OB Midterm

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Coping

'the process of managing demands (external or internal) that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person'.' Because effective coping helps reduce the impact of stressors and stress, your personal life and professional skills can be enhanced by understanding this process better.

8 Dimensions of Climate

- Autonomy: the perception of self-determination with respect to work procedures, goals, and priorities - Cohesion: the perception of togetherness of sharing within the organization setting, including the willingness of members to provide material aid. - Trust: the perception of freedom to communicate openly with members at higher organization levels about sensitive or personal issues with the expectation that the integrity of such communications will not be violated. - Pressure: the perception of time demands with respect to task completion and performance standards - Support: the perception of the tolerance of member behavior by superiors, including the willingness to let members learn from their mistakes without fear of reprisal. - Recognition: the perception that member contributions to the organization are acknowledged. - Fairness: the perception that organizational practices are equitable and non-arbitrary or capricious. - Innovation: the perception that change and creativity are encouraged, including risk-taking into new areas or areas where the member has little or no prior experience.

Five 'C's essential to flow in the workplace

- Clarity: people have goals (in terms of progress and outcomes) and targets that they want to achieve. Appropriate feedback methods - Centre: workers need to know how to focus and avoid distraction causes, for example they should focus only on what they are doing here and now - Choice: employees need to believe that they can control the environment with internal strengths; not victims of environment - Commitment: workers need to commit themselves fully to the work with all dedication - Challenge: there should be a continuous seach for new challenges to match them with skills. People learn to match their challenges with their skills and also develop new skills for new challenges.

Attribution Theories (1st attributional theory)

- Correspondent inherence theory: refers to how an alert perceiver interacts with another's motives and personal inclinations from his or her behavior. Namely, it describes how we assess other people by using the other's behavior and perception. It depends on three factors: non-common effects, the social interest of effects, and level of choice. - non-common effects: the behavioral characteristics that deviate from the norm. - social desirability of behavior: leads to correspondent inference more than correct behavior. - degree of choice: behavior that is freely chosen tells much more about personality than behavior that is coerced

Correspondent Inference Theory(1st attributional theory)

Attitudes characteristic of a burnout

- Fatalism - Boredom - Discontent - Cynisism - Inadequacy - Failure - Overwork - Nastiness - Dissatisfaction - Escape

Key correlations of Job Satisfaction

- Motivation: there is a strong positive correlation between motivation and job satisfaction. Motivation is also highly correlated with supervision - Absenteeism: it is seen as a very expensive activity for the organization as the employee is working less, but still being paid. There is a weak correlation between job satisfaction and absenteeism. - Withdrawal cognition: Withdrawal cognitions include an individual's overall thoughts and feelings about quitting. This is highly correlated with employee turnover - Turnover: less job satisfaction = higher turnover - Job performance: relationship between job performance and job satisfaction is often different in many types of research. The most common belief are that satisfaction causes performance or vice versa.

5 Causes of Job Satisfaction

- Need fulfillment: job satisfaction linked with fulfillment of individual needs. - Discrepancies: many studies also concluded that job satisfaction is connected with the expectation of the job itself. If the expectation degree is higher than received, that is bad - Value Attainment: job satisfaction is linked with value attainment, meaning that people would be more satisfied and happy with the job if it doesnt limit their values. - Equity: refers to how fairly workers are treated at the work. The more appropriate rewards and recognition the person will get according to the jobs done, the more satisfied. - Dispositional/genetic components: every individual is different, thus satisfaction is based not only on external factors but also on internals, such as genetic and personal characteristics.

The 10 Values of the Basic Human Values Model

- Power - Achievement - Hedonism - Stimulation - Self-direction - Direction - Universalism - Benevolence - Tradition - Conformity - Security

Four types of communication barriers

- Process: problems with communication such as sender error, no message received, cannot understand, and misinterpretation. - Personal: the communicators have different communication styles and use different experience and knowledge to interpret the environment. Trust can be a barrier in this regard as well as ego and listening skills and judgmental attitudes. - Physical: geographical distance can be a barrier as well as noise and poor means of communication - Semantic: inappropriate use of words and mixed messages.

5 Core Job Dimensions

- Skill variety - Task identity: The extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a whole or completely identifiable piece of work. - task significance: the degree of influence the task has The first three combine to create meaningfulness!! - Autonomy: the degree of independence and freedom an employee experiences - Feedback: the extent to which an employee receives clear feedback on their work and performance.

Stress

- fundamental changes that have been made in an organization - technological advances make it harder for employees to disconnect from work. - Dynamics of modern life make it harder to balance the demands of work and home (stress spills over into personal life and vice versa) The biggest contributor to work stress arises from fundamental changes that have been made in many organisations. As a result of increased competition, employees are being asked to deliver a better quality and a greater quantity of work in less time with fewer resources. Second, technological advancements make it harder for employees to completely disconnect from the office. Smartphones, apps, email and social media make it easy to disrupt people's free time while at home or on holiday. Third, the dynamics of modern life make it difficult to balance the demands of work and home: work stress tends to spill over into people's personal lives and vice versa. Finally, motivation and stress are related. Striving for extrinsic goals, such as money, status, control over others, often requires stressful ego-involved activities.

Job Demand Control Model

- passive job: low decision making and low demands - high strain job: low decision making ability and high demands - low stress job: high decision making and low demands - active job: high decision making and high demands

High achievers

- take moderate risks - have high personal responsibility - they need to have feedback

Communication differences between male and female

-men are autocratic -men do not take women seriously -women are too vulnerable -men do not appreciate women as colleagues -women often do not stand out -different linguistics style -men are direct -women speak less directly

Three steps when implementing a goal-setting system:

1. Goals must first be formulated somehow. A number of sources can be used as input during this goal-setting stage. Time and motion studies are one source. 2. A second is the average past performance of employees. 3. Third, the employee and his or her superior may set the goal participatively, through give-and-take negotiation. 4. Fourth, goals can be set by conducting external or internal benchmarking. Benchmarking is used when an organisation wants to compare its performance or internal work processes with those of other organisations (external benchmarking) or other internal units, branches, departments or divisions within the organisation (internal benchmarking).

Six Pillars of Self-esteem

1. Live consciously: be actively and fully engaged in what you do and with whom you interact. 2. Be self-accepting: do not be overly judgmental or critical of your thoughts and actions. 3. Take personal responsibility: take full responsibility for your decisions and actions in life's journey. 4. Be self-assertive: be authentic and willing to defend your beliefs when interacting with others, rather than bending to their will to be accepted or liked. 5. Live purposefully: have clear near-term and long-term goals and realistic plans for achieving them to create 6. Have personal integrity: be true to your word and your values.

Social Information-Processing Model of Perception

1. selective attention/comprehension: attention refers to focusing on some type of information. As people cannot pay attention to everything, one has to selectively choose what to focus on. When someone is reading and still thinking about other things, he or she focuses on the memory. It is called salient stimuli. Salient refers to something that is unrelated to the subject. 2. encoding and simplification: when a person perceives the information, it is not represented in the memory as it is in real life, instead it is interpreted. Usually the information goes to cognitive categories, such as names and others. Everything that is evaluated is represented in a schema which is defined as a mental image of certain information. In order to process the information, we use encoding activity. There are sever reasons why everyone interprets differently - People have different interpretations of mental images - Moods and emotions affect how we interpret - People tend to employ . recently used cognitive approach when encoding - Encoding type is based on the individual characteristics. 3. storage and retention: in this stage the information is stored in a long-term memory. It consists of the event, semantic material, and people categories. 4. retrieval and response: people recapture the memory when making decisions and judging.

Stereotype formation

A stereotype is an individual's set of beliefs about the characteristics or attributes of a group. Stereotyping is a four-step process. 1. It begins by categorising people into groups according to various criteria, such as gender, age, race, religion, sexual orientation and occupation. 2. Next, we infer that all people within a particular category possess the same traits or characteristics 3. Then, we form expectations of others and interpret their behaviour according to our stereotypes. 4. Finally, stereotypes are maintained by (1) overestimating the frequency of stereotypic behaviours exhibited by others, (2) incorrectly explaining expected and unexpected behaviours and (3) differentiating minority individuals from oneself.'

Alderfer's ERG Theory

Alderfer elaborated on Maslow theory and developed three-dimension model for needs. It is based on three letters: ERG Expatriate: related to Maslow's physiological and safety needs Relatedness: need to have good relationships Growth needs: related to self-esteem and self-actualisation ... people can be motivated by different things at the same time

Charles Spearman (intelligence)

Charles Spearman proposed that there are only two types of ability that determine all cognitive performance: ◦ General Mental Ability: required for all cognitive tasks. The general factor 'g' influences all intellectual activities and accounts for a large proportion of the variance in intellectual scores. There have been attempts to split the g factor into seven most-frequently cited mental abilities: (of these, verbal ability, numerical ability, spatial ability, and inductive reasoning are the most valid predictors of job performance) ‣ Verbal comprehension: the ability to understand what words mean and to readily comprehend what is read. ‣ Word fluency: the ability to produce isolated words that fulfill specific symbolic or structural requirements. ‣ Numerical reasoning: the ability to make quick and accurate arithmetic computations such as adding and subtracting. ‣ Spatial ability: being able to perceive spatial patterns and to visualize how geometric shapes would look if transformed in shape or position. ‣ Memory: having good rote memory for paid words, symbols, list of numbers, or other associated items. ‣ Perceptual speed: the ability to perceive figures, identify similarities and differences, and carry out task involving visual perception. ‣ Inductive reasoning: the ability to reason from specifics to general conclusions. ◦ Unique Mental Ability: unique to the task at hand. A certain amount of intellectual variance is specific to each task.

Values

Despite the abundance of definitions, most authors agree that values are standards or criteria for choosing goals or guiding actions, and that they are relatively enduring and stable over time.' Even though values are relatively enduring and stable, they can change during our lifetime. We can make a distinction between content and an intensity aspect of values. People do not only vary in what values they find important (content aspect), they also differ in how important several values are (intensity aspect). • Instrumental values: refer to desirable ways or modes of conduct to reach some kind of desirable goal. • Terminal values: refer to the desirable goals a person wants to reach during his or her life.

