OB ch 5 motivation and 6

contemporary learning theory

-views learning as a cognitive process, that is, assuming that people are conscious active participant in how they learn 1. the cognitive views suggest people draw on their experiences and use past learning as a basis for their present behavior. these experiences represent knowledge, or cognitions 2. people make choices about their behavior 3. people recognize the consequences of their choices

Research has also confirmed expectancy theory's claims that people will not engage in motivated behavior unless they

1) value the expected rewards, (2) believe their efforts will lead to performance, and (3) believe their performance will result in the desired rewards.

continuous reinforcement schedule 4

1. Fixed-ratio: Desired behavior is reinforced after a specified number of correct responses—for example, receiving pay bonuses for every ten error-free pieces made per hour. 2. Fixed-interval: Desired behavior is reinforced after a certain amount of time has passed—for example, receiving weekly paychecks. 3. Variable-ratio: Desired behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of behaviors—for example, a supervisor praises a call center representative after the third call, then the seventh call after that, and then the fourth call after that. 4.Variable-interval: Desired behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed—for example, not knowing when a regional supervisor will visit your location for an inspection.

equity theory offers managers three messages

1. everyone in the organization needs to understand the basis for rewards quality over quantity 2. people tend to take a multifaceted view of their rewards; they perceive and experience a variety of rewards, some tangible and others intangible 3. people base their actions on their perceptions of reality

goals are used for two purposed in most organizations

1. provide a useful framework for managing motivation 2. effective control device (how well org is performing)

basic expectancy framework suggest that 3 conditions must be met beofre motivated behavior occurs

1. the effort-to-performance expectancy must be well above zero. That is, the worker must reasonably expect that exerting effort will produce high levels of performance 2. the performance-to-outcome expectancies must be well above zero. In other words, the person must believe that performance will realistically result in valued outcomes. 3. the sum of all the valences may be negative as long as the positives outweigh the negatives

People in organizations form perceptions of the equity of their treatment through a four-step process.

1. they evaluate how they are being treated by the frim 2. they form a perception of how a comparison other is being treated 3. they compare their own circumstances with those of the comparison other and then use this comparison as the basis for forming an impression of either equity or inequality 4. depending on the strength of this feeling, the person may choose to pursue one or more of the alternatives discussed in the next section.

6 common methods to reduce inequality

1. we can change our own inputs 2. we may change our own outcomes. ex: demand a pay raise, stealing 3. alter our perceptions of ourselves and our behavior- maybe you realize you haven't been working as many hours as youd thought 4. we may alter our perception of the comparison-other's inputs or outcomes. -ex: if we feel under rewarded, we may decide that our comparison-other is working more hours than we originally believed—say by coming in on weekends and taking work home at night. 5. we may change the object of comparison- ex:We may conclude, for instance, that the current comparison-other is the boss's personal favorite, is unusually lucky, or has special skills and abilities. 6. leave the situation

To motivate the right behavior, an expert in behavior modification would identify the desired behaviors and then carefully reinforce them. This process involves five steps:

1.Define the problem—what is it that could be improved? 2. Identify and define the specific behavior(s) you wish to change. Record and track the occurrence of the target behavior. 3. Analyze the current negative consequences of the undesired behavior and arrange for more positive consequences to follow the desired behavior. 4. Evaluate whether the behavior has improved, and by how much.

(MBO) management by objectives

A collaborative goal-setting process through which organizational goals cascade down throughout the organization -starts with managers establishing overall goals for org -then form subsidiary goals 1. overall goals communicated to everyone 2. manager. meets with each subordinate- discussing goals and what they should do 3.manager and subordinate ensure that the subordinate has the resources needed to reach his or her goal

Effort to performance expectancy

A person's perception of the probability that effort will lead to performance

classical conditioning

A simple form of learning that links a conditioned response with an unconditioned stimulus - in organization sonly simple behaviors and responses can be learned in this manner -inadequate as an explanation of human learning -ignores concept of choice - assumes behavior as reflexive or involuntary

fundamental guidelines of expectancy theory

Determine the primary outcomes each employee wants. Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to meet organizational goals. Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible. Link desired outcomes and desired performance. Analyze the situation for conflicting expectancies. Make sure the rewards are large enough. Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone

