentration and memory -another issue arising from lack of B12 is elevated homocysteine levels, so again since it is not being converted into methionine there is an increase in homocysteine within the body -many Studies have shown that high homocysteine levels in the blood are actually a risk factor for heart attack and stroke we're not exactly sure why we know the high levels cause inflammation which we know contributes to arterial plaque -deficiency is common in vegans who aren't supplementing or eating fortified Foods, elderly people have poor absorption overall and lack of a good functioning GI tract and newborns, it is difficult for this vitamin to move around and be absorbed properly in newborns and for this one for vitamin B12 there is no upper limit from either food or supplements

Folate Deficiency

•Megaloblastic Anemia •Poor growth •GI Issues •Cancer •Neural tube defects •UL 1000μg/day -so Folate deficiency from diet is not common in the United States again this is due to the enrichment and fortification of grains and other food -about 12% of the United States population does have a gene mutation and that prevents the activation of folate so that can lead to a deficiency pretty easily -so these are some issues associated with a deficiency: megaloblastic anemia, poor growth, GI issues, cancer, neural tube defects and a lot of these are related to the fact that lack of Folate limits cell division and DNA synthesis so that's the big picture behind why we're seeing these sort of issues -for megaloblastic anemia, again folate is needed for cells to divide and this includes red blood cells, so without sufficient folate red blood cells can't properly replicate and that leads to an issue known as megaloblastic anemia since they can't properly divide the cell just kind of grows bigger and these large immature red blood cells are known as megaloblasts, and eventually these are converted into another cell type, they are much larger than mature red blood cells and have a much shorter life span and they don't carry oxygen so they're not very good red blood cells and it leads to this specific type of anemia -poor growth is the same idea so if cells can't divide properly growth would be stunted and actually the same with GI issues as well so since the turnover rate is really high in the small intestine if those cells down properly regenerate a whole slew of GI issues can result -when folate levels are low changes in DNA that contribute to the development of cancer are more likely so this comes down to folate participating in the development of bases -another issue is that repair mechanisms don't function as well, so folate deficiency has been linked to colon cancer, pancreatic cancer and breast cancer and then neural tube defects-> these are defects that occur in pregnant women to a developing fetus -so the upper limit for folate and folic acid is 1000 micrograms per day

Functions of Vitamin B-6

•Metabolism -Amino acids •Transamination reactions -Glycogenolysis -Gluconeogenesis •Synthesis -Heme -Neurotransmitters •Serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) •Immune function -okay so in terms of function B6 coenzymes participate in a number of metabolic reactions mainly protein metabolism, the synthesis of compounds and then it also play some supporting roles in immune function as well -first we will look at metabolism where it plays a number of really important roles -PLP participates in more than 100 transamination reactions, so without B6 every amino acid would be essential because they couldn't be converted into other forms so I would say that is its primary function is to perform transamination reactions or to participate in those reactions -PLP is a required a coenzyme for glycogenolysis so this is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose and it also serves in the transamination reactions just described to create the starting materials needed for gluconeogenesis so that's the process of taking non-carbohydrate precursors and making them into glucose so it participates in all of these reactions -now in terms of synthesis B6 serves as a coenzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of hemoglobin and it's also required for the synthesis of several neurotransmitters here's some examples of Serotonin, dopamine, epinephrine, and norepinephrine and Gaba so it participate in the synthesis of those neurotransmitters -B6 also plays an important role in the immune system and it does so by assisting in the production of antibodies

Chloride

•Mostly from table salt •Chloride needs -AI is 2300 mg/day -our third mineral is chloride and almost all the chloride in our diet comes from what I already talked about table salt sodium chloride so the sources are going to be the same as sodium the same chart and the AI here is 2,300 mg per day and again the average American gets much more than this due to the overconsumption of salt or processed foods it's also absorb very readily so we have no problem absorbing the chloride that we do take in

