OCE4265 Final Exam, OCE Final 2

Massive Corals

- Ball shaped corals which may be small as an egg or large as a house

Calcite and Aragonite

- CaCO3 major contributor to coral reef framework - produced in two forms Calcite and Aragonite - Aragonite is stronger and precipitates faster in warm waters and freshwaters - Calcite dominates in ancient limestones

Caribbean Reef Sharks

- Can evert their stomachs to cleanse indigestible particles

Reef Fish

- Coral reefs are home to 1/3 of marine species - In Caribbean 500-600 species of coral reef fish - 8 to 10 times that number in Indo Pacific - 2/3 of fish are carnivorous and play a dominant role in reef ecosystem

From Polyp to Reef

- Coral reefs produce limestone at a rate of 400 to 200 tons per year - Not all corals are reef builders

Paper, Ch: 2007, Almany, Question: 10 When conducting a fish larvae tagging experiment in a small reef, one should consider

The amount of larvae entering the experimental zone

.Textbook, Ch: aquaculture, 7. Reef fisheries and reef, Question: 19. What is the general phrase used for the situation in which fishermen are increasingly fishing for smaller species?

"Fishing down the food chain"

Protected Areas And Coral Reefs

- 1.5% of area lies in MPAs - 1/10 of protected areas is in low risk - Half protected areas are smaller than 1-2km

Global Trends

- 1/3 of all warm water reefs are damaged - In 2020s or 2030s temperatues in Indian ocean will reach a level that prevents corals from recovering from bleaching - Mortality rates in Caribbean expected to continue - Adaptations due to symbiodinium may delay these trends

Florida Keys Diversity

- 1400 species of marine plants and animals - 40 species of stony corals - 500 species of fish - Comparable to Caribbean Sea

Paper, Ch: 2004, Bellwood, Question: 7 In 2003, more than half of the reefs sampled in the Great Barrier Reef had reduced coral cover due to

- 3 outbreaks of crown starfish and 2 large scale bleaching events. -Marked demographic changes, reduced reproductive output of brood stocks, lower rates of recruitment, impaired connectivity, and species level change in coral composition.

Reefs In The Florida Keys

- 6000 reefs in the system - 5000 to 7000 years old - Bays and sounds have higher turbidity and wider temperature variations than the water in the open ocean - Densest reefs found seaward of Elliot key

Future

- 70% of worlds reefs threatened - 20% damaged beyond repair - Coral coverage in caribbean has caused mortality of 80% - 1/3 of all warm water reefs are damaged - 13 conservation strategies National Action Plan to preserve and protect reefs

Broadcasters

- 75% of all hermatypic corals broadcast spawn - Obtain symbionts from surrounding environment - Transfer symbionts from maternal parent to offspring - Harbor stable communities of Symbiodinium

El Nino

- A climate variation that takes place in the tropical Pacific about every two to seven years, for a duration of about 9 months to 2 years - 95% corals in Galapagos died after - Warming of .5 degrees C

Overgrowth

- After killing another corals they can overgrow the bare skeleton becoming the dominant species -

Algae and Calcification

- Algae enhance the calcification of corals by extracting CO2 from animals body fluids - This extraction increases relative concentration of carbonate ion needed for precipitation of calcium carbonate

Detrivores

- At least 24 fish species from five families - Eating large quantities of organic matter - Scaridae and Acanthuridae are examples

Sponge Reef Stabilization

- Bind unconsolidated framework

Reef Rock

- Biogenic meaning it comes from biological processes - Calcium carbonate or limestone from stony coral or other calcifying groups

Manta Ray

- Birostris reaches 7m in width - Alfredi reaches 5.5m in width - Eats 13% of its body weight each week

Multi Mouthed Polyps

- Brain corals or Meandrina incomplete budding results in long meandering ribbons joined by polyps forming a patter of valleys on the surface

Fragmentation With Autotomy

- Breakup of colony is controlled internally

Spur -Groove System

- Built by elkhorn coral - Occur in depths ranging from a few cm to 10m - In deeper deptchs to about 30m

Skeleton Production

- Calcification takes place beneath the outermost layer or the calicoblastic epidermis - In a thin space called the ECF or extracytoplasmic calcifying fluid

Survival At Depth?