Elton Mayo and his Studies at the Hawthorne Plant

Elton Mayo was one of the well-known humans relations theorists. He gave rise to the profession of industrial psychology, focusing on the human factor of organizations. At first the scientific management approach was very successful , but later on concerns arose about its disregard of employee needs. His first study was designed to study human factors in organizations, The purpose was to find a relationship between the environment and worker efficiency. The second study in which they studied the indluence of certain variables like length of work day and temperature. They failed to find a correlation of working conditions and productivity. The third study revealed two things: two informal groups existed within the three formal groups. Second, these informal groups developed their own rules of behavior - workers were more responsive to the social forces of their peer group than to the controls and incentives of management.

Applying equity to motivation:

Equity theory has at least eight important practical applications. Of course, applying equity theory directly in organisations is not that easy because people are different in their sensitivity to equity, which means that different people react differently in the same situation. They also value other inputs and outcomes than those easy to measure. Maintaining feelings of equity in organisations is certainly a challenge. Nevertheless: • Equity theory provides organisations with another explanation of how beliefs and attitudes affect job performance (also see Chapter 3). According to this line of thinking, the best way to manage job behaviour is to understand properly underlying cognitive processes. Indeed, we are motivated powerfully to correct the situation when our ideas of fairness and justice are offended. • One of the core elements of equity theory emphasises the need to pay attention to employees' perceptions of what is fair and equitable. No matter how fair organisations think their policies, procedures and reward systems are, each employee's perception of the equity of those factors is what counts (also see Chapter 4). People respond negatively when they perceive organisational and interpersonal injustices. • A direct consequence is that hiring and promotion decisions based on merit-based, job-related information will be seen as relatively more equitable. Furthermore, justice perceptions are influenced by the extent to which decision-makers explain their decisions; the application of this evidence is to explain the rationale behind their decisions. • Being able to appeal against a decision promotes the belief that organisations treat employees fairly and perceptions of fair treatment promote job satisfaction and organisational commitment and help reduce absenteeism and turnover • Employees are more likely to accept and support organisational change when they believe it is implemented fairly and when it produces equitable outcomes • Organisations can promote co-operation and teamwork among employees by treating them equitably. Research reveals that people are just as concerned with fairness in group settings as they are with their own personal interests.' • Treating employees inequitably can lead to conflicts which may spill over into the outside world, with litigation and costly court settlements. Employees denied justice at work are more likely to turn to arbitration and the courts?' • Organisations need to pay attention to their climate for justice. For example, an organisation's climate for justice was found to significantly influence employees' job satisfaction' and the type of customer service provided by employees. In turn, this level of service is likely to influence customers' perceptions of 'fair service' and their subsequent loyalty and satisfaction.'

Equity Theory

Equity theory is a model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges or give-and-take relationships. According to Festinger's theory, people are motivated to maintain consistency between their cognitive beliefs and their behaviour. Perceived inconsistencies create cognitive dissonance (or psychological discomfort) which, in turn, motivates corrective action. If we feel victimized by unfair social exchanges we experience discomfort and our resulting cognitive dissonance prompts us to correct the situation. Three elements are important when applying this theory in a workplace or organisational setting: • Awareness of the key components of the individual-organisation exchange relationship: inputs and outcomes. Employees expect a fair, just or equitable return (outcome) for what they contribute to their jobs. • This relationship is pivotal in the formation of employees' perceptions of equity and inequity. Employees decide what their equitable return should be by comparing their inputs and outputs with that of comparison others (like colleagues). • As a process theory of motivation, equity theory focuses on what people are motivated to do when they feel treated inequitably they try to reduce this inequity.

Rewards

Extrinsic Rewards: financial, material and social rewards are defined as extrinsic rewards because they come from the environment. Intrinsic Rewards: Psychological rewards, however, are intrinsic rewards because they are self-granted. An employee who works to obtain extrinsic rewards, such as money or praise, is said to be extrinsically motivated (extrinsic motivation). One who derives pleasure from the task itself or experiences a sense of competence or self-determination is said to be intrinsically motivated (intrinsic motivation). Intrinsically motivated behaviours are those that are performed without any apparent externally derived need.'

360 Feedback

Feedback that covers all relevant stakeholders in an employee's performance is frequently referred to as 360-degree, to indicate the comprehensiveness of this type of feedback. Even if some parts are impractical and costly (getting feedback from outsiders), this approach and also the special case where a subordinate gives 'upward' feedback to his or her boss has grown in popularity for at least six reasons: • Traditional performance-appraisal systems have created widespread dissatisfaction. • Team-based organisation structures are replacing traditional hierarchies. This trend requires professionals to have good interpersonal skills that are best evaluated by team members. • Systems using 'multiple raters' are said to make for more valid feedback than single-source rating.' • Internet and Intranet now facilitates multiple-rater systems.' • Bottom-up feedback meshes nicely with the trend towards participative management and employee empowerment. • Co-workers and subordinates are said to know more about a professional's strengths and limitations than the boss.'

Frederick Taylor (Scientific Management)

Frederick Taylor is one of the best-known figures in the rational-system view of organizations and is the founding father of scientific management, a scientific approach to management in which all tasks in organizations are analyzed, routinized, divided and standardized in depth, instead of rules of thumb. Jobs are divided into subtasks that are low-skilled, thus cheaper. The result of this kind of management is: • Higher output • Standardization • Control and predictability • The routine of the tasks allowed the replacement of skilled workers by non-skilled workers • Thinking is for the managers, workers only work • Optimisation of the tools for each worker ... Ford was the greatest example of the management system.

Hierarchical Communication

Hierarchical: is defined as an exchange of information when one of the individuals is under influence of another. It can be seen as communication downwards and upwards.

Reward Norms

Ideally, four alternative norms dictate the nature of this exchange. In pure form, each would lead to a significantly different reward distribution system. • Profit maximisation. The objective of each party is to maximise its net gain, regardless of how the other party fares. A profit-maximising company would attempt to pay the lowest level of wages for maximum effort. Conversely, a profit-maximising employee would seek maximum rewards, regardless of the organisation's financial well-being, and leave the organisation for a better deal. • Equity. According to the reward equity norm, rewards should be allocated in proportion to contributions. Those who contribute the most should be rewarded the most. A cross-cultural study of American, Japanese and Korean college students led the researchers to conclude: 'Equity is probably a phenomenon common to most cultures, but its strength will vary." Basic principles of fairness and justice, evident in most cultures, drive the equity norm. • Equality. The reward equality norm calls for rewarding all parties equally, regardless of their comparative contributions. Because absolute equality does not exist in hierarchical organisations, the impact of pay inequality or pay dispersion (the pay gap between high-level and low-level employees) takes on special importance. It appears that the smaller the pay gap, the better the individual and organisational performance.' Thus, very large compensation packages of many of today's top executives is not only a widely debated moral issue, it is a productivity issue as well. • Need. This norm calls for distributing rewards according to employees' needs rather than their contributions.

Research Methods

Measurement and Data collection methods: • Observation: consists of recording the number of times a specified behavior is exhibited. • Questionnaires: ask respondents for their opinions or feelings about work-related issues. They generally contain previously developed and validated instruments and are self-administered. Given their impersonal nature, poorly designed questionnaires are susceptible to rate bias. • Interviews: rely on face to face or telephone interactions to ask respondents questions of interest. In structured interviews, interviewees are asked the same question in the same order. Structured interviews all the interviewers to compare the different candidates. • Indirect methods: these techniques obtain data without any direct contact with respondents. This approach may entail observing someone without his or her knowledge.

Dynamics of Perceived Inequity

Organisations can derive practical benefits from the equity theory of motivation by recognising two key findings: on the one hand, negative inequity is less tolerable than positive inequity and of the other that inequity can be reduced in a variety of ways. People have a lower tolerance for negative inequity than they do for positive inequity; they feel the discomfort more acutely. Equity theorists propose that the many possible combinations of behavioural and cognitive adjustments are influenced by the following tendencies: • An individual will attempt to maximise the amount of positive outcomes he or she receives. • People resist increasing inputs when it requires substantial effort or costs. • People resist behavioural or cognitive changes in inputs important to their self-concept or self esteem. • Rather than changing cognitions about themselves, individuals are more likely to change cognitions about the comparison person's inputs and outcomes. • Leaving the field (resigning) is chosen only when severe inequity cannot be resolved through other methods.

Riding's Cognitive Model

People can be grouped into two basic dimensions based on their cognitive style. ◦ Wholist-analytic: described the habitual way in which people press information: ‣ Wholists: retain a global or overall view of information. They tend to see the whole of a situation, are able to have an overall perspective and appreciate the total context. ‣ Analytics: process information into its component parts. They see the situation as a collection of parts and will often focus on one or two of these parts at a time, while excluding other parts. ‣ Intermediates: use either model and are in the middle of the continuum. ◦ Verbal-imagery: concerns people's preferred mode of representing information ‣ Verbalizers: inclined to represent information through verbal thinking. They read, listen to, or consider information in words. ‣ Imagers: inclined to represent information through mental pictures. They listen or consider information they experience fluent, spontaneous, and frequent mental pictures. ‣ Bimodels: people in the middle

How to avoid a burnout

Removing personal, job and organisational stressors is the most straightforward way to prevent burnout. Organisations can also reduce burnout by buffering its effects. Potential buffers include extra staff or equipment at peak work periods, support from top management, increased freedom to make decisions, recognition for accomplishments, time off for personal development or rest and equitable rewards. Decreasing the quantity and increasing the quality of communications is another possible buffer. Finally, organisations can change the content of an individual's job by adding or eliminating responsibilities, increasing the amount of participation in decision-making, altering the pattern of interpersonal contacts or assigning the person to a new position.'

Work Values

Schwartz also adapted his basic values model to a work context, and he defines work values as expressions of basic values in the work setting. Like basic values, work values are ordered by their importance as guiding principles for evaluating work outcomes and settings, and for choosing among different work alternatives. Work values refer to what a person wants out of work in general, rather than to narrowly defined outcomes of particular jobs. The four types of work values that Schwartz identifies are intrinsic, extrinsic, social and prestige values. • Intrinsic values express openness to change values (e.g. the pursuit of autonomy, interest, growth and creativity in work). • Extrinsic values refer to conservation values (e.g. job security income). • Social or interpersonal work values express self-transcendence values (e.g. work as a vehicle for positive social relations or contribution to society). • The prestige or power values, a type added to the work values research by Schwartz, imply values related to the self-enhancement values (e.g. authority, influence and achievement in work).