Functions of Niacin

•Oxidation-reduction reactions -Metabolism of: •Carbohydrates •Proteins •Fats •Alcohol -it can also be synthesized by the amino acid tryptophan, generally this doesn't always happen because this requires a lot of tryptophan to water ratio but if niacin is desperately and need and tryptophan is available it can be converted and it requires riboflavin to do that alright so mainly when we are looking at niacin we're looking at catabolism but again it's functions in oxidation-reduction reactions, there's about two hundred different redox reactions that occur and especially those that make ATP so all of those reactions that we talk about that make ATP, NADH plays a key role there so we can see a couple of examples here, so this is just showing carbohydrate metabolism so the NADH made in glycolysis, the transition reaction, and throughout the citric acid cycle and this is just showing the recycling of NAD that occurs during fermentation so without the fermentative pathway, the NAD isn't recycled back so it plays a key role in metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, fats and even alcohol

Transport and Storage

•Packaged and delivered with dietary fats in chylomicrons •Not readily excreted from body -Stored in liver and adipose tissue all right so again once absorbed fat soluble vitamins are packaged and delivered in chylomicrons and they're not readily excreted from the body so since we store fat soluble vitamins deficiency won't be recognized unless it continues for weeks or months depending on the vitamin again they are stored in liver and adipose tissue

Functions of Vitamin E

•Part of antioxidant network -Neutralizes free radicals -Prevents lipid peroxidation -vitamin E primarily functions as a fat-soluble antioxidant, it helps maintain the Integrity of cell membranes by neutralizing free radicals -free radicals are unstable compounds that contain an unpaired electron so antioxidants donate an electron to stabilize that compound and they can function in a number of ways depending on the type, vitamin E particularly prevents lipid peroxidation -this is the process of free radicals stealing electrons from lipids and this causes kind of his chain reaction of electron thievery and membrane damage over time so this is going to ruin cell membranes -this is our antioxidant defense so vitamin E is just one member of this antioxidant defense system but it does play a really large role so this maintains cellular structure -so deficiency in vitamin E can lead to premature aging and the rapid degradation of cells -carotenoids are also on this list so it's also part of the antioxidant defense network which we just talked about for vitamin A

Pantothenic Acid

•Part of coenzyme A •Adequate Intake: -5 mg/day -No UL -next is pantothenic acid formerly known as Vitamin B5 and it makes up part of the compound coenzyme-a so like the other B vitamins it is essential for energy metabolism and the best example of the function of pantothenic acid is in acetyly-CoA in which the CoA stands for coenzyme A and in order to have coenzyme A, you need pantothenic acid this is the comparision of coenzyme A and pantothenic acid so basically coenzyme A has this little tail piece right here so it's built off of pantothenic acid, the Greek prefix panto was used to name the vitamins so this means everything and everywhere because it is found in almost every food at least in minute amounts so it s dound in almost every food and that is why it was given that name panto -common sources: meat, milk, seeds, avocado one thing you sort of learn from these charts is that sunflower seeds have everything (pretty much every vitamin and mineral in them) shiitake mushrooms have a good amount of pantothenic acid

Niacin Deficiency

•Pellagra -Dermatitis -Diarrhea -Dementia - •UL is 35mg/day -so NAD plays such an important role in all of these Pathways deficiency can be very detrimental, before fortification it was once a very significant health problem in the United States, the name of the deficiency is known as pellagra and it's characterized by what is often called the 3 D's: dermatitis, diarrhea, and dementia and the word pellagra literally means rough skin, that's the dermatitis and that is usually the first thing that happens and then diarrhea and dementia can develop as the disease worsens, this is one of the water-soluble vitamins that does have an upper limit so the upper limit is 35 mg per day this is usually in the case of supplements it is hard to get that much from food alone, flushing of the skin, GI problems, nausea, and vomiting are associated with an excess amount

Vitamin K

•Phylloquinones (vitamin K1) •Menaquinones (vitamin K2) -the Vitamin K family includes two main members of Phylloquinones or vitamin K1 and menaquinones or vitamin K2 -so K1 come from plants this is the main biological active form -K2 come from fish oil, meat, and a bacteria in the large intestine which again provide the small amount about 10% of our daily vitamin K needs -recommended amount for women is 90 micrograms, 120 for men and about 80% of what we eat is absorbed and it's mainly stored in the liver