- Calculations show that if the top 10 m of the ocean became inhospitable to corals due to warming, still 50.4% of the coral area would remain intact in the Red Sea and 99% in South Africa. - If the top 20 m becomes inhospitable instead of 10 m, these numbers would decrease to 17.5% for the Red Sea and 40% for South Africa.

Bleaching Cause By Bacteria

- Caused by a bacterium named Vibrio Shiloi - Produced an extracellular toxin that blocked photosynthesis - Binds to algal membranes destroying PH gradient

Reef Sponge Bioerosion

- Clionidae and Spirastredellidae are major bioeroders - Have specialized Etching Cells

Toxic Mucus

- Cnidarians produce peptides and proteins that act as neurotoxins or cytolysis - Coral can release toxins that get trapped in mucus and function as a defense

Cooperation

- Contact does not have to be competitive - Agarcia in Belize is a thin leaf lettuce coral growing in close proximity of others - The corals anchor closer to each other making them stronger

Dominant Sessile Invertebrates In The Reef

- Corals - Soft corals - Sponges - Algae

Coral Bleaching

- Corals lose 60 to 90% of their symbionts

Brooders

- Corals that do not broadcast spawn - Most non stony corals - Release sperm but harbor eggs - Transfer symbionts from maternal parent offspring

Table Corals

- Corals that form broad horizontal surfaces - Growth increase surface area exposed to light

Gulfstream

- Current flow of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean is greatly influenced by the narrow gaps in the eastern wall and by the depth of inter-basin sills. - Together with presence of broad shallow continental shelf and absence of major rivers have provided conditions for development

Sponges

- Dated back to Cambrian era - Two classes: Calcarea Demospongiae (Majority of species) - Diet consists of pico plankton - Can catch viruses

Reef Recovery

- Depends on arrival of larvae and propagules from nearby reefs - Isolated reefs are vulnerable - Example in North West Australia

NOAA or National Oceanic And Atmosphere

- Developed local coral reef management priorities for each of the 7 US states - Conducted capacity assessments to identify support needed - Launched the Coral Reef Information System (CoRIS) Website as a single point of access to NOAA coral reef information and data products

Tortugas Banks

- Developed on a foundation of Pleistocene karst limsetone at deptchs of 20-40m - Low coral diversity but high coral cover

CRCP

- Developed roadmap for future

Natural Fluctuations In Symbiont Density

- Driven by seasonal changes in light, temp and nutrients - Comparable to cycles of phytoplankton density in oceans

Organ Pipe Coral

- Each tube is inhabited by a polyp with eight feather like tentacles - Colonies can reach 1 meter - Individual polyps are 3 mm wide and a few mm long - Restricted to shallow water and consume plankton

Brain Coral

- Each valley is a mouth or gastric cavity which are referred to as Centres

Coral skeleton Effects

- Enhances light harvesting through light scattering - Can further elevate high solar radiation levels

Obicella

- Event caused death of 30% in Virgin Islands - Caribbean has declined 80%

Black Tip Shark

- Exhibit strong fidelity

Mushroom Corals

- Flat or dome shaped - Live unattached to any underlying substrate

Singlet Oxygen

- Formed by Irradiation - Electronically excited state of molecular oxygen - Causes major cell damage, denaturing proteins and damaging nucleic acids

Cry2

- Gene that detects blue light and signals spawning - Encodes a protein known as cryptochrome, related to primitive protein photolyases, triggering spawning - Proteins are restricted to ectoderm in larval and adult cycles - Cryptochromes are forerunners of eyes

Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)

- Generated by damage to photosynthetic and mitochondrial membranes - Play a central role in injury to the partners and to inter partner communication between coral and Symbiodinium - Central role in temp and solar induce bleaching

Hydrogen Peroxide

- Generated in the symbiodinium - May have a signaling role in triggering mechanisms that result in expulsion of Symbiodinium - Expulsion is a final strategy to defend corals from oxidative stress

Calcification Mechanisms

- Geochemical precipitation - Biological shell formation - Calcification due to photosynthesis

Three Calcification mechanisms In The Reef:

- Geochemical precipitation of CaCO3 in response to CO2 uptake by photosynthesis. At surfaces of algae and seagrass. - Biominiralization by protozoan and animal cells, as shell formation in foraminifera or mollusks or the formation of the skeleton of stony corals. - By using energy from photosynthesis to actively uptake Ca2+ ions from seawater, organism can use the calcification process to convert bicarbonate ions to CO2 needed for photosynthesis (calcifying algae).