Rewards always increase ethical behavior because the presence of the reward can undermine the intrinsic value of the ethical behavior (T or F)

F

process-based perspectives

Focus on how people behave in their efforts to satisfy their needs rather than trying to identify motivational stimuli such as pay process perspectives focus on why people choose certain behavioral options to satisfy needs and how they evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained these goals -two useful process perspectives on motivation are the equity and expectancy theories

Equity Theory

Focuses on people's desire to be treated with what they perceive as equity and to avoid perceived inequity - one of several theoretical formulations derived from social comparison processes (which involve evaluating our own situation in terms of others situations) -Equity theory is the most highly developed of the social comparison approaches and the one that applies most directly to the work motivation of people in organizations

what's necessary to do a job

Individual abilities and traits are the skills and other personal characteristics

P =

M + A + E P= performance A= ability M= motivation E= environment To reach high levels of performance an employees must do well (motivation; must be able to do job effectively (ability); and must have the materials, resources, equipment, and information required to do the job -manager should ensure all three conditions are met

Kinds of reinforcement 4

Positive reinforcement negative refinement punishment extinction

expectancy theory (valence instrumentality expectancy)

Suggests that people are motivated by how much they want something and the likelihood they perceive of getting it

behvaior modification

The application of reinforcement theory to influence the behaviors of people in organizational settings -use of various kinds of reinforcement when employees are behaving in desired or undesired ways

Porter-Lawler Model

These researchers used expectancy theory to develop a novel view of the relationship between employee satisfaction and performance -Although the conventional wisdom was that satisfaction leads to performance, Porter and Lawler argued the reverse: If rewards are adequate, high levels of performance may lead to satisfaction.

social learning (social cognitive learning)

When people observe the behaviors of others, recognize the consequences, and alter their own behavior as a result -Social learning theory, then, suggests that individual behavior is determined by a person's cognitions and social environment. More specifically, people are presumed to learn behaviors and attitudes at least partly in response to what others expect of them. conditions to be met to produce an appropriate environment for social learning 1. the behavior being observed and imitated must be relatively simple. 2.social learning usually involves observing and imitating behavior that is concrete, not intellectual 3. for social learning to occur, we must possess the physical ability to imitate the behavior observed.

performance to outcome expectancy

aka instrumentality -is a person's perception of the probability that performance will lead to certain other outcomes ex: If a person thinks a high performer is certain to get a pay raise, this expectancy is close to 1.0. At the other extreme, a person who believes raises are entirely independent of performance has an expectancy close to 0 if a person thinks performance has some bearing on the prospects for a pay raise, his or her expectancy is somewhere between 1.0 and 0.

Outcomes

anything that might potentially result from performance the valence of an outcome is the relative attractiveness or unattractiveness the value of that outcome to the person

punishment

application of negative outcomes to decrease the likelihood of a behavior EX For example, a manager might reduce the work hours of low-performing employees. Other common forms of punishment include verbal and written reprimands, formal disciplinary activities, and reduced involvement in decision making. Because of a variety of consequences that can follow punishment, most organizations rely on rules and policies to govern the use of punishment.

Reinforcement Theory

behavior is a function of its consequences -pleasant consequences is more repeated -cognition plays an important role -Future behavioral choices are affected by the consequences of earlier behaviors

what is the fasted way to get someone to learn

continuous reinforcement downside is that as soon as the reward is stopped, the desired behavior decreases in frequency (extinction)

The expanded theory argues that goal-directed effort is a function of four goal attributes

difficulty and specificity (previously discussed), and acceptance and commitment goal acceptance- extent to which a person accepts a goal as his or her own goal commitment- extent to which he or she is personally interested in reaching the goal

downsides of MBO is that managers

don't participate and goals are established in the middle of the organization and may not reflect the real goals of top management