Basic Human Values Model

Shalom Schwartz, another expert on value research, elaborated the model of Rokeach further and proposed a theory on basic human values based on two components.' First, he distinguished 10 types of values that are recognised by members of most societies. Second, he shows how these values are connected dynamically with each other by specifying which values are compatible and mutually supportive, and which values are conflicting and opposed... They were developed by using the idea that values represent, in the form of conscious goals, three universal requirements of human existence to which all individuals and societies have to be responsive: - the needs of individuals as biological organisms - the requirements for co-ordinated social interaction - the survival and welfare needs of groups. The dynamics between Schwartz's values can be situated on two underlying dimensions: self-transcendence versus self-enhancement and openness to change versus conservation. The first dimension represents the tension between acceptance of others as equal and concern for their welfare (universalism and benevolence) versus the dominance over others and pursuit of own success (power and achievement). The second dimension opposes values that emphasise independent thought and action and readiness for change (self-direction and stimulation) to values of preserving traditional practices, protection of stability and submissive self-restriction (security, conformity and tradition).

Ann Morrison

She uncovered 52 different practices, 20 of which were used by the majority of the companies sampled. She classified the 52 practices into three main types: accountability, development and recruitment.The three types are discussed next in order of relative importance. - Accountability practices: relate to a manager's responsibility to treat diverse employees fairly. - Development practices: Development practices focus on preparing diverse employees for greater responsibility and advancement. - Recruitment practices: focus on attracting job applicants at all levels that are willing to accept challenging work assignments. This focus is critical because people learn the leadership skills needed for advancement by successfully accomplishing increasingly challenging and responsible work assignments.

SMART goals

Specific, Measurable, Attainable, result oriented, Timely

Model of Occupational stress

The model shows that four types of stressor lead to perceived stress which, in turn, produces a variety of outcomes. The model also specifies several individual differences that moderate the stressor-stress-outcome relationship. A moderator is a variable that causes the relationship between two variables - such as stress and outcomes - to be stronger for some people and weaker for others. Stressors are a prerequisite for stress. • Individual-level stressors: are those directly associated with a person's work responsibilities. • Group-level stressors: are caused by group dynamics and managerial behaviour. Managers create stress for employees by ◦ Exhibiting inconsistent behaviour ◦ Failing to provide support ◦ Showing lack of concern. ◦ Providing inadequate direction. ◦ Creating a high-productivity environment. ◦ Focusing on negatives while ignoring good performance. • Organisational stressors: also affect large numbers of employees. Conflict, stereotypes, and deep-seated organisational culture are prime examples. • Extra-organisational stressors: are those caused by factors outside the organisation. For example, if you work at home via the Internet, you may suffer less from task-related stressors such as interruptions or time pressure, and more from non-job-related stressors such as noisy home, restricted material resources and conflicts with the family. A huge one is balancing career and family life.

Motivation

The term 'motivation' derives from the Latin word movere, meaning `to move'. Ability and opportunity are other factors that often play an important role in predicting job performance — and motivation alone is not enough. Motivation can be considered as the arousal, direction and maintenance of human behaviour towards attaining some goal. How an individual thinks about or reacts to a choice of (alternative) goal-directed behaviour(s) depends on the rewards or punishments associated with each of the alternative behaviors.

Cognitive theorists

Uncomfortable with the idea that behavior is shaped completely by environmental consequences, they state motivation is affected by beliefs, expectations values, and other cognitive characteristics.

Ethnic and racial stereotypes

Unfortunately, three additional trends suggest that ethnic minorities are experiencing their own glass ceiling. 1) First, ethnic minorities are advancing even less in the professional ranks than women. Applicants with foreign names are more likely to be rejected in job screening processes. 2) Second, ethnic minorities also tend to earn less. 3) Finally, a study into ethnic minorities in the boardroom among the 100 largest companies in Europe revealed a concrete ceiling instead of a glass one. Not one top company with a minority chief executive officer (CEO) could be found, and few with even one minority officer at any senior level. It is, however, remarkable to notice that ethnic minorities are faced with obvious racism and fewer opportunities than their white colleagues, even though Europe is heading towards a labour shortage in the near future.

Upward Feedback

Upward feedback: turns the traditional approach upside down by having subordinates provide feedback on a superior's style and performance. This type of feedback is generally anonymous. Most students are familiar with upward feedback programmes from years of filling out anonymous lecturer-evaluation surveys.

Self-esteem

a belief about one's own self-worth based on an overall self-evaluation. It refers to the degree to which people like or dislike themselves. People with high self-esteem handle failure better. High self-esteemed individuals also tend to become more boatful and egotistical when faced with pressure situations and high self esteem can also be associated with aggressive behavior.

Perception

a cognitive activity that allows obtaining knowledge about the environment through 5 senses. Social perception refers to the ability to understand one another in a community.

Self-efficacy

a person's belief about his or her chances of successfully accomplishing a specific task. The relationship between self-efficacy and performance is cyclical. Efficacy performance cycle can spiral upward toward success or downward toward failure.

Genderflex

a short-term use of other gender's behavior to affect the person. For example, women can start a discussion about sports to increase active listening of a man.

Culture

a state or a context, determined by history and held by organisational members collectively. It lies deeper, it is resistant to change and any change happens slowly. The problem with climate and culture is that they not only overlap but affect each other. Examines underlying values and assumptions whereas climate examines surface level manifestations.

Theory

a story defining key terms, providing a conceptual framework and explaining why something occurs. A good theoretical model: • Defines key terms • Constructs a conceptual framework that explains how important factors are interrelated • Provides a departure for research that generates evidence • Theory and evidence leads to practical applications

Burnout

a stress-induced problem common among members of 'helping' professions such as teaching, social work, human resources, nursing and law enforcement. It does not involve a specific feeling, attitude or physiological outcome anchored to a specific point in time. Rather, burnout is a condition that occurs over time.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

adds a fourth dimension to the work of Jung, referring to the choices people make on how to allocate time priorities: either gathering information (relates to the perceiving dimension) or making decisions (relates to the judging dimension). Some people want a lot of information before they made a decision and are called the perceptive type (P). Perceptive types enjoy searching for new information, can tolerate ambiguity, and are more concerned with understanding life than controlling it. They prefer to stay open to experience, enjoying and trusting their ability to adapt to the moment. Others make decisions quickly despite the fact that they may have little data. Their priority is to reach a decision. They are called the judging type (J). They like clarity and order, dislike ambiguity, and are concerned with resolving issues. They tend to live in a planned, orderly way.

External Locus of Control

an external locus of control sees themselves as a passive agent. They believe that events in their lives and things that they want to achieve are subject to uncontrollable forces, luck, chance, and powerful others. Internals are more inclined to search for relevant information than externals and seem to learn more from feedback and past experiences. Externals accept dependency on a more competent other and thus have less need for information.

Process approaches

attempt to explain the actual process of motivation. The difference is that process theories give individuals a cognitive decision-making role in selecting their goals and the means to achieve them. These theories are concerned with answering questions of how individual behaviour is stimulated, directed, maintained and stopped.'... BASICALLY EXPLAINS IN WHAT WAY PEOPLE ARE OBTAINING THE MOTIVATION.

Competence

an underlying characteristic of an individual which is causally related to effective or superior performances. A competence is a characteristic that differentiates between superior and average performers or between effective and ineffective performers.

Needs Theories

are based on the premise that individuals are motivated by unsatisfied needs. Dissatisfaction with your social life, for example, should motivate you to participate in more social activities. Henry Murray, a 1930s psychologist, was the first behavioral scientist to propose a list of needs thought to underlie goal-directed behaviour. From Murray's work sprang a wide variety of needs theories, some of which remain influential today. Recognised needs theories of motivation are explored in the current chapter.

Emotions

are related to feelings that are usually addressed towards someone or something.

Henry Fayol

basic five principles of management that were based on a rational view. He did not separate thinking and acting like Taylor did, though they agreed on many things. The five basic tasks include: 1) Planning: predicting and planning to meet goals. 2) Organizing: this consists of allocating the materials and organizing the people. Authority discipline and control are the major forces. 3) Leading (commanding): giving directions and orders to employees. It consists of influencing and convincing others to make them accomplish the goals and plans. 4) Coordinating: refers to meetings with department heads to harmonize the different departments into one unit. 5) Controlling: to what extent the goals were met and if everyone is following orders rigorously.

Henry Fayol

basic four principles of management that were based on a rational view. He did not separate thinking and acting like Taylor did, though they agreed on many things. The five basic tasks include: 1) Planning: predicting and planning to meet goals. 2) Organizing: this consists of allocating the materials and organizing the people. Authority discipline and control are the major forces. 3) Leading (commanding): giving directions and orders to employees. It consists of influencing and convincing others to make them accomplish the goals and plans. 4) Coordinating: refers to meetings with department heads to harmonize the different departments into one unit. 5) Controlling: to what extent the goals were met and if everyone is following orders rigorously.

Edward L. Thorndike and B.F. Skinner

believed that motivation is the task itself. They based their opinion on data that suggests that people tend to repeat behavior that lead to positive outcomes in the past.

Vroom's Theory (expectancy theory)

boils down to the decision about how much effort to exerted in a specific task situation. This choice is based on a three-stage sequence of expectations • First, motivation is affected by an individual's expectation that a certain level of effort will produce the intended performance goal. What can a person get from the organisation and what level of effort must that person put in to get the expected outcome? • Motivation is also influenced by a person's perceived chances of getting various outcomes as a result of performing at a level which would result in the benefits. • Individuals are motivated to the extent that they value the outcomes received. Only if the perceived value of the outcome is higher than the perceived value of the cost (or effort) will the effort be exerted. The model shows that someone who attaches much value to an outcome, for example, getting a high mark in an exam will be more motivated to put extra effort to perform well and to reach this outcome. represents an individual's belief that a particular degree of effort will be followed by a particular level of performance. The following factors influence an employee's expectancy perceptions: ‣ Self-esteem. ‣ Self-efficacy. ‣ Previous success at the task. ‣ Help received from a supervisor and subordinates. ‣ Information necessary to complete the task. ‣ Good materials and equipment to work with. An Expectancy: represents an individual's belief that a particular degree of effort will be followed by a particular level of performance. The following factors influence an employee's expectancy perceptions: ‣ Self-esteem. ‣ Self-efficacy. ‣ Previous success at the task. ‣ Help received from a supervisor and subordinates. ‣ Information necessary to complete the task. ‣ Good materials and equipment to work with. An Instrumentality: is a performance —> outcome perception. It represents a person's belief that a particular outcome depends on performing at a specific level. Performance is instrumental when it leads to something else. For example, passing exams is instrumental to graduating from university. Instrumentalities can either directly link task performance to outcome, or not link it at all. However, instrumentality seen in this perspective excludes everything else. Pay-for-performance, incentive pay or variable pay." Valence: refers to the positive or negative value people place on outcomes. Valence mirrors our personal preferences.' For example, most employees place a positive value (valence) on receiving additional money or recognition. In contrast, job stress and job loss would be likely to prove negatively valent for most individuals. The sum of the valences of all relevant outcomes has to be positive. This means that some valences may be negative, although the positive valences must outweigh the negative ones. A stressful job (with negative valence) may still be highly valued and motivate to work hard, because it provides high pay and a great deal of recognition (both are positive valences).