Bleaching As An Immune Response

- Harmful symbionts can be expelled - Bleaching is a host innate immune response to a compromised symbiont

Foliose Coral

- Have broad plate or whorl like portions rising above the substrate

Acropora

- Have two kinds of polyps , Apical and radial

Symbiont Uptake and Release

- Hermatypic corals take in and release symbionts

Three Major Groups Of Cnidarians On Reefs

- Hexacorallia or stony corals that have 6 tentacles - Octocorallia or soft corals and sea fans which have 8 tentacles - Black corals and sea whips

Capturing Zooplankton

- Identified through sensing amino acid residues - Large filaments that dont fit in polyps mouth are digested externally using Mesenteriel Filaments which is also a mechanism used to combat other corals

Indo-Pacific vs. Caribbean soft corals

- In the Indo-Pacific region, the typical soft coral is encrusting, lobed or, if branching commonly fleshy. - Some larger forms in the Indo-Pacific have a second tiny kind of polyp (siphonozooid) which has no, or rudimentary, tentacles. Siphonozooids may be numerous, and are thought to be involved in irrigating the colony. - In the Caribbean, branching forms predominate. - Soft corals have more surface area

Goniopora Stokesi

- Indo Pacific - Can reproduce asexually by production of satellite polyp balls which will later detach and roll away to develop a new colony

Bank Reefs

- Larger than patch reefs and are located seaward of them - Characterized by spur and groove formation consisting of low ridges of corals (spurs) separated by bottom channels (grooves) - High species diversity - Inshore side is covered by broken coral skeletons and coralline algae

Patch Reef Communities

- Located in shallow water 3-6m within reef tract - Differs in characteristics - Outer edge is surrounded by a halo of sand - Width is determined by herbivorous fish - Consist of massive stony corals - Species diversity and richness of stony corals are highest in patch reefs

Cup Corals

- Look like eggs or cups that have been squashed, elongated or twisted

Digitate Corals

- Look like fingers or clumps of cigars with not secondary branches

Encrusting Corals

- Low spreading growth forms that adhere to hard rocky surfaces - Less susceptible to breakage - Grow as thin layer against substrate

Skeleton Growth

- Massive corals .5 to 2 cm per year, some 4.5 cm per year - Branching corals 10 cm per year

Elkhorn Coral

- Member of family Acroporidae - Develop thick and sturdy antler like branches - Grow at 5-10 cm per year - Due to thickness can live in areas with strong hydrodynamical forces

Calciumcarbonate Precipitation

- Modern tropical ocean surfaces are most conductive to precipitation of CaCO3 - Below 3000m is ideal for dissolving CaCO3 - The depth is called the CCD or Carbonate Compensation Depth

Octocorallia

- Monophyletic (All from a common ancestor) - Soft corals and Sea fans, sea pens, blue coral - Blue coral is one of few known to produce a massive skeleton

Fragmentation

- Most common with fast growing branching corals like Acropora - Section breaks off then grows genetically identical new one

Hardbottom

- Most extensive - Variety of water depths - Low species diversity - Characterized by rock colonized with calcifying algae - Provide important cover and feeding areas - Stony corals have a mucus layer used to remove sediments from their polyps enabling them to survive here

Montastraea or Orbicella

- Most important reef building corals in the Atlantic (Boulder star coral) - Closely packed - Grows at depths between 0 and 80 cm

NOAA Includes

- National Ocean Service, - National Marine Fisheries Service, - Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, - National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service.

Types of Hardbottom Communities

- Nearshore restricted: subject to limited water movement and are dominated by algae including epilithic that atatches itself to limestone and drift algae - Nearshore high velocity: Exposed to strong currents and are dominated by gorgonians easily recognized by rod like appearance and sponges

Herbivorous Fish

- Not diverse on coral reefs

Soft Corals

- Not generally major reef builders - Equal number of stony corals - Most soft corals thrive in nutrient rich more turbid waters unlike stony corals - Most are broadcasters

Branching Corals

- Numerous branches - Usually with secondary branches

Extra Tentacular Budding

- Occurs within a coral colony - Parent produces daughter corallite external to wall - Only coral genea possessing corallites with separate walls reproduce this way

Mesenteries Filaments

- Originate from the mesenteries that increase surface area for digestion inside the polyp - Contain nematocysts that protrude from the mouth of polyp - Often used for aggression - Dissolves other corals tissue - Will result in death of other corals polyps