Functions of Vitamin C

•Primary function is donating electrons in oxidation-reduction reactions •Synthesis of -Collagen -Tyrosine -Thyroxine -Neurotransmitters •Serotonin and epinephrine -Bile acids •Antioxidant •Immune function -okay anyway so the main function of vitamin C is to perform redox reactions, it participates in the synthesis of a number of things so this is its synthesis list here collagen which hold together various structures throughout the body and basically vitamin C functions to form the chemical bonds that hold together strands of collagen -it's also used to make the amino acid tyrosine, the thyroid hormone thyroxine, neurotransmitter serotonin and epinephrine, and it assists in the conversion of cholesterol to bile acids -it also helps the body absorb iron so we're going to look at that in the mineral lecture which actually comes next we aregoing to talk about the absorption of certain minerals absorption of certain vitamins there but keep that in mind too -another important function of vitamin C is it acts as an antioxidant so it donates electrons to free radicals stabilizing those compounds or stabilizing those molecules so it's basically the water-soluble counterpart to vitamin E so the most important fat-soluble antioxidant is vitamin E the most important water soluble antioxidant is vitamin C -lastly vitamin C plays a role in immune function, white blood cells contain the highest vitamin C which prevents against oxidative damage

Thiamin

•RDA -1.2 mg/day for men -1.1 mg/day for women -First up is thiamin and this is formerly known as Vitamin B1 because it was the first B vitamin discovered and thiamin is found in a lot of foods but not in really high amounts, so its sort of drizzled in lots of different things but not huge amounts -sunflower seeds and fortified cereals supply the RDA for most men and women so that is 1.2 and 1.1 milligrams per day and most Americans meet their thiamine needs because it's found in a wide variety of foods and it is also used in any sort of enriched or fortified products so it is easily added back to foods -by the way I'm not going to I'm not going to test you on specific rdas there's as far too many of them for you to sit there and memorize how exactly how much you supposed to be getting of each of these it is here for scale the sort of give you an idea of which ones you need more or less of

Riboflavin

•RDA -1.3 mg/day for men -1.1 mg/day for women -next is riboflavin formerly known as vitamin B2 that is the second one that was discovered and we often call them the yellow enzymes because it has distinct yellow fluorescent appearance and if you consume milk, dairy in general, but milk particularly you get about a quarter of your riboflavin needs from that, other good sources are eggs, liver, oats green leafy vegetables, all of them having a decent amount of riboflavin, we can see overall there's more riboflavin in these products compared to the thiamine contentin the last slide -it is fairly stable in cooking but again in degrades in the presence of UV light so that is again where this vitamin is vulnerable -in fact, just 30 minutes of light exposure, over 30% of the riboflavin is destroyed so that is how quickly it breaks down

Vitamin B-6 in Foods

•RDA: -1.3 mg/day for men and women -B6 is actually stored so this is one of the few B vitamins that is stored, it is not stored in great amounts but it can be stored for a period of time -it is mainly stored in the muscle tissue of animals so for that reason meat, animal products, are a good source so meat, fish and poultry are all rich sources they are also absorbed more readily than plant-based sources so it's a little bit easier for us to take it in when it's in the animal form -there are some good plant-based sources of whole grains potatoes bananas beans they're all good sources so its absorbed fairly well so about 75% of what we take in as a stored -the RDA is 1.3 mg for people that are under 50 both men and women