Stress Intervention

can focus on the individual, the organisation or on the interface between individual and organisation (e.g. through participation). There are many different individual stress-reduction techniques available. The most frequently used approaches are muscle relaxation, biofeedback, meditation and cognitive restructuring. Each method involves somewhat different ways of coping with stress. Most workplace stress initiatives focus on individual stress-management training and not on reducing the sources of organisational stress; for example, by redesigning tasks. Some techniques deal almost exclusive with the bodily (or 'somatic') aspects; others concentrate on cognitive restructuring, while a third group concentrates on coping behaviour.

Coping Strategies

characterised by the specific behaviours and cognitions used to cope with a situation. People use a combination of three approaches to cope with stressors and stress: • Control strategy: has a 'take-charge' tone. For example, so-called 'downshifting' where someone moves to a less stressful job, is a possible coping strategy to gain more flexibility in your life. • Escape strategy: amounts to the opposite of tackling the problem head on. Individual use this strategy when they passively accept stressful situations or avoid them by failing to confront the cause of stress (an obnoxious co-worker, for instance). • Symptom management strategy: uses methods such as relaxation, meditation, medication and exercise.

Noise

characterized by everything that distorts the message and the meaning of it while transferring.

Job Characteristics Method

claim that the motivation is the task itself. Variety, independence, and decision-making authority are aspects that describe the task. The more creative, the more autonomy, and the more decision making ability, the more motivated the employee will be. To increase motivation, managers must investigate 'job enrichment' or 'job redesign'... emotions are also a huge influence on motivation.

Communication: the input to perception

communication is a tool that helps us to obtain and transfer the information. It also allows us to exchange the data and use our perception... a perceptual process model of communication is a model that shows the real communication between the sender and the receiver, including misinterpretation.

Hans Selye

considered the father of the modern concept of stress, pioneered the distinction between stressors and the stress response and emphasised that both positive and negative events can trigger an identical stress response, which can be either beneficial or harmful. He referred to stress that is positive or produces a positive outcome as 'eustress'. For example, an employee who has to make a presentation to a large audience can feel extra pressure, but the fact that he or she likes to do presentations very much will make him or her experience the pressure in a positive way — as very motivating and challenging — rather than in a negative way. Selye also noted that: • Stress is not just nervous tension. • Stress can have positive consequences. • Stress is not something to be avoided. • The complete absence of stress is death. All learning implies at least a moderate amount of stress. Regular exposure to a manageable amount of stress keeps us fit; too little stress makes us bored. Thus, a moderate amount of stress seems to be beneficial whereas excessive stress proves to be very detrimental.

Communication levels

content level: what meaning is sent relationship level: how the information is sent

Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen

created a model that helps us to understand the attitude and behavior relationship. It can be observed that intention is affected by the attitude towards the behavior subjective norm and perceived behavioral control and lastly, intention influences behavior... intentions as the key link between attitudes and actual behaviour!!! • The subjective norm: refers to the perceived social pressure of whether or not to engage in the behaviour. Subjective norms can exert a powerful influence on the behavioural intentions of those who are sensitive to the opinions of respected role models. • The perceived behavioural control refers to the perceived ease or difficulty in performing the behaviour. It is assumed that the degree of perceived behavioural control reflects past experiences as well as anticipated impediments and obstacles (such as lacking the necessary resources, unavailable opportunities, etc.). Perceived behavioural control varies across situations and actions. The theory of planned behaviour is an extension of Fishbein and Ajzen's model of reasoned action, made necessary by the limitations of the original model in dealing with behaviours over which people have incomplete volitional control.

The Grapevine

defined as an unofficial communication system in an informal organization. There are various trends of the grapevine: -single strang: one person tells the other, that tells another, and so on -gossip: one tells everyone -probability: one tells another, that tells two more, that tells more - cluster: tell selected people

Media Richness

defined as how fast a response can be obtained, what types of communication there are, what are the language sources and other aspects. The richest means is face-to-face communication. It can be mean (static) or unpredictable.

Personality

defined as the combination of stable physical and mental characteristics that give the individual his or her identity. These characteristics include how one looks, thinks, acts, and feels, and are the product of interacting genetic and environmental influences.

emotional dissonance

defined as the conflict between felt (true) and displayed (required) emotions.

Need for affiliation

defined as the need to maintain social relationships. Managers are not successful if they spend too much time worrying about if people like them or not. The need for power is seen as the need to influence and have power over others. People whp have this need at a high level have strong self-control and self-discipline.

Richard Lazarus

defines emotions as 'complex, patterned, organismic reactions to how we think we are doing in our lifelong efforts to survive and flourish and to achieve what we wish for ourselves'." Lazarus's definition of emotions centers on a person's goals. Accordingly, his distinction between positive and negative emotions is goal-oriented. Lazarus calls negative emotions goal-incongruent.

Golem Effect

describes an activity when one destroys the relationship with another person by negatively expecting from the person different actions.

Emotional intelligence

describes the intelligence concept in a more detailed and deeper way than the modern intelligence measure (IQ). Daniel Goleman elaborated on the work of Thorndike in his book. It is the capability of one to manage the emotions in a mature and constructive way. Four components: - Self awareness - Self management - social awareness - relationship management

Attribution Model

designed to explain achievement behavior and to predict subsequent changes in motivation and performance. According to the model, the attribution process begins after an individual performs a task. A person's performance leads him or her to judge whether it was successful or unsuccessful. This evaluation then produces a casual analysis to determine if the performance was due to internal or external factors. The model indicates that ability and effort are the primary internal causes of performance and task difficulty. These attributions for success and failure then influence how individuals feel about themselves. High achievement motivates people to attribute their success to their own efforts and their failures to not trying hard enough. Those with a low need for achievement view effort as irrelevant. They attribute failure to other factors; in particular lack of ability, a condition that they believe is one of their general characteristics.

Rokeach Value Survey

developed a survey to measure instrumental and terminal values. Contains two sets of values (instrumental and terminal) each with 18 individual values. He distinguishes between two kinds of instrumental values and two kinds of terminal values. Terminal Values: can be divided into personal and social ones. This means that terminal values can be either self-center or interpersonal. Instrumental Values: can be divided into moral and competence values. Moral values refers to those kinds of instrumental values that have an interpersonal focus and that lead to feelings of guilt and wrongdoing when violated. Competence or self-actualization values refer to intrapersonal instrumental values, which lead to feelings of shame or inadequacy when violated.

Robert Karasek

developed and popularised the so-called 'job demand-control model' which emphasises the stress factors inherent in the work organisation, rather than the individual characteristics. Work stress becomes more likely when psychological demand is high and decision latitude is low. This means that high psychological demands or work pressure do not necessarily lead to work stress. The combination of high psychological demands and low autonomy to deal with these demands is more dangerous and can easily lead to depression, burnout and stress.

Human Relations Movement

during the 1930s, a combination of unique factors influenced this movement. First was the legalization of union-management collective bargaining in the USA in 1935. Second, behavioral scientists conducting on the jo research started calling for more attention to be paid to the human factor.

Dynamics of modern communication

effective communication is crucial in the modern world as it is important that we are understood. Therefore, there are several aspects that need to be considered.

Diversity Management

entails enabling people to perform up to their maximum potential. It focuses on changing an organisation's culture and infrastructure so that people provide the highest productivity possible. According to the UK's Institute for Personnel and Development, managing diversity and equal opportunities are not alternatives. They are interdependent.

Situational Factors

environmental characteristics that affect how people interpret stressors. For example, the ambiguity of a situation — such as walking down a dark street at night in an unfamiliar area — makes it difficult to determine whether a potentially dangerous situation exists. Ambiguity creates differences in how people appraise and subsequently cope with stressors. Other situational factors are the frequency of exposure to a stressor and social support networks.

Feedback

feedback serves two functions for those who receive it; one is instructional and the other motivational. Feedback instructs when it clarifies roles or teaches new behaviour. For example, an assistant accountant might be advised to handle a certain entry as a capital item rather than as an expense item. On the other hand, feedback motivates when it serves as a reward or promises a reward.

Covariation principle (2nd attributional theory)

for a cause to be the reason for the behavior, it must be present when it is active and it should not be present when it is not active. It is also characterized by distinctiveness information, which relates to how a person reacts to the same kind of information, that is, whether the behavior is the same at all time.

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and 'Flow'

has studied the optimal experience for more than 30 years... Csikszentmihalyi calls this optimal experience 'flow'. 'Flow is a subjective psychological state that occurs when one is totally involved in an activity and feels simultaneously cognitively efficient, motivated and happy. It is the state in which people are so involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matter. Flow is essentially a high level of concentration. The first step — being calm enough to start the activity — requires some discipline (think, for instance, about a top tennis player who has to play an important match or a professional who has to give an important presentation to the board of directors). Once the activity starts, attention tends to be focused and seems to take on a life of its own. • There are clear goals every step of the way. • There is immediate feedback to one's actions. • There is a balance between challenges and skills. • Action and awareness merge. • Distractions are excluded from consciousness. • There is no worry of failure. • Self-consciousness disappears. • The sense of time becomes distorted. • The activity becomes an end in itself.

Chester Bernard

he found that precious organization theories had underestimated the variability of individual behavior and its effects on organizational effectiveness. He published The Functions of an Executive. Barnard believes that humans have individual behavior and the power of choice, but their freedom is bounded by two kinds of factors: biological and physical. He believes that every organization consists of smaller, less formal groups with their own goals. Managers do not only to pull the formal organization but have to manage also the informal aspects of organization.

Chester Bernard

Herzberg's Motivator-Hygiene Theory

he investigated aspects that affect job dissatisfaction and satisfaction. In conclusion, job satisfaction was linked with recognition, accomplishment, and responsibility. ( these factors are motivators) they are the intrinsic aspects of work. Examples include achievement, recognition, characteristics of the work, responsibility and advancement. Job dissatisfaction was connected with external factors, such as conditions and supervision. These are called hygiene factors. They are extrinsic factors. Examples include company policy and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relations with one's supervisor and working conditions were most frequently mentioned by employees expressing job dissatisfaction. Satisfaction is not directly opposite to dissatisfaction. It is a continuum.