Acropora In The Caribbean

- Palmata, Elkhorn, Cervicorns and Prolifera grow in Caribbean compared to approx 100 species in Indo pacific - Palmata and Elkhorn grow to 3 to 4m depth

Intra Tentacular Budding

- Parent corallite splits into two daughter corallites - Occurs within corallite wall - Section of wall builds up and produces new individual

Coral Sexual Reproduction

- Primary means by which corals disperse and maintain diversity - 75% are hermaphroditic, the rest are gonochronistic

Whitetip Reef Sharks

- Rest during day - Rely on ran ventilation so they must constantly swim

Reef Ridges

- Separated by the Hawk Channel - Closest to the keys is a sand ridge called the White Bank - Further out at sea is the Florida Strait

Panama

- Shallow reefs dominated by fast growing Pocillopora - Deep waters dominated by slow growing Pavona - Pavona releases sweepers but Pocillopora overtops it

Microatolls

- Small patch reefs typically produced by one coral species that two in shallow water - Vertical growth is limited by water surface and thus fossil micro atolls can be used to estimate past sea level heights

Grey Reef Sharks

- Social during the day often in groups of 5 to 20

Signaling

- Spots resembling eyes on back - Gives impression the fish is facing opposite direction

Ore Ship Shen Neng 1

- Struck a reef gauging a 3 km path of destruction spilling over two tons of oil into ocean - Ship was piloted on an unapproved route

Hexa and Octocorallia

- Tall branching in Indo Pacific - Dominant forms are encrusting, lobed and low branched - Sea fans may be locally abundant - Hexa includes 3522 species (Most responsible for production of calcium carbonate) - Octo includes 3564 species

Gulf Of Mexico Loop Current

- The gulf stream intrudes into the Gulf of Mexico as the loop current and reverses flow to return to Straits of Florida - The Loop Current is a current that flows northwards into the Gulf of Mexico.

The Corallum

- The skeleton of a colonial coral - Made up of individual skeletons each secreted by one polyp - Outer wall is Theca - Floor is Basal Plate - Supportive axis is Columella - Septa radiate inwards to support mesenteries

Methods of taking up Symbiodinium:

- Through developing egg or embryo during offspring phase of brooding species - By coral ectoderm, then ectoderm migration - Enter through mouth and directly taken up by endodermal cells

Columnar Corals

- Type of digitate coral growing upward in cylindrical forms

Parrotfish

- Up to 75% of the stomach contents is excreted - Adults can excrete 1 ton per year adding sediments to reefs

Ahermatypic Corals

- Very dense skeelton - No photosynthetic requirements so they can grow very deep and close to polar regions dominating vertical slopes

Keys Climate

- Warm water coral reefs require warm, clear, nutrient-poor waters for growth - Located at the convergence of subtropical and temperate climate zones

Sweeper Tentacles

- Will deploy within several days or weeks - Loaded with nematocysts - Sweep over or onto other corals that can damage or kill

Three Major Biogeographic Boundaries

- closing of the Tethys Sea by the Red Sea land bridge; - the Isthmus of Panama; - the East Pacific Barrier.

Reef Flat Of Bank Reefs

- colonized by corals and zoanthids - Sea fans, seawhips and sea plumes are common soft corals - In shallow are fire corals and zoanthids - Increase depth to 1.5 to 1.8 elk horn, star and brain dominate rest of reef

Bleaching Causes

- elevated water temperatures (18 degree isotherm, optimum growth 26-27 degrees C) - high visible and/or ultraviolet radiation (can penetrate 25m or deeper) - ocean acidification - changes in salinity - increased sedimentation - increased nutrients - pollutants, such as heavy metals - Bacteria Vibrio shiloi

Direct Human ImpactOn Reefs

- nutrient enrichment - sewage and land run-off; - pollution from toxic substances; - enhanced sedimentation from coastal development.

Indirect Human Impact on Coral

- warming of sea-surface water. - increased acidity of ocean water - less alkaline ocean water. - over-fishing that induces changes to the trophic system and algal domination on reefs - invasive species that eliminate local species and change the food web structure

Function Of Sponged In The Reef:

- water filtration; - bioerosion - sediment consolidation (i.e. binding) - provision of habitat and food for other reef organisms, - nitrogen cycling and, - primary production in those sponges that harbor photosynthetic symbionts such as microalgae or cyanobacteria.