Vitamin A

•Retinoids -Exist in 3 forms •Retinol •Retinal •Retinoic acid •Carotenoids: -Provitamins •alpha-carotene •beta-carotene •beta-cryptoxanthin First is vitamin A for most of the vitamins simple alphabetic designations reuse based on their order of Discovery so for instance vitamin-a was discovered first vitamin B and so on vitamins F through J were discovered but were deemed not essential so these are compounds that we're discover but they were being non-essential so that's why I don't hear about those -okay so in the vitamin A family there are the retinoids and the carotenoids so retinoids are family of vitamin A compounds that exist in three forms so there is retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid all three are structurally similar but retinol the first one listed here and yellow is the most usable form within the body, retinoids are obtained through consumption of animal products that's how we get retinoids in our diet and all but retinoic acid can be converted into other forms within the bodies so you can see reversible or irreversible so retinoic acid can be synthesized whereas this is an irreversible reaction here -so plants contain another form of vitamin A in those of the carotenoids so these are yellow to Red pigmented compounds often in fruits and vegetables there are over 600 known carotenoids but only three can be converted into the biological active form of vitamin A so there's lots of carotenoids only some of these only these three can be converted into vitamin A so this is for our vegetarian and vegan folks so you don't have to consume animal products in order to get vitamin A you can get them in the form of carotenoids, carotenoids are often called provitamins since they can be readily converted into vitamins -all right so I'm these three beta-carotene has the greatest amount of pro-vitamin A activity and it's the most abundant of the carotenoids in the foods and that means it is the most readily accessible and it also can be converted into retinoids at the highest rate

Vitamin D Deficiency Diseases

•Rickets -Abnormal mineralization of bones in children -Bowed legs •Osteomalacia -Poor calcification -Fractures -when vitamin D is deficient only about 15% of the calcium in the diet can be absorbed so as a result calcium isn't available for proper bone mineralization and abnormalities in bone structure can occur -in children with developing bones this leads to rickets, which is characterized by weak bones and deformities like bowed legs, this was actually first recognized in the 1600s during the Industrial Revolution when tall buildings and smog-filled air prevented UV rays from hitting skin so what they decided to do later on is fortified milk to help but Rickets still occurs worldwide, we have the fortification system mainly in the states and in developed countries -in adults a vitamin D deficiency causes the condition called osteomalacia which literally means soft bones and since adults have fully formed bones lack of vitamin D doesn't cause bone malformations but it does cause bones to weaken so this can lead to fractures bone pain weakness, and can lead to or complicate osteoporosis which is a loss of total bone mass not just minerals

Vitamin C Deficiency

•Scurvy: -Fatigue -Pinpoint hemorrhages -Gums and joints bleed -Impaired wound healing -Bone pain -Fractures -Diarrhea -Depression -scurvy is the main issue associated with vitamin C deficiency and it was first recognized in the 1500s when sailors were off on long voyages and didn't have access to fruits and vegetables so it's been estimated that scurvy killed at least 2 million Sailors and all they had to do is eat a lemon so unfortunately it caused a number of deaths back in that time -since Vitamin C plays such an important role in the synthesis of collagen, deficiency inhibits its synthesis so this damage is connective tissue throughout the body -so this is first recognized by the signs and symptoms of scurvy which include the issues that are listed here which vary greatly so anything from fatigue and bleeding gums being the most common out of all of these -so in terms of timing so this is a water-soluble vitamin it's lost readily in cooking and it's not stored for very long at all so usually about 20 to 40 days after lack of sufficient vitamin C, some sorts of signs and symptoms of deficiency will appear

Water-Soluble Vitamins

•Small amounts are stored in the body •Risk of toxicity is low •Readily removed by the kidneys and excreted in urine •More easily destroyed by cooking -There are 10 water soluble vitamins and we're going to focus on their function in this lecture and also the second part which posted, so her we will focus on five of the B Vitamins so out of those 10, eight of them are B vitamins and the other two are vitamin C and choline so we will focus on the first 5 B vitamins today and water soluble vitamins are essential organic compounds they are very small amounts of them are stored in the body so generally speaking a lot of them are not going to have an upper limit so we will find that with a bunch of the water-soluble vitamins basically just take in as much as you want because they are not stored in the body and therefore the risk of toxicity is relatively low but if you do take an excess of water soluble vitamins they are readily excreted in urine and these types of vitamins are more vulnerable to losses and a lot of these losses are through cooking so prolonged periods of heat sometimes even sunlight can lead to the molecule not functioning properly so they're more easily destroyed compared to let's say the minerals or the fat soluble vitamins