Pygmalion effect

high supervisory expectation produces better leadership (link 1), which subsequently leads employees to develop high self-expectations (link 2). Higher expectations motivate workers to exert more effort (link 3), ultimately increasing performance (link 4) and supervisory expectations (link 5). Successful performance also improves an employee's self-expectancy for achievement (link 6).

Internal Locus of Control

individuals vary in terms of how much personal responsibility they take for their behavior and its consequences... this idea helps explain these differences, in the sense that people tend to attribute the causes of their behavior primarily either to themselves or to the environmental factors. A person who possesses an internal locus of control sees themselves as an active agent. They trust in their capacity to influence the environment and assume that they can control events in their lives by effort and skill. It leads to success... a person who possesses...Internals pay more attention to information that is relevant for attaining their goals and they recognize the relevance of information for goal attainment more quickly than do externals.

Positive affectivity

optimists... some studies show that there is a positive relationship between optimism and performance.

Motivating potential score (MPS)

is a summary index created by Hackman and Oldham that represents the extent to which the job characteristics foster internal work motivation. Low scores indicate that an individual will not experience high internal work motivation from the job. Such a job is a prime candidate for job redesign. High scores reveal that the job is capable of stimulating internal motivation... people score well on this test when they have: • The knowledge and skills necessary to do the job. • High growth needs. • An overall satisfaction with various aspects of the work context, such as pay and co-workers.

Climate

is about a situation and the feelings, reflections and behaviour of people in the organisation. In this sense climate is changing fairly rapidly over time, it depends on the observer and it can be shaped by individuals.

Management by objectives:

is an approach that incorporates participation in decision-making, goal setting and objective feedback.' A meta-analysis of MBO programmes showed productivity gains in 68 out of 70 different organisations.

Functional social support

is narrower and, if relied on in the wrong situation, can be unhelpful. After social support is engaged for one or both of these purposes, its effectiveness can be determined. If consolation or relief is not experienced, it may be that the type of support was inappropriate.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

is that people's expectations or beliefs determine their behavior and performance, thus serving to make their expectations come true. It is also called the Galatea effect and it suggests we strive to validate our perceptions of reality. Negative expectations lead to poor outcomes (known as the Golem effect).

Goal Commitment

is the extent to which an individual is personally committed to achieving a goal. Goal commitment implies both the strength of one's intention to reach a goal and the unwillingness to abandon or lower a goal over time. Difficult goals lead to higher performance only when employees are committed to their goals. Conversely, difficult goals are hypothesised to lead to lower performance when people are not committed to their goals.

Skills

is the specific capacity to manipulate objects physically.

Global social support

is very broad in scope, coming as it does from four sources, and is applicable to any situation at any time.

Organizational behavior

issues related to it are becoming more challenging as the activities of organizations become increasingly global in reach, either because outsourcing and specialization of organizations become increasingly global in reach, or because organizations seek to pursue opportunities wherever they may arise. OB is associated with the behavior of individuals and groups in the organization, sometimes also called a micro perspective.

Choosing media

it is a contingency perspective. Media needs to be chosen according to its richness (capacity of carrying information) and complexity of situations and issues.

Attributions

may be defined as evaluations that may be a base for an explanation of why people behave in a certain way. There are different aspects of attributions. - Internal factors: caused inside the person - External factors: caused outsie the person Internal and external are within the locus of casualty and controllable and uncontrollable are also there.

Social Support

measured in terms of both the quantity and quality of an individual's social relationships. A support network must be seen to exist by the person needing support before it can be used. Support networks evolve from any or all of five sources: cultural norms, social institutions, companies, groups or individuals. In turn, these various sources provide four types of support: • Esteem support: providing information that a person is accepted and respected despite any problems or inadequacies. • Informational support: providing help in defining, understanding and coping with problems. • Social companionship: spending time with others in leisure and recreational activities. • Instrumental support: providing financial aid, material resources or necessary services.'

Hermon Simon

much broader than Taylor and Fayol, but still a rational system. He tried to apply principles of hard sciences to social sciences, in particular to administrative and decision making processes. His famous work Administrative Behavior describes the behavior of managers and the processes of decision-making by managers and individuals in organization. Three ways in which you can motivate employees: 1) Loyalty of the employee to the organization because the employee identifies him or herself with the organization. 2) Training can help to teach the employee to work according to the organization's goals. 3) Coercion, further divided into authority, advisory, and information.

Herbert Simon

Implicit personality theories

network of assumptions that we hold about relationships among various types of people, traits, and behaviors. Knowing that someone has one trait leads us to infer that they have other traits as well.

Behavior and attitude

no link

Kirton's Adaptation-Innovation Model

observed that people characteristically produce qualitatively different solutions to seemingly similar problems. Some people technically adapt, while others typically innovate when searching for a solution. He developed a cognitive style model that situates these two styles on a continuum, with the ends labelled adaptive and innovative. Knowledge of each other's style may lead to mutual appreciation and cooperation between people with differing cognitive styles. Adaptor: ‣ General Characteristics: • Characterized by precision, reliability, efficiency, prudence, discipline, conformity • Seen as sound, conforming, safe, dependable and seems impervious to boredom, seems able to maintain high accuracy in long spells of detailed work • Is an authority In within given structures • Challenged rules rarely, cautiously, when assured of strong support ‣ Problem definition: • Tends to accept the problems as defined and generates novel, creative ideas aimed at doing things better. • Immediate high efficiency is the keynote of high adaptors ‣ Solution generation: • Generates a few well-chosen and relevant solutions that the adaptor generally finds sufficient, but which sometimes fails to contain ideas needed to break the existing pattern completely. ‣ Organizational 'fit': • Essential to the ongoing functions, but in times of unexpected changes may have some difficulty moving out of his or her established role. Innovator: ‣ General Characteristics: undisciplined, thinking, tangentially, approaching tasks from unsuspected angle. Seen as unsound, impractical, often shocks his or her opposite. Capable of detailed routine work for only short tie. Tends to take control in unstructured situations. Often challenges rules, has little respect for past custom. ‣ For problem definition: tends to redefine generally agreed problems, breaking previous perceived restraints, generating solutions aimed at doing things differently ‣ For solution generation: produces numerous ideas, many of which may not be obvious or acceptable to others. Such a pool often contains ideas, if they can be identified, that may crack hitherto intractable problems. ‣ For organizations fit: essential in times of change or crisis, but may have trouble applying him or herself to ongoing organization demands.

Confirmation Bias

people have the tendency to seek and interpret information that verifies existing beliefs.

Attributional Bias: Actor-observed effect

people make different attributions of themselves when comparing to observer attributions

Personal Factors

personality traits and personal resources that affect the appraisal of stressors. For instance, because being tired or sick can distort the interpretation of stressors, an extremely tired individual may appraise an innocent question as a threat or challenge. Traits such as locus of control, self-esteem, optimism, self-efficacy and work experience were also found to affect the appraisal of stressors.

Maslows Need Pyramid

proposes that human needs can be described in a hierarchical order, starting from the most important to the least. 1. self actualisation: truth, just, wisdom, and others... the desire to reach one's full potential 2. esteem needs: can be groups into two types - internal such as power, achievement, freedom - external such as reputation and recognition 3. love needs: raise a family, find friends, participate in groups, find belongingness 4. safety needs: live in safe neighborhood, keep healthy... the general feeling of safety and security in ones job, relationships, health, and life. 5. physiological needs: the basic needs to sustain life hunger, sleep, etc.

Perceived Target (first influence on perception)

refers to what draws our attention and to the characteristics of the target. Firstly, we spot the appearance. Moreover, objects are perceived as a whole, not each one separately. All dots together represent a circle and we not perceive them as separate dots.

Feedack

refers to what is the receiver's answer to the message

Mary Parker Follet

reacting to the lack of attention for the human side in scientific management. She stressed the importance of human relations. Improving the relationship between management and employees. Parker Follet was in favor of participatory decision making and decentralized power. Her view on management was the interaction of the individual and the organization. Her concepts included: • Dynamism: an organization is a complex system of dynamic social relations. People influence and react to each other. • Empowerment: according to Mary Parker Follett, there are two types of power: Power over is coercive power and power-with is co-active, joint developed power. Power is a self-developed capacity. • Participation: coordination fo the contributions of each individual to become a working unit • Leadership: leader is not commander but is someone who communicates and shares the vision of the organization • Conflict: conflict is neither good nor bad. It shows the differences between people. • Experience: her ideas are based on interviewing business people

Terminal Values

refer to desirable goals that a person wants to reach during his or her life

Instrumental values

refer to desirable way or modes of conduct to reach some kind of desirable goal

Communication distortion

referred to as a purposive alternation of the information to reduce the clarity of the message. Often managers change the content of the message in order to have a bigger power over the employees.

Style

refers to a pattern or preferred way of doing something.

Goal Conflict

refers to degree to which people feel that multiple goals are incompatible.' An externally imposed goal may be in conflict with a personal goal. Goal conflict may occur when people have to achieve multiple outcomes when performing a single task, like meeting a quantity quota and not making mistakes. In this case a tradeoff between performance quality and quantity occurs: people make a lot of things with many mistakes (quantity at the expense of quality) or they make few things with no mistakes (quality at the expense of quantity). A third type of goal conflict occurs when several tasks or goals have to be accomplished (for instance, selling two different products, given a limited amount of time). In this case, people handle the conflict by prioritising one task at the expense of the other

cognitive dissonance

refers to situations in which values are contradicting each other.

Decoding

refers to the ability to encode the message, namely interpret. It is a key aspect why most of the messages are misinterpreted.

Affect

refers to the broad range of feelings people experience, covering both emotions and moods.

Emotional Labor

refers to the effort, planning and control needed to express organisationally desired emotions during interpersonal interactions.' Emotional labour, for instance, implies expressing positive emotions, handling negative emotions, being sensitive to the emotions of clients and showing empathy. Emotional labour can be particularly detrimental to the employee performing the labour and can take its toll both psychologically and physically. Employees . . . may bottle up feelings of frustration, resentment and anger; which are not appropriate to express. These feelings result, in part, from the constant requirement to monitor one's negative emotions and express positive ones. If not given a healthy expressive outlet, this emotional repression can lead to a syndrome of emotional exhaustion and burnout."