Paper, Ch: 2007, Hoegh-Guldberg, Question: 10 Macroalgae tend to inhibit coral recruitment, fecundity, and growth because they

-Compete for light -Produce antifouling compound that deter settlement -Compete for space -All of above^^^

Paper, Ch: 2006, Mumby, Question: 3 Grazing of algae performs several critical functions in a coral reef ecosystem, including

-Conversion of primary production to fish-based trophic pathways -Provision of suitable settlement substrata for new coral -Mediation of competition bw corals and macroalgae -^^^All of above

Carbonate System

-Deep cold water better for CO2 than warm - Carbon dioxide and water combine to form carbonic acid, which can then dissociate to hydrogen ions and bicarbonate (HCO3-) or carbonate (CO32-). - The more CO2 that is dissolved in the water, the more readily the water can dissolve CaCO3 - Any process removing CO2 supports precipitation of CaCO3 I.E warm temp, less pressure, more salt

Textbook, Ch: stress, 9. Consequences to reefs of changing environment, Question: 7. Loss of the Acropora palmata has resulted

-Generation of lots of rubble that is eroded into sand -Loss of 3D structure

Textbook, Ch: aquaculture, 7. Reef fisheries and reef, Question: 12. Environmentally-destructive fishing practices occur, and continue to do so, because of which factors?

-Market demand -Missing policies regulating fishing practices -Lack of enforcing regulations -Lack of understanding of consequences -*^^ all of above

Other Invertebrate Groups With High Diversity On Coral Reefs

-Molluscs, produce CC through shells - Echinoderms, use CC for shells - Crustaceans, use CC for shells - Polychaetes

Paper, Ch: 2007, Hoegh-Guldberg, Question: 2 Coral reefs are globally deteriorating due to

-Rapid increase in CO2 -Increasing global temps -Ocean acidification -All of above^^^

Textbook, Ch: aquaculture, 7. Reef fisheries and reef, Question: 17. Which of the following are all factors that comprise the "ecosystem fishing" situation?

-Removal of too many large fish -Removal of certain species within reef -Remove large fish -^^all of above

The purpose of the Coral Reef Conservation Act of 2000 is to

-Sustain, preserve, resotre -Wise management -Develop scientific info -Assist in preservation -All of above ^^^

Paper, Ch: 2007, Hoegh-Guldberg, Question: 1 Coral reefs provide ecosystem services that are vital to human societies and industries through

-Tourism -Fisheries -Coastal protection -Biochemical compounds -All of above^^^

Paper, Ch: 2006, Mumby, Question: 10 Many fisheries management agencies are adopting the principle of ecosystem-based management (EBM), in which

-Wider functioning of whole ecosystem is considered -Wider requirements of whole ecosystem are considered -^^ A and B

Paper, Ch: 2006, Mora, Question: 9 The average size of Marine Protected Areas of

1-2 km, should be 10-20km and equally spaced apart

Textbook, Ch: 10. The future, human population and management, Question: 1. Approximately what proportion of reefs are estimated to be at high risk for extinction in the near future?

1/3

Paper, Ch: 2007, Hoegh-Guldberg, Question: 3 Of the carbon dioxide emitted from all anthropogenic sources, a fraction enters the ocean that currently is estimated to be approximately

25%

Textbook, Ch: 10. The future, human population and management, Question: 4. The approximate age at which many corals are able to reproduce is:

5 years

Wisconsin Glaciation

85,000 to 11,000 years ago

Textbook, Ch: stress, 9. Consequences to reefs of changing environment, Question: 10. The loss of many of the Caribbean's branching corals has had a cascading effect on the surrounding areas, including:

??? EITHER -loss of nursery habitats for fish and invertebrates OR -All of above

Textbook, Ch: stress, 9. Consequences to reefs of changing environment, Question: 2. Which of the following does not likely change the coral-dominated state of reefs into an algal-dominated one?

?????

Paper, Ch: 2006, Mumby, Question: 3 Grazing of algae performs several critical functions in a coral reef ecosystem, including

A fourfold reduction in the cover of macroalgae.

Paper, Ch: 2004, Bellwood, Question: 9 For fish and coral, the Great Barrier Reef has more species in all functional groups than the Caribbean, and this causes

A functionally compromised assemblage that is more vulnerable to catastrophic phase shifts, particularly when subject to human exploitation and impacts.