Sodium in Foods

•Sodium chloride •Processed foods -all right so first on our list is sodium so sodium chloride is the major form of sodium in our diet so this is just also known as table salt -table salt is technically about 40% sodium in 60% chloride so it has both minerals -most sodium in the American diet actually comes from processed foods so this is either because they are preserved with salt or sodium containing compounds -the CDC estimates that more than 65% of the average American sodium intake actually comes from processed food so actually majority of it is coming from processed food -do you guys know of any sodium-containing preservatives I'm sure you've heard of some actually we will have a couple presentations on them but monosodium glutamate is one of them MSG, sodium nitrate that's one that I talked about and mainly bacon but other Smoked Meats sodium benzoate is another common one those are some types of sodium based preservatives that are also supplying that supply of sodium

Sodium Deficiency and Excess

•Sodium deficiency •Upper Level is 2300 mg/day -90% of U.S. adults consume more than AI (1500 mg/day). -Increased risk of Hypertension, Heart disease, Stroke -sodium deficiency is not something we here of regularly especially in the states we usually get more than enough sodium so deficiency is rare excessive sweating would be one way one major cause of sodium depletion especially in athletes, headache, nausea, muscle cramps to be associated with that -again the upper limit of 2300 mg per day and again over 90% of adults in the United States exceed the AI so that's again 1500mg a day is the AI, so this puts people at risk for high blood pressure, heart disease, and stroke so overall the more home-cooked unprocessed foods you eat the less sodium you're getting overall, packaged foods, pretty much anything that's that's undergo some sort of processing has an excess of sodium in it

Absorption of water soluble Vitamins

•Stomach -Vitamins released from food •Small intestine -Vitamin absorption -the water-soluble vitamins don't vary that much when it comes to absorption and transport throughout the body so I'm going to do like a sort of like a general overview of absorption and transport and that will apply to all of the water-soluble vitamins unless otherwise indicated so for instance vitamin B12 has like a more intricate method of absorption but all the vitamins are we are going to talk about today are absorbed and transported in the same way, so most of them are bound to food and they are released by digestive enzymes so in the process of digestion not only are we releasing or breaking down part of that molecule we're also releasing that vitamin so they are usually bound to food and then they are released by digestive enzymes -once they are absorbed, so water soluble vitamins are absorbed readily, the mechanism varies from One vitamins to another but almost all vitamins can be transported actively when they're in need so when the body is low in that particular vitamin that can be transported actively, some can move passively, but all of them can move actively -so we can see the water soluble vitamins go right through the enterocyte and into the blood whereas the fat soluble vitamins are usually Incorporated in a micelle taken into the enterocyte and then travel throughout the lymph until they are moved to the blood -so the water soluble vitamins go directly into the portal vein and into circulation -in many cases, they're bound to protein so sometimes they are bound to protein when they move throughout the blood which just sort of facilitates the movements of that vitamin throughout the body

Absorption of Fat Soluble Vitamins

•Stomach -Vitamins released from food •Small intestine -Vitamin absorption •Large intestine -Vitamin K synthesis this gives a general overview of absorption and transport we're going to look at some details for each vitamin but this gives you the the overall idea vitamins are bound to food and released during digestion so you eat food that contains vitamins and while the food is digested that's when vitamins are released so all the digestive enzymes we discussed facilitate that process of releasing vitamins from food as well as it starts in the stomach and then continues in the small intestine - fat soluble vitamins are absorbed with dietary fat within micelles so remember fats are packaged within micelles and fat soluble vitamins are also package within micelles so they can make their way into an eneterocyte and then they're packaged into chylomicrons and delivered throughout the body -about 40 to 90% of fat soluble vitamins are absorbed when consumed in recommended amounts so that means that even if we're taking in a lot of these vitamins it doesn't always means they're absorbed and usable and then also a small amount of vitamin K is produced by bacteria in the large intestine so we have our own synthesis of vitamin K but it does not make enough to support all of the functions so it doesn't meet our RDA