Setting (second influence on perception)

refers to the environment where the perceiver interacts with the target. - Contrast effect: can illustrate how a setting changes the perception. - Culture: different countries have different cultures - Primacy effect: states that the first impression is the most important - Cognitive bias/anchoring: related to primacy effect.

Attributional Bias: Fundamental Attribution Error

refers to the fact that desirable actions and behaviors are attributed to internal factors when it is made by in-group members and to external causes for out-group members. In the case of undesirable actions and behavior, the attribution error is reversed. These are attributed to external factors when it is made by in-group members and to internal factors or out-group members.

Cognitive appraisal

reflects an individual's overall perception or evaluation of a situation or stressor. Cognitive appraisal results in a categorisation of the situation or stressor as either harmful, threatening or challenging. It is important to understand the differences between these appraisals because they influence how people cope. 'Harm (including loss) represents damage already done; threat involves the potential for harm; and challenge means the potential for significant gain under difficult odds. Coping with harm usually entails undoing or reinterpreting something that occurred in the past because the damage is already done. In contrast, threatening situations engage anticipatory coping. -harmful -threatening -challenging

Goal Difficulty

reflects the amount of effort required to meet a goal. Research also found the same inverted-U relationship between goal difficulty and selling effort for US salespeople. Salespeople were less inclined to increase selling effort when the goals set by their sales managers were either easy or extremely difficult than when the goals were moderately difficult.' Specific, difficult goals lead to higher performance for simple rather than complex tasks.

Perceiver (third influence on perception)

relates to the characteristics of the one who perceives the information. Such characteristics may be personality, gender, mood, and experience. Moreover, we can perceive people based on implicit personality theory.

Intelligence

represents an individual's capacity for constructive thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving. A similar debate as in personality research can be found in the history of intelligence research: nature vs. nurture; genes or environment. Originally, intelligence was seen as being an innate capacity, only passed genetically. Research has shown, however, that intelligence is also a function of environmental influences.

Moods

simply expressing feelings that are not addressed to someone

Contingency Approach

some managers are encouraged to use this approach by picking a method that seems best suited to the individual and situation at hand. For example, employees' preferences for participation should be considered. Some employees desire to participate in the process of setting goals, but others do not. Employees are also more likely to respond positively to the opportunity to participate in goal setting when they have greater task information, higher levels of experience and training, and greater levels of task involvement. A participative approach may also help reducing employees' resistance to goal setting. Because of individual differences, it may be necessary to establish different goals for employees performing the same job.

attitude theory

states behaviour will be based on three attitude components: - Affective - Cognitive - Behvioural

Communication competence:

the ability of one to communicate appropriately. There are three components of communication: abilities/traits, situational factors, and how the individual is involved in the communication. They are characterized by the company in which the communication occurs, the location, the policies, and the climate of the organization. Individual involvement is defined as the relationship with another person.

Self Concept

the concept the individual has of themselves as a physical, social, and spiritual or moral being.

Integration of need theories

the criticism about motivation theories is that they do not explain any processes of motivation. Thus, it is crucial to know how people seek the motivation. However, still some conclusions can be made: - people search for security - people search for social systems to belong somewhere - people search for self-development Other conclusions of needs theories: - human needs function in a flexible hierarchy or continuum - motivation and satisfaction are not equal - american scholar theories may possess bias

Self-monitoring

the extent to which people observe their own self-expressive behavior and adapt it to the demands of the situation. It refers to people's ability to adapt their behavior to external factors. There is a positive relationship between high self-monitoring and career success and they have a better record of acquiring a mentor.

Henry Murray

the first psychologist who stated that needs are the main aspect of motivation behavior. From his work, many other theories developed.

Strategic and assymetric information

there are two concepts off information economics - adverse selection (hidden information) and moral hazard (hidden action)

Expectancy Theory

the idea that people's actions are driven by expected consequences. Perception plays a central role in expectancy theory because it emphasises the cognitive ability to anticipate likely consequences of behaviour. One component of expectancy theory is the principle of hedonism. Hedonistic people strive to maximise their pleasure and minimise their pain. Generally, expectancy theory can be used to predict behaviour in any situation in which a choice between two or more alternatives must be made. Victor Vroom's expectancy theory and Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler's extension of Vroom's theory

Frustration induced behavior

the opposite of constructive behavior; pain and depression.

Social cognition

the study of perceptions

Emotional contagion

the tendency to automatically mimic and synchronise facial expressions, vocalisations, postures and movements with those of another person and, consequently, to converge emotionally'. It seems that we, through the unconscious imitation of the facial expressions, gestures and other non-verbal signals of other people, internally also recreate the feelings they express. The person who expresses his or her emotion the strongest influences the emotions of the other(s) in the interaction.

Cognitive Styles

the way an individual perceives environmental stimuli, and organizes and uses information. There are two widely studied cognitive style theories: - Kirton's adaption-innovation model - Riding's cognitive styles model

Job Enrichment

the way of changing the working conditions so that the employee obtains recognition, accomplishment, responsibility, and self-development. It is described as vertical loading, which is giving the worker additional tasks with higher responsibility.

Job Characteristics and Design of Work

this rose to counter Taylor's ideas, which were criticized for being inhumane to workers and having standardized tasks... this was created by J. Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham. They state that internal motivation emerges when one experiences positive feelings while working rather than focusing on external factors.

Attributional Bias: Defensive attribution

to blame victims for their own bad luck

Attributional Bias: Self-Serving Bias

to relate one's positive results to internal factors such as effort and intelligence, but blame negative results on external factors.

Content Approaches

try to explain the things that actually motivate people in their job. These theories emphasise the goals to which people aspire and focus on the factors within a person that direct, energise or stop behaviour. Consequently, content theories want to identify people's needs, and the goals they want to attain in order to satisfy these needs. Content theories emphasise what motivates people.... BASICALLY WHAT MOTIVATES PEOPLE TO WORK AND PERFORM

TAT (thematic apprecation test)

used to examine people's motivations to please certain needs. It asks to describe various pictures and based on the description, the person is evaluated on achievement, power, and affiliation dimensions.

Moderators

variables that cause the relationship between stressors, perceived stress and outcomes to be weaker for some people and stronger for others. Managers with a working knowledge of important stress moderators can confront employee stress in the following ways: • Awareness of moderators helps identify those most likely to experience stress and its negative outcomes. Then stress-reduction programmes can be formulated for high-risk employees. • Moderators, in and of themselves, suggest possible solutions for reducing the negative outcomes of occupational stress.

Constructive behavior

when a person cannot achieve his goals, they can deal with it head on. It can be categorized by two types: - problem solving behavior: elimination of barriers that block the goal - restructuring behavior: using lower or another goal to replace the original goal.

Attributional Bias: Fundamental error

when someone is succeeding, refer to external cause, when the person is failing they believe it is an internal cause.

Douglas McGregor

wrote a book called The Human Side of Enterprise which has come and important philosophical base for the modern view of people at work. He formulated two sharply contrasting sets of assumptions about human nature. His Theory X assumptions were pessimistic and negatives and typical of how managers traditionally perceived employees. He then formulated Theory Y, a modern and positive set of assumptions about people. He believes managers should view employees as self-energized, committed, responsible, and creative beings..

Organizations can build self-esteem in four ways

• Be supportive by showing concern for personal problems, interests, status, and contributions. • Offer work involving variety, autonomy, challenges that suit the employee's values, skills, and abilities. • Strive for supervisor-employee cohesiveness and build trust. Trust, an important teamwork element, is discussed. • Have faith in each employee's self-management ability. Reward each success.

The principles for attaining higher motivating potential MPS (motivating potential scores) scores or for enriching jobs involve:

• Combining tasks. Give employees more than one part of the work in order to increase skill variety and task identity. • Forming natural work units in order to increase task identity and task significance. • Establishing client relationships in order to increase skill variety, autonomy and feedback. • Implementing Herzberg's vertical loading principles (see above) in order to increase autonomy. • Opening feedback channels in order to increase feedback.'

Factors suitable for assessing climate and for taking action to change the climate

• Communication: how often and the types of means by which information is communicated in the organisation. • Values: the guiding principles of the organisation and whether or not they are held by all employees, including leaders. • Expectations: types of expectations regarding how managers and employees behave and make decisions. • Norms: the normal, routine ways of behaving and treating one another in the organisation. • Policies and rules: these convey the degree of flexibility and restriction of behaviours in the organisation. • Programmes: programming and formal initiatives help support and emphasise a workplace climate. • Leadership: leaders that consistently support the climate desired.

Learners need four kinds of abilities

• Concrete experience: the ability to involve yourself fully, openly and without bias in new experiences. • Reflective observation: the ability to observe and reflect upon these experiences from many perspectives. • Abstract conceptualization: the ability to create concepts that integrate these observations in logically soon theories. • Active experimentation: the ability to use these theories to make decisions and solve problems.

Perceptual groupings

• Continuity: is the tendency to perceive objects as continuous patterns. This principle, however, can have negative effects. An inflexible manager may demand that his employees follow strict procedures when doing their jobs, even though random activity may solve problems more imaginatively. • Closure: is the tendency to perceive objects as a contestant form. The dots looking like a circle illustrate this organization principle. Closure applies when we tend to see complete shapes even when a part of the information is missing. As a result, vital decisions are often taken on the basis of incomplete information. • Proximity: is the organization principle in which elements are grouped together on the basis of their nearness. People working in a department are often seen as a unit. When several people leave the department, however, for different unrelated reasons, the HR department may still perceive that there is a problem in that department and try to determine what it is. • Similarity: is the tendency to group objects, people, and events that look alike. In some organizations each department has its own color to visually define separate functions.