Paper, Ch: 2004, Bellwood, Question: 2 The assessment of reef resilience requires

A major scaling-up of management efforts based on improved understanding of the ecological processes, markets for reef resources urgently need to be framed by norms and regulations, and developing new metrics for stewardship of coral reef resilience.

Histoincompatibility

A mechanism that kills tissue of corals that touch each other

Paper, Ch: 2007, Almany, Question: 3 The tagging of the fish larvae with stable barium isotopes revealed that

About 60% of fish that had been injected with the Ba isotopes prior to birth ended up settling in their home reef after their pelagic phase.

Textbook, Ch: stress, 9. Consequences to reefs of changing environment, Question: 6. Which coral genus has largely been eradicated from the Caribbean in recent decades?

Acropora??

NOAA Goals

Address - Climate change impacts - Fishing impacts - Impacts from land based sources of pollution

Reef Fish Distribution

Affected by - Hydrodynamic conditions - Reef zonation - The reefs 3d nature Diversity is great where rugosity is great

Textbook, Ch: 6. Reef fishes: diversity, feeding and food chains, Question: 9. Which of the following is a significant component occupying the reef benthos where corals or other sessile organisms are absent?

Algal turf

Paper, Ch: 2006, Mumby, Question: 9 Because parrotfish form bycatch in fisheries and are easily targeted by commercial and recreational spear fishermen, reserves will

Almost always increase the level of fish grazing within their boundaries.

slides, Lecture, Ch: 12, Lecture, Question: 10. Manta rays

Are large eagle rays and planktonic feeders. Are pelagic filter feeders and eat large quantities of zooplankton.

slides, Lecture, Ch: 12, Lecture, Question: 7. Apex predators

Are large predators, such as reef sharks, that are critical for maintaining a healthy reef.

??? Textbook, Ch: 6. Reef fishes: diversity, feeding and food chains, Question: 2. Which factor does not likely affect fish distribution?

Barriers, either physical or large expanses of oceans, local drivers and natural selection, local currents, swimming capacity, and length of larval phase all effect fish distribution. Distribution can also be affected reef zonation, a reef's 3D nature, and hydrodynamic conditions.

paper, Ch: 2007, Almany, Question: 8 The optimal design of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) should

Be large enough so that populations within reserves can sustain themselves, yet small enough and spaced so that a proportion of larvae produced inside the MPA is exported to unprotected areas.

Textbook, Ch: world, 8. Coral Reefs in the modern, Question: 17. The first coral disease to be studied in detail was

Black Band Disease (BBD), in the 1970's. Has been found in all tropical oceans, an in cooler water areas it is more prevalent during warmer seasons.

Stress Tolerance

Both partners of the symbiosis have a considerable capacity to tolerate stress by employing protective mechanisms such as - increased heat shock proteins expression, (heat shock proteins help to stabilize other proteins) - protective pigments and increased expression of antioxidant enzymes.

slides, Lecture, Ch: 11, Lecture, Question: 9. Coral reef sponges largely belong to two classes:

Calcarea Demospongiae

Asexual Reproduction

Can be divided into - Intra tentacular budding - Extra tentacular budding - Fragmentation - Fragmentation with autotomy

Textbook, Ch: aquaculture, 7. Reef fisheries and reef, Question: 2. Which is not a reason reef fishes are of importance in reef environments?

Clear away all bluegreen algae from reef

Plan Theme 2

Conservation Strategies Goals

ROS Handling

Coral and algae have adaptations to prevent damage They express, in high quantities, an unusually broad array of ROS handling enzymes including - catalase, - ascorbate peroxidase - superoxide dismutase.

Textbook, Ch: world, 8. Coral Reefs in the modern, Question: 20. One of the most serious threats to corals which results largely from increased temperatures is:

Coral bleaching.

slides, Lecture, Ch: 11, Lecture, Question: 1. Which invertebrate groups contribute significantly to the formation and growth of warm water coral reef frameworks

Coralline Algae and Hermatypic Coral (A & B)

Water Borne Chemical Competition

Corals can produce chemicals that influences factors of other corals known as allelochemicals which can -Promote directional growth and frequency - Cause tissue necrosis and growth inhibition - Soft corals compete with hard corals by releasing Terpenoid or Sacrophine to impede growth - toxins given off by hard corals affect behavior, settlement and survival of coral larvae

Textbook, Ch: 10. The future, human population and management, Question: 16. What is not a consideration for determining where/how to designate a protected area?