Vitamin D3 Formation in Skin

•Sun exposure provides 80- to-100% of required vitamin D3 •Amount of sun exposure depends on: -Time of day -Geographic location -Season of year -Skin color -Use of sunscreen •March-October -10-15 minutes of sun 2-3 times/week -so sun exposure can provide 80 to 100% of vitamin D needs and the amount of sun depends on a number of factors one the sun's rays are strongest from about 10 to 2 so they can provide the fastest synthesis of vitamin D, in New York and anywhere above the 37 degrees in Latitude the UV light from the sun can provide vitamin D needs only from March to October so essentially from November to February it has to be obtained from the diet or fortified Foods or supplements -for light skin people it's generally recommended to get about 10 to 15 minutes of unblocked Sun two to three days a week, darker-skinned people need double that amounts to about five times that amount to meet vitamin D needs and then you can't get a toxic level of vitamin D from the Sun you can of course get sunburned and many sunscreens take about 30 minutes to properly absorb into the skin so that time is generally enough but sunscreen will block that the UV light which does prevent the synthesis of Vitamin D and then vitamin D is stored in the liver and in adipose tissue

Functions of Vitamin K

•Synthesis of blood clotting factors -Prothrombin -Fibrin •Bone metabolism -the main function of vitamin K is assisting in blood clotting -Vitamin K is a coenzyme needed for the production (this is showing damaged tissue and the series of reactions that occur to essentially plug active bleeding tissue and this would be the formation of a clot) its needed for the production of blood clotting proteins like prothrombin -so blood clotting proteins circulate the blood in an inactive form, when activated it leads to the formation of fibrin, which forms the structure of a blood clot, it is sort of roping together all of these platelets and cells to sort of stop that bleeding from occurring, it forms this tough, fibrous mesh to impede the flow of blood -vitamin K is also needed for the synthesis of proteins involved in bone formation and can increase mineralisation

Functions of Thiamin

•Thiamin pyrophosphate (TPP) -Metabolism of carbs and BCAAs •Decarboxylation reactions -Pyruvate dehydrogenase -Branched-chain α-keto acid dehydrogenase -α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase -in terms of the structure of thiamine, you can see the structure of the molecule right down here, so it consists of two rings that are connected by a central carbon, the bond between each ring what's that Central carbon there that's the bond that is easily broken prolonged heat or alkaline exposure so basically the molecule just sort of splits in half, this red dot over here so this is showing where two phosphate groups are added to form the active coenzyme so two phosphates are plugged on there and that makes it thiamine pyrophosphate so that's the active coenzyme -now thiamine pyrophosphate plays a couple of important role, it assists in the metabolism of carbohydrates and branched chain amino acid and more specifically it functions in the process of decarboxylation, removal of a carboxyl group and in the process carbon dioxide is released so a lot of the reactions where we say what's the end product and the end product is CO2, those are carboxylation reactions so here we can see a couple of examples, this right here is showing here is TPP so it's catalyzing the reaction that occurs in the transition step so the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-coa if you remember we made one nadh and we make one CO2 out of that and that is a carboxylation reaction so thiamine pyrophosphate is essential for that, it also happens in the TCA cycle or the Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle whatever we call it in this class so the same situation so CO2 is lost and it functions in that carboxylation reaction and over here we can see that it plays a role in branched chain amino acids so it works similarly here but it helps convert those amino acids into acetyl-coa so that they can enter the citric acid cycle, so in this case it sort of allows us to metabolize branched-chain amino acids and again that is why if we don't have the proper amount of thiamine we're going to have no energy cause this is all essential to produce ATP, the breakdown of carbohydrates and branched chain amino acids

Functions of Folate

•Transfers single carbon compounds •DNA synthesis •Amino acid metabolism -Homocysteine à methionine •Neurotransmitter synthesis -Serotonin -Norepinphrine -Dopamine -okay so the function of folate -so folate coenzymes are needed for the synthesis and maintenance of new cells, DNA synthesis, and amino acid metabolism so it mainly acts as a coenzyme that transfers single carbon compounds such as a methyl group to another compound so that's the main function transferring single carbon compounds especially important during periods of frequent cell division so during pregnancy, during infancy, during adolescence this is where it's going to play an even more important role -Folic acid is required for DNA synthesis so it's needed for the four bases that make up DNA both Folate and vitamin B12 function in amino acid metabolism so we'll see those later with B12 but both of them participate in the synthesis of the amino acid methionine, methionine can be made from another amino acid homocysteine, so this reaction requires both folate and vitamin B12 -Folate participates in the synthesis of neurotransmitters so again we saw this with some other vitamins serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine so basically Folate provides the metabolites needed in these pathways