Equity

fairness

what schedule produce high performance near the end of the interval, but lower performance immediately after the reinforcement occurs

fixed interval

what schedule produce a high, consistent rate of responding with desired behaviors but with fast extinction when the reinforcement stops

fixed ratio

finally downside of MBO is that some managers do not let subordinates participate in

goals setting. they simply get assigned goals

Another downside is that an MBO system requires a great deal of

information processing

equity theoru descibes rhe equity comparison process in terms of an

input to outcome ratio -inputs=contributions to organization like education, experience, effort, loyalty -outcomes= what person receives in return- pay, recognition, social relationships, intrinsic rewards and similar things

performance results in two kinds of rewards

intrinsic rewards are intangible- feeling of accomplishment, a sense of achievement extrinsic rewards are tangible outcomes such as pay and promotion

Learning

is a relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential that results from direct or indirect experience

social learning influences motivation in a variety of ways

many behaviours we exhibit in daily work life are learned from others

During the time frame set for goal attainment (usually one year), the manager periodically

meets with each subordinate to check progress. It may be necessary to modify goals in light of new information, to provide additional resources, or to take some other action. at end of timer period manager hold final evaluation meeting with each sub (how well goals were met) also serves as initial goal setting meeting for the next years cycle

in most settings what is the most difficult factors to manage

motivation

the greater the inequality the stronger the level of

motivation

For managers, the most important implication of equity theory is

organizational rewards and reward systems

another downside of MBO is that is has the tendency to

overemphasize quantitative goals to enhance verifiability

factors that can foster goal acceptance and commitment

participating in the goal-setting process, making goals challenging but realistic, and believing that goal achievement will lead to valued rewards

Most research on equity theory has been narrowly focused, dealing with only one ratio—between

pay and the quality or quantity of worker output given overpayment and underpayment

The interaction of goal-directed effort, organizational support, and individual abilities and traits determines actual

performance

goal difficulty and specificity are closely associated with

performance

Extinction

removal of other reinforcement (+or-) following the incidence of the behavior to be extinguished to decrease the likelihood of that behavior being repeated EX For example, suppose that a manager laughs at an off-color joke told by an employee. The laughter serves as positive reinforcement so the employee may continue to tell off-color jokes. The manager realizes that this could lead to trouble and wants the employee to stop. The manager can begin ignoring the jokes. Over time, the lack of a positive reaction from the manager reduces the employee's motivation and the behavior is extinguished.

negative reinforcement

removal of unpleasant behaviors to increase likelihood that someone will repeat behavior EX: For example, suppose a piece of hazardous manufacturing equipment is set so that when it is turned on, the machine operator hears a continuous loud buzzer. After the machine operator runs a series of safety checks, the buzzer stops. Because the machine operator wants the buzzer to stop, he or she is motivated to engage in safe work behaviors (running the safety checks). If an employee has a long or unpleasant commute, allowing him or her to work from home one or two days a week if her performance stays high can also be rewarding and motivate good performance.

People's degree of pride or disappointment is affected by their

self efficacy

what provides insights into why and how goals can motivate behavior

social learning theory

what theory perhaps best describes the role and importance of goal setting in organizations

social learning theory -This perspective suggests that feelings of pride or shame about performance are a function of the extent to which people achieve their goals

goal specificity

the clarity and precision of a goal -A goal of "increasing productivity" is not very specific, whereas a goal of "increasing productivity by 3 percent in the next six months" is

goal difficulty

the extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort

perception of equity does not require that

the perceived outcomes and inputs be equal, but only that their rations be the same

in the equation if two sides of this psychological equation are comparable

the person experienced a feeling of equity. if unbalanced a feeling of inequity results

Motivation

the set of forces that cause people to engage in one behavior rather than some alternative behavior

positive reinforcement

use of rewards to increase likelihood of that behavior

what schedule, the behavior of the individual does not influence the availability of reinforcement so it has a minimal effect on motivation.

variable interval

what schedule produce a high, steady rate of responding with desired behaviors and the behaviors are difficult to extinguish

variable ratio

The most effective schedule for sustaining a behavior is

variable reinforcement -strong motivator of behavior