Country of origin of territory? Resilience to climate change effects hasn't been considered in creation of areas.

Textbook, Ch: 6. Reef fishes: diversity, feeding and food chains, Question: 15. Several animals on coral reefs feed on the corals, including corallivorous fish, the Drupella snail and:

Crown of thorns starfish

Paper, Ch: 2007, Almany, Question: 2 Before seeking suitable habitat to begin an adult life, reef fish larvae typically spend time in the pelagic environment and this pelagic phase ranges from

Days to Months

Paper, Ch: 2007, Hoegh-Guldberg, Question: 7 Reef-building corals may exhibit several responses to reduced calcification, including

Decreased linear extension rate and skeletal density of coral colonies, corals may maintain their physical extension and growth rate by reducing skeletal density, and corals may maintain both skeletal growth and density under reduced carbonate saturation by investing greater energy in calcification.

Textbook, Ch: stress, 9. Consequences to reefs of changing environment, Question: 4. What does the "hysteresis effect" illustrate about changing states in the environment?

Elimination of stressors does not necessarily allow for back tracking along same path of change

Paper, Ch: 2006, Mumby, Question: 8 The results of Mumby and coworkers indicate that the long-term impact of Caribbean no-take marine reserves

Enhanced grazing, a process that is key to ecosystem function of coral reefs

US Coral Reef Task Force

Established in 2000 by Clinton

Textbook, Ch: aquaculture, 7. Reef fisheries and reef, Question: 16. Which of the following is not a factor that has directly increased the pressures placed on reef environments?

Established no take zones

Pocillopora

Example of synchronized spawning taking place in Hawaii

Paper, Ch: 2006, Mora, Question: 8 The scale of movement of individual organisms (e.g. fish) can be critical because

Extensive movement can lead s to harvesting outside the boundaries of the MPA's

Textbook, Ch: 6. Reef fishes: diversity, feeding and food chains, Question: 8. Fish size is defined largely by feeding behavior:

False.

Textbook, Ch: aquaculture, 7. Reef fisheries and reef, Question: 23. MPA's, since they restrict fishing activities, are equally effective regardless of location of the selected area:

False.

slides, Lecture, Ch: 8, Lecture, Question: 11. Since space is precious, coral colonies necessarily must always compete with other colonies:

False.

Textbook, Ch: stress, 9. Consequences to reefs of changing environment, Question: 8. Following the loss of many of the branching corals in the Caribbean, they were able to relatively easily make a return so long as algae didn't already occupy those areas:

False. Even if algae don't develop, the shallow areas high energy regime means that there is a limited number of coral species that could live there anyways, and the 'liquid sandpaper' effect of the mobile sedimentation makes it near impossible for corals to grow.

Textbook, Ch: 6. Reef fishes: diversity, feeding and food chains, Question: 18. At the very base of the food web pyramid are the primary producers:

False. In the ecological pyramid, bacteria, benthic detritivores, and processes of decomposition are at the bottom, and piscivores are at the top. Energy from sunlight enters at the primary producer level, and is transferred throughout, but is above the detritivores in the pyramid.

Textbook, Ch: stress, 9. Consequences to reefs of changing environment, Question: 3. The ball and valley analogy was used to illustrate what regarding shifts from a coral-dominated reef to an algal-dominated one?

Figure 9.1 on page 256 illustrates two different ecological states of reefs. The first shows two existing valleys, coral and algae. The reef is coral dominated (ball) and it is hard for healthy reefs to get oushed over the ledge to algae dominated valley. In the second, very severe pushes (overfishing, sewage runoff, etc.) push the ball into the algal valley and t is very difficult to make it back up out of the algal dominated valley.

Textbook, Ch: world, 8. Coral Reefs in the modern, Question: 10. In which two ways, physiologically, does increased sedimentation affect corals?

First, an increased turbidity decreases light penetration, reducing the corals photosynthesis and energy supply. Secondly, at the same time it is starved of this energy, it needs a greater amount of it to actively slough off sediment which settles onto its surface.

slides, Lecture, Ch: 8, Lecture, Question: 7. Sweeper tentacles are developed when?

Following the detection of a neighbor, sweeper tentacles can be developed in within several days to a couple of weeks.

Textbook, Ch: aquaculture, 7. Reef fisheries and reef, Question: 10. Ghost fishing refers to which of the following?