Upper Level for Vitamin C

•Upper Level is 2 g/day -Adverse gastrointestinal effects -Bloating -Stomach inflammation -Diarrhea -Increased risk of kidney stone formation in those predisposed -the upper level is 2 grams per day and this is when adverse effects are noticed -this is one of those vitamins that you know once cold and flu season comes around, people just take massive amounts of and while that that is providing a small amount of protective health in terms of immunity, there is an upper limit so more than two grams per day can mainly cause adverse gastrointestinal effects nothing too serious but bloating, stomach inflammation, and diarrhea so definitely shouldn't be sustained at all and really you're not gaining any benefit by taking that much vitamin C anyway cuz again you just iurinating out the excess -vitamin C is the best seller out of all vitamin supplements on its own and it is known to slightly improve immunity but there isn't really that much evidence to support it most studies report a very modest benefits in terms of vitamin C supplementation reducing cold duration by one day per year, so it is not really providing the level of protection that some people think it does you know it it can slightly boost immunity but the best way to prevent a cold and flu and everything is I'm sure you've been hearing way too much lately is by washing your hands and not touching your face so doing that prevents the virus in most of these cases from entering the exact tissue type where it can establish infection which would be the lungs or somewhere in the respiratory tract -besides vitamin C zinc and echinacea can also boost immunity and lessen the severity of a cold and in fact zinc has more of an established effectiveness in reducing cold and flu symptoms than vitamin C but vitamin C is still the most popular by far -so kidney stone formation increased risk in terms of people who take an excessive amount of vitamin C the most common type of stone is a mix of calcium and oxalate so some people break down vitamin C into oxalate which may explain why there is a connection between kidney stone formations and excess vitamin C

Retaining Vitamins in Food

•Use fresh produce when possible •Use less water -Steaming is best •Avoid long exposure to high temperatures •Keep dairy out of direct light •Avoid making cooking fluids more alkaline -so retaining the vitamins that are in food: so a lot of people wonder you know what's the best way to take in the most vitamins and minerals from the food and of course if it's going to soil that counts but fresh is best so fresh produce buying Fresh Products that's the best way to eat any sort of fruits and vegetables in its natural form of course that's not always available so is next in the line after fresh would be frozen then jarred and then canned so when things are canned there's bisphenol-a in the lining of cans which is a whole other topic but a lot of the solution that they used to preserve the fruits and vegetables actually stretch them out their nutrients do canned fruits and vegetables actually strips them of their nutrients so canned fruits and vegetables have the least vitamin and mineral content so fresh is best then frozen than jarred and then lastly is canned -using less water so this this goes into the bioavailability of vitamins and minerals and how much we're actually getting compared to what they have in the food so using less water during cooking can reduce the loss of water soluble vitamins so that means you know if you leave your cooking some broccoli if you leave it in boiling water for an extended period of time essentiallyl you're dumping all those nutrients down the drain when you drain that broccoli, steaming avoids that problem so when you steam fruits or vegetables usually vegetables they are retaining much more in terms of water soluble and oftentimes other vitamins as well and really it only takes a little bit more time so so compared to boiling something you can try steaming it and that really is going to preserve the vitamin content, it also taste better in my opinion compared to putting something in boiling water logged compared to putting something in boiling water so steaming is fast and using less water, so same with avoiding high temperatures so long exposure to high temperatures so exposing these things for long periods of time leads to a higher loss of vitamin C, thiamine, and riboflavin so those items are particularly vulnerable to losses due to extended heat -keeping dairy out of light, so milk should actually be stored in cardboard or opaque containers to prevent the loss of riboflavin so this is one of the vitamins that is damaged by direct light that's why it typically comes in those darker containers and then some people like to add baking soda to cooking fluids because it makes vegetables look richer in color, if you have ever done it before it makes like broccoli look more green, makes spinach look a little bit brighter, but It can also compromise the micronutrients content so in this case thiamine, riboflavin, vitamin K, Vitamin C, can all be lossed if they're kept in an alkaline environment for too long so that can help retain the amount of vitamins in food