Learning styles

• Diverger: prefer to perceive information concretely and process it reflectively. They learn by concrete information that is given to them by their sense and by watching. They like sharing ideas, working in groups, brainstorming, and reflecting on consequences of ideas. Their greatest strength lies in their imaginative abilities. They can easily look at concrete situation and ideas from many perspectives. A potential weakness of people with this style is that they can sometimes be hindered by too many alternatives and become indecisive. DIvergers are interested and concerned with people • Assimilators: prefer to switch between reflection and conceptualization and use inductive reasoning to develop ew theory. They learn by watching and thinking. They value stability, order, accuracy, export opinions, detailed information, and certainty. They prefer to work aline. Their greatest strengths lie in the ability to create new theories. A weakness is that they can be impractical and too cautious. They are concerned with abstract concepts. Theory must be logical and concise. • Convergers: prefer to apply ideas, which means taking an idea and testing it out in practice. They learn by doing and thinking. These learners value practicality, productivity, efficiency, and punctuality. Convergers do not like ambiguity, working in groups, and wasting time. Their greatest strength is the practical application of ideas. A potential weakness is that they sometimes may act too quickly without having enough data or missing important implications. Convergers ten to be rather unemotional and impersonal and prefer to work with things rather than people. They do best in situations where they have to find a single correct answer or solution. • Accommodators: prefer concrete experiences and active experimentation. They learn by concrete information from their sense and doing. They like to learn from talking with others and they also like to influence others. Accommodators do not like strict timetables, too many procedures and rules, and too much structure. They tend to be more risk-takers than the other three styles. The greatest strength of accommodators lies in doing things, in experimenting, and carrying out plans. A potential weakness is that their plans may sometimes be impractical and they also do not complete work on time. Accommodators tend to be at ease with people, but they are sometimes seen as being impatient or pushy. They are good at adapting themselves to different circumstances and are good at applying knowledge in new situations.

14 general management principles

• Division of labour • Authority and responsibility • Discipline • Unity of command • Unity of direction • Subordination of individual interest to the general interest • Fair remuneration of personnel • Centralization • Hierarchy • Order • Equity • Stability of tenure of personnel • Initiative by every employee • Unity among the employees

Goal commitment may be increased by using one or more of the following techniques:

• Explain why the organisation is implementing a goal-setting programme. • Present the corporate goals and explain how and why an individual's personal goals support them. • Have employees establish their own goals and action plans. Encourage them to set challenging, stretching goals. Goals should not be impossible. • Train managers in how to conduct participative goal-setting sessions. Train employees in how to develop effective action plans. • Be supportive. Do not use goals to threaten employees. • Set goals that are under the employees' control and then provide them with the necessary resources. • Provide monetary incentives or other rewards for accomplishing goals.

Big 5 Personality Traits

• Extroversion: refers to people's comfort level with relationships. ◦ High scorers: outgoing, enthusiastic and active; seek novelty and excitement ◦ Low scorers: allow, quiet, and independent; cautious and enjoy time alone • Emotional stability:refers to the extent people can cope with stress situations and experience positive emotional states. ◦ High scorers: prone to stress, worry, and negative emotions ◦ Low scorers: emotionally stable but can take unnecessary risks. • Conscientiousness: refers to the extent that people are organized, careful, responsible, dependable, and self-disciplined. Has the strongest correlation with job performance and training performance. ◦ High scorers: organized, self-directed, and successful, but controlling ◦ Low scorers: spontaneous, careless, can be prone to addiction • Agreeableness: refers to people's ability to get along with others. ◦ High scorers: Trusting, empathetic, and compliant, slow to anger. ◦ Low scorers: uncooperative and hostile, find it hard to empathize with others. • Openness: refers to the extent people are open to new experiences and have a broad interest and fascination with novelty. ◦ High scorers: creative, imaginative, eccentric, and open to new experiences ◦ Low scorers: practical, conventional, skeptical, and rational.

3 Perspectives to evaluate research methods:

• Generalizability • Precision in control and measurement • Realism of the context

3 Perspectives to evaluate research methods:

• Generalizability • Precision in control and measurement • Realism of the context • Indirect

Barriers to Diversity Management

• Inaccurate stereotypes and prejudice: This barrier manifests itself in the belief that differences are viewed as weaknesses. In turn, this promotes the view that diversity hiring will mean sacrificing competence and quality • Ethnocentrism: The ethnocentrism barrier represents the feeling that one's cultural rules and norms are superior or more appropriate than the rules and norms of another culture • Pool career planning: this barrier is associated with the lack of opportunities for diverse employees to get the type of work assignments that qualify them for senior management positions • Unsupportive and hostile working environment for diverse employees: Diverse employees are frequently excluded from social events and the friendly camaraderie that takes place in most offices. • Lack of political knowledge on the part of diverse employees: Diverse employees may not get promoted because they do not know how to 'play the game' of getting along and getting ahead in an organisation • Difficulty in balancing family and career: Women still assume the majority of the responsibilities associated with raising children. This makes it harder for women to work evenings and weekends or to frequently travel once they have children • Fears of reverse discrimination: Some employees believe that managing diversity is a smokescreen for reverse discrimination. This belief leads to very strong resistance because people feel that one person's gain is another's loss • Diversity is not seen as an organizational priority: This leads to subtle resistance that shows up in the form of complaints and negative attitudes. Employees may complain about the time, energy and resources devoted to diversity that could have been spent doing 'real work' • The need to revamp the organization's performance appraisal reward system: Performance appraisals and reward systems must reinforce the need to effectively manage diversity. This means that success will be based on a new set of criteria. Employees are likely to resist changes that adversely affect their promotions and financial rewards • Resistance to change: Effectively managing diversity entails significant organisational and personal change. People resist change for many different reasons.

Actions to adress diversity

• Include/exclude. This choice is an extension of affirmative action programmes. Its primary goal is to either increase or decrease the number of diverse people at all levels of the organisations. • Deny. People using this option deny that differences exist. Denial may manifest itself in proclamations that all decisions are colour-, gender- and age-blind and that success is solely determined by merit and performance. This may be combined with actions showing that this indeed the case. • Assimilate. The basic premise behind this alternative is that all diverse people will learn to fit in or become like the dominant group. It only takes time and reinforcement for people to see the light. Organisations initially assimilate employees through their recruitment practices and the use of company-orientation programmes. New employees generally are put through orientation programmes that aim to provide them with the organisation's preferred values and a set of standard operating procedures. • Suppress. Differences are quashed or discouraged by telling or reinforcing others to stop complaining about issues. • Isolate. This option maintains the current way of doing things by setting the diverse person off to the side. In this way the individual is unable to influence organisational change. Employers can isolate people by putting them on special projects. • Tolerate. Toleration entails acknowledging differences but not valuing or accepting them. It represents a live-and-let-live approach that superficially allows organisations to pay lip service to the issue of managing diversity. Toleration is different from isolation in that it allows for the inclusion of diverse people. However, differences are not valued or accepted when an organisation uses this option. • Build relationships. This approach is based on the premise that good relationships can overcome differences. It addresses diversity by fostering quality relationships - characterised by acceptance and understanding - among diverse groups. • Foster mutual adaptation. In this option, people recognise and accept differences, and most importantly, agree that everyone and everything is open for change. Mutual adaptation allows the greatest accommodation of diversity because it allows for change even when diversity is being effectively managed. Areas such as flexible working to accommodate different religious holidays, traditional ways of dressing and accommodating other religious needs fall into this category.

Effects of Rewards

• Increases effort • Rewards send signals to employees about what is important to the organization • Increases performance

Five competences in which the effective use of the emotions of other people is essential:'

• Influencing: The effective use of influencing tactics is based on inducing certain feelings in other people — for instance, enthusiasm for a project or the passion to outdo a competitor. • Communication: Sending dear and convincing messages starts with the ability to know what others feel about something, how they will react and adapting your message accordingly • Conflict management: Negotiating and solving conflicts is to a large extent a process of emotional influencing rather than a pure rational process. • Leadership: Inspiring and coaching employees is based on the effective communication of feelings in a two-way direction • Change management: The effective communication and implementation of change processes requires a high level of emotional appeal and influence to break down people's resistance.

3 Ways in Which Organizations Can Put Relevant Research to Use:

• Instrumental use: this involves directly applying research findings to practical problems. For example, a manager experiencing staff motivation problems tries to alternate approaches, such as goal-setting • Conceptual Use: research is put to conceptual use when professionals derive general enlightenment from its findings. The effect here is less specific and more indirect than with instrumental use. For example, after reading a meta-analysis showing a negative correlation between absenteeism and age, a manager might develop a more positive attitude towards hiring older people. • Symbolic Use: symbolic use occurs when research results are relied on to verify or legitimize stances that are already held. Negative forms of symbolic use involve self-serving bias, prejudice, selective perception, and distortion.

7 People Centered Practices in Successful Companies:

• Job security (to eliminate fear of losing a job) • Careful hiring (emphasizing a good fit with he company culture) • Generous pay for performance • Lots of training • Less emphasis on status (to build a 'we' feeling) • Trust-building (through the sharing of critical information)

Management of diversity affects organisational behaviour and effectiveness in a number of areas:

• Lower costs and improved employee attitudes. Turnover and absenteeism were found to be higher for women and ethnic minorities than for whites.' Diversity is also related to employee attitudes. Past research revealed that people who were different from most others in their work units in racial or ethnic background were less psychologically committed to their organisations, less satisfied with their careers and perceived less autonomy to make decisions on their jobs. Improved recruiting efforts. Attracting and retaining competent employees is a competitive advantage. Organisations that effectively manage diversity are more likely to meet this challenge, because women and minorities are attracted to such companies. • Increased sales, market share and corporate profits. Workforce diversity is the mirror image of consumer diversity. It is thus important for companies to market their products so that they appeal to diverse customers and markets. For example, a study of over 1000 companies suggested that a diverse top management team can contribute to corporate profits. With a majority of women in senior management sales growth averaged 22.9 per cent. With ethnic minorities in senior management, sales grew 20.2 per cent, whereas an all-white male senior team managed only 13 per cent.' One reason for this may be that diversity promotes the sharing of unique ideas and a variety of perspectives, which in turn, leads to more effective decision-making.' • Increased creativity and innovation. Preliminary research supports the idea that workforce diversity promotes creativity and innovation through sharing of diverse ideas and perspectives. Innovative companies deliberately used heterogeneous teams to solve problems, and they employed more women and ethnic minorities than less innovative companies. Innovative companies also did a better job of eliminating racism, sexism and class distinction. A recent summary of 40 years of diversity research supported the conclusion that diversity can promote creativity and improve a team's decision-making. • Increased group problem-solving and productivity. Because diverse groups possess a broader base of experience and perspectives from which to analyse a problem, they can potentially improve problem-solving and performance.

5 Categories of Hard Evidence

• Meta-analysis: a statistical pooling technique that permits behavioral scientists to draw general conclusions about certain variables from many different studies. It typically encompasses a vast number of subjects. They focus on general patterns of research evidence, not fragmented bits and pieces or isolated studies. • Laboratory study: variables are manipulated and measured in contrived situations. University students are commonly used as subjects. The highly controlled nature of laboratory studies enhances precision. • Sample survey: samples of people from specified populations respond to questionnaires. Researchers draw conclusions about the relevant population. • Case study: in-depth analysis of a single individual, group, or organization. Because of their limited scope, case studies yield realistic, but not very generalizable results.