Functions of Vitamin A*

•Vision alright so one key role of vitamin A is in the maintenance of healthy vision so it enables out eyes to adjust to changes in light and allows us to distinguish different colors I'm so light enters the eye so here's the front of the eye right here light enters the eye and reaches the rods and cones in the retina so they retina is essentially in the back of they eye, this is zooming in on the rods and cones of the retina Iand within the rods the protein rhodopsin this purple guy right here is found which contains a version of vitamin A so in this case is retinal so the light entering rhodopsin leads to a process called bleaching so during bleaching retinal undergoes a conformational change and then often some is lost in the process so basically it's there it allows us to adjust to changes in light but a little bit is lost each time this happens and of course this happens in a daily basis when her eyes adjust to light so a steady supply of retinal is needed to replenish this lost retinal in the rhodopsin pigment or bleaching will result in night blindness which is less about seeing in the dark and more about adjusting to light so people with night blindness can't adjust to dim light or they lose sight for much longer after a flash of bright light and that's due to the lack of available retinal wants to allow this cycling to occur

Water

•Water makes up 50-75% of the human body -Intracellular compartment -Extracellular compartment •Interstitial •Intravascular -water makes up anywhere from 50 to 75% of the human body, this percentage is higher in typically is higher in infants and children and it's sort of declines as we age -lean people have a greater percentage of body water compared to obese people, lean tissue contains more water, while adipose tissue contains less -water is found in two separate compartments in the body so there's the intracellular compartment which is the water that's inside cells and this makes it about 2/3 the total water within the body and the remaining one-third is found in the extracellular compartment which includes the water that is found outside of cells -we can further to by the extracellular compartment into two more areas so interstitial and intravascular: interstitial describes the fluid that flows between cells and intravascular refers to the fluid in blood and lymph

Dietary Supplements

•Women who experience heavy bleeding- Iron •Women who are pregnant - Iron and Folate •People on low calorie diets •Vegans- Calcium, iron, Vit D, B12 •Newborns- Vit K •Lack of sun exposure- Vit D -about 65% of the US population takes a dietary supplement and this is a billion dollar industry but supplements aren't always necessary and some people are spending a lot of money on supplements that they don't actually need -somethings you're consuming in adequate amounts and somethings maybe you are not, so really supplementation is based on an individual's needs specifically -so these are just some generalizations about people who should take dietary supplements and what supplements may be recommended so women who experience heavy bleeding would benefit from an iron supplement, this is often true of athletes as well -women who are pregnant should take an iron supplement or folate supplement and it's almost impossible to get the amount of iron and folate you need from diet alone suring that period of time so that is why that recommendation is in place, it is possible but again really nutrient dense can only do that -people on low calorie diets so we talked about diet and the energy balance lecture I mentioned that it was okay to consume less calories as long as you're getting all those vitamins and minerals so if you are in a low calorie diet you may have noticed that those nutrients are low as well -vegans, so vegans tend to be low in calcium, iron, vitamin d, and vitamin B12 so those are particular things to look out for that diet -newborns don't have enough bacteria to actually synthesize any vitamin K, so supplementation is is necessary right away and then they're getting it later on through breast milk or formula and then through certain months of the year, lack of sun exposure vitamin D supplementation is recommended and this is really for anyone who lives in this part of the U.S., pretty much from October through March the sun will not supply you with an adequate amount of vitamin D so that's when supplementation really is a good idea -now there are a lot of products that are fortified with vitamin D, milk is one example, some cereals are fortified with vitamin D but even that is not going to give you 100% of your total value, now I talked about vitamin D in the fat soluble vitamins lecture and we have about a month's worth of vitamin D Storage so you're good for a little while but really and this goes along with sme people with seasonal depression, there is some indication that seasonal depression and low vitamin D may go hand-in-hand so just making sure that you are getting adequate levels is good for that time of the year