Organizational metaphors

• Organizations as organisms: compares organizations with the human body. Human beings need resources to survive. In bio, the survival of beings through evolution and competition is an important topic, so the organism metaphor considers that organizations must try to adapt to their environment to survive. Organizations are open systems that transfer inputs into various outputs. The outer boundary of the organization is permeable and people, info, capital, goods, and services move back and fourth. Adaptation is key - principles of open systems, change, and life cycles fit within this view. These organizations thrive on change. • Organizations as political systems: this is a model of competition. Organizations have scarce resources and everyone in the organization takes part in the competition for these. Each employee in the OG has his or her own goals, which often don't match those of the organization. It parallels the conflict view of organizations. Politicking is actually the unjustified use of power. Central values include: power, conflict, coalitions, competition, and influence. Power can originate eom formal positions (authority), expertise (the possession of unique knowledge), leadership, a position of control, having valuable information about the organization (knowing how things work around here), dependency (hold-up positions) or from a powerful personality. Interest groups and pressure groups arise. • Organizations as cultures: we emphasize the development of norms, language, shared values, and mental models among people during their intersections. Organizations are social groups that interact, build intersubjectively shared meanings, and reinforce this meaning and interpretations through further cooperation and interacting. Important in this view is the fact that the members of the organization construct their subjective reality. • Organizations as psychic prisons: people can become trapped in the organization as in a kind of psychic prison metaphor. We spend a lot of our time working in organizations and our thinking can be dominated by that organization, its rules, and way of working. Our identification with the organization can become so great that it starts to control us mentally. People construct organizations based on our own beliefs shaped partly by their own personality, while the constructed organization in turn shapes their beliefs and personality. • Organizations as flux and transformation: views organizations as being in a continuous change process. Morgan compares the organization with all other aspects of our universe that are in constant evolution. The organization is permanent in the sense that it can exist for a long time, but it is constantly changing inside. There are three images of change to explain this underlying logic: ◦ Logic of self-producing systems or autopoiesis systems. Such systems are closed and autonomously self-renewing. ◦ Logic of mutual casualty. Negative feedback loops prevent change and create stability, while positive feedback loops result in exponential change. The organization consists of numerous feedback loops based on casual relationships between its elements. ◦ Logic of dialectical change. All phenomena have their opposites. One cannot exist without the other, meaning that there is no use talking about wrong when there is no right. The same logic counts in organizations. An organization exists because of its opposite, disorder. • Organizations as instruments of domination: organizations are able to create many good things for the world but can also be very destructive for humans and the environment. Think of environmental pollution, social disasters, etc. Organizations use their dominance to gain benefits at the expense of others.

Pay should not be linked to goal achievement unless the following conditions are satisfied:

• Performance goals are under the employees' control. • Goals are quantitative and measurable. • Frequent, relatively large payments are made for performance achievement.'

three general criteria for the distribution of rewards:

• Performance in terms of results. Tangible outcomes such as individual, group or organisation performance; quantity and quality of performance. • Performance in terms of actions and behaviours. For example, teamwork, co-operation, risk taking, creativity. • Non- performance considerations. Customary or contractual, where the type of job, nature of the work, equity, tenure, level in the hierarchy, and so on are rewarded.'

Sources of self-efficacy

• Prior experience • Behavior models • Persuasion from others • Assessment of physical/emotional state

Employers can create positive performance expectations by doing the following:

• Recognize that everyone has the potential to increase his or her performance • Instil confidence in your staff • Set high performance goals • Positively reinforce employees for a job well done • Provide constructive feedback when necessary • Help employees grow through the organization • Introduce new employees as if they have outstanding potential • Become aware of your personal prejudices and any non-verbal messages that may discourage others. • Encourage employees to visualize the successful execution of tasks • Help employees master key skills and tasks.

Application of self-efficacy

• Recruiting/selection/job assignments: interview questions can be designed to probe job applicants' general self-efficacy as a basis for determining orientation and training needs. • Job design: complex, challenging, and autonomous jobs tend to enhance perceived self-efficacy. Boring, tedious jobs usually do the opposite. • Training and development: employees' self-efficacy expectations for key tasks can be improved through guided experiences, mentoring, and role modeling. • Self management: systematic self-management training involves enhancement of self-efficacy expectation. • Goal setting and quality improvement: goal difficulty needs to match the individual's perceived self-efficacy. As self-efficacy and performance improve, goals and quality standards can be made more challenging. • Coaching: those with low self-efficacy, and employees victimized by learned helplessness, need lots of constructive pointers and positive feedback. • Leadership: the necessary leadership talent surfaces when top management gives high self-efficacy professionals a change to prove themselves under pressure. • Rewards: small successes need to be rewarded as stepping-stones to a stronger self-image and greater achievements.

Tips that can help managers to build credible and effective feedback systems:

• Relate feedback to existing performance goals and clear expectations. • Give specific and concrete feedback tied to observable behaviour or measurable results. Focus on specific behaviours. Feedback needs to be tailored to the recipient. • Channel feedback toward key result areas. • Give feedback as soon as possible.' • Give positive feedback for improvement, not just final results. Good feedback is future-oriented. • Focus feedback on performance, not personalities. Feedback needs to be task-oriented and job-related instead of people-oriented. • Base feedback on accurate and credible information. • Keep in mind that feedback (certainly negative) is often perceived wrongly or rejected. This is especially true in cross-cultural exchanges.

Long-term solutions to burnouts

• Sabbaticals • Retreats

Modern Views on Organizational Studies:

• Symbolic interactionism: mainly concerned with analyzing the individual's behavior and interactions on a micro level. Karl Weick is a best-known theorist on this and wrote a book on how managers and employees make sense of their environment and are creating a language to talk about their environment. Weick explains the enacted theory in his book and the theory thats that we create a phenomenon, such as an organization, by talking about it. Hence, our world is a world created or socially constructed by our minds. He applied this to organizations and explains that they are selectively absorbing information from the environment, interpreting this info. And constructing the environment in which they think they are operating. • Postmodernism: there are no unified concepts within this field because it rejects unified concepts, general principles, or any other statement about the truth or the true world. Postmodernists question traditional boundaries that are laced between work and private life, between the organization and the outside world, between different cultures, groups, and so on. They agree that boundaries will fade and work will be more flexible, informal, decentralized, and unpredictable. • Conflict theory: states that all social structures and relationship are based on changes and conflicts between groups and social classes. This contradicts the rational-system view. Nothing is stable. People in society and in organizations are always in a state of conflict because they have different foals and worldview based on different social, religion, ethnic, occupational, or regional classes. Conflict is a source of change. The worker class and the capitalist class right over control of resources and the distribution of profits. • Critical Theory: different point of view to that of the ration-system view. Strongly criticizes the functional perspective, control, and efficiency orientation of this view, accusing many of the other organization views as supporting capitalist thinking. Has an emphasis on power as the dominant system in organizations. • Ecological approach: the ecology involved is the ecosystem of other organizations in which a specific one finds itself. Outcomes such as success or failure are determined by the characteristics of the population and the environment of the organization. Organizations in a population are very similar and respond in a similar way to environmental contingencies. Organizations compete with other organizations for the same resources. • Institutional approach: similar to the ecological approach which focuses o the idea that participants in organizational life perceive the nature of organizations and their environment as something to take for granted. The classic concept involves institutionalization as a process of instilling values. • Interpretive Approach: focuses on meaning at a micro level of analysis. Organization reality is constructed socially and meaning depends on negotiation with others. The interesting part is not specific individuals but types of individuals, as defined by a social category.. Some believe that collecting stories, myths, ceremonies and rituals will provide explanations for OG outcomes. Others believe that observation of behavior and job history is a better source of information. • Organizational Learning approach: adaptive learning and knowledge development. The adaptive learning strand involves reporting behaviors that are successful while getting rid od those that arent. In the knowledge development strand, organizations are sets of people with shared patterns of cognition and belief. When patterns of cognitive associations are communicated and institutionalized, learning takes place. • Resource Dependence approach: looks very much to the ways in which organizations are interdependent of their environments. It is an approach that views managers motives in political terms. They seek to secure resources by interacting with others, well aware that these interactions also constrain their autonomy. • Transaction cost approach: organizational outcomes are here seen as determined by the choice between "market or hierarchy". The level of analysis is different from the bothers, where the focus ranges from organizations as a whole approach to individuals. The transaction cost approach takes each individual transaction as the starting point and every single time managers have to ask themselves: make or buy?

Learning styles can be used effectively in an organizational context when:

• The strengths and weaknesses of one's own learning style are recognized. • The learning styles of other people are respected - as all styles are equal. The most effective learning environments are those which respect differences in perspective. • Use of preferred style of others is made, for two reasons: to deliver the message quickly and easily and to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding. • Teams are developed in a smart way, mixing or matching people with different styles appropriately to capitalize on strengths and compensate for weaknesses. • Trainers communicate in a variety of ways, making sure to use different assignments, material an presentation skills to address all learning styles, at least part of the time.

Eight Reasons Why Desired Motivational Impact is Not Achieved:

• Too much emphasis on monetary rewards. • Rewards lack an 'appreciation effect'. • Extensive benefits become entitlements. • Counter-productive behaviour is rewarded (e.g. a pizza delivery company related its rewards to the 'on-time' performance of its drivers, only to discover that it was inadvertently rewarding reckless driving). • Too long a delay between performance and rewards. • Too many one-size-fits-all rewards. • Use of one-shot rewards with a short-lived motivational impact. • Continued use of demotivating practices such as lay-offs, across-the-board pay rises and cut and excessive executive compensation.'

Bernard's Necessary Cooperation Elements

• Willingness to cooperate • A common purpose: there must be a consensus between the organization and the individual goals. • Communication about actions • Specialization: refers to the way things are done, which things are done, who to contact, at what places and in what time period. Organizations should try to find new ways of doing this. • Incentives: incentives are necessary to persuade people to join cooperative actions and to reduce the burden of the work. • Authority: communication in a formal organization by virtue of which it is accepted by a contributor of the organization for governing the contributor's actions. • Decision making: determines what has to be done in what way and can be based on own initiatives or authority. Opportunism is the counterpart of decision making. It is only a reaction to the environment. To perform the action the limiting factors must be removed.

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