Gear that has been abandoned in environment but continues to capture marine organisms

slides, Lecture, Ch: 8, Lecture, Question: 5. The speed at which branching corals grow can be balanced by the massive corals:

Gradually, the faster-growing Pocillopora (branching coral) overtops the Pavona (massive coral).

slides, Lecture, Ch: 13, Lecture, Question: 2. Which habitat with corals covers the largest surface in the Florida Keys

Hardbottom- low diversity

Paper, Ch: 2006, Mumby, Question: 6 The biomass of herbivorous fishes

Has been negatively correlated with macroalgal cover on a Caribbean wide scale

Submassive Corals

Have knobs, columns or wedges protruding from an encrusting base

slides, Lecture, Ch: 11, Lecture, Question: 7. Ahermatypic are those corals that

Have no photosynthetic requirements and can grow to great depths, and lacking Symbiodinium

Textbook, Ch: 6. Reef fishes: diversity, feeding and food chains, Question: 13. Parrotfish, damselfish and the blue tang are all examples of what type of fish?

Herbivore

slides, Lecture, Ch: 13, Lecture, Question: 3. Patch reefs have

High diversity?? Massive stony corals, with the boulder star coral being the most dominant.

Elephant In The Room

Human population numbers

Mussa Angulosa

In Jamaican reefs, the coral Mussa angulosa is high in the pecking order amongst corals owing to its superior ability to extrude mesenterial filaments over its competitors

Paper, Ch: 2006, Mora, Question: 5 According to Mora and coauthors, the management performance of Marine Protected Areas is particularly low

In areas of high coral diversity, such as the Indo-Pacific and the Caribbean.

Excess Nutrients

Increased nutrients lead to enhanced phytoplankton growth that causes more turbid water and reduced light availability for the corals

slides, Lecture, Ch: 8, Lecture, Question: 3. In what two ways can corals compete for space in the reef environment?

Indirect encounters (overtopping) Direct interactions (aggression)

Langmuir Circulation

Langmuir circulation consists of parallel counter-rotating vortices that are aligned roughly in the direction of the wind and are generated by the interaction of the wind-driven shear with the currents produced by waves.

Reef fishes: diversity, feeding and food chains, Question: 11. Species diversity of herbivore fish, relative to other fish groups, tend to be:

Less diverse

slides, Lecture, Ch: 8, Lecture, Question: 4. Mechanisms identified which corals employ against competitors include:

Mesentarial filaments, sweeper tentacles, sweeper polyps, mucous secretions, histoincompatability, overgrowth, overtopping, and water-borne chemical competition.

Paper, Ch: 2007, Almany, Question: 5 To avoid being swept away from natal reefs, reef fish larvae

Migrate vertically in the water column to exploit currents at different depths

slides, Lecture, Ch: 11, Lecture, Question: 5. Reef-building corals that do not belong to the Scleractinia or Hexacorallia include

Millepora Tubipora Heliopora

slides, Lecture, Ch: 11, Lecture, Question: 8. Soft corals in warm water reefs include

Octocorallia, which include soft corals and sea fans, sea pens, and blue coral. Branching forms predominate. Sacrophyton and Pseudopterogorgia are common examples.

Helioporidae Or Blue Coral

Octocorals known to produce a massive skeleton of fibrocrystalline aragonite fused into lamellae similar to that of scleractinia

slides, Lecture, Ch: 8, Lecture, Question: 6. Mesenteric filaments:

Originate from the mesenteries that increase the surface area for digestion inside the coral polyp. Contain nematocysts and can protrude from the mouth of the polyp. Used by slow-growing coral species for aggression and defense against faster-growing intruders.

Paper, Ch: 2006, Mumby, Question: 2 After mass disease-induced mortality of Diadema antillarum,

Parrotfish have become dominant algae grazers on most Caribbean reefs

Textbook, Ch: 10. The future, human population and management, Question: 20. There are two types of extinction possible. One being species (complete) extinction while the other, which is often more relevant to humans and the ecosystem, is known as:

Partial??

Mare Incognitum

Parts of reefs that were accessible by foot before observation of submerged reefs was possible

slides, Lecture, Ch: 12, Lecture, Question: 9. Whale sharks are

Planktivores

slides, Lecture, Ch: 13, Lecture, Question: 5. The Florida reef tract

Reaches from Solider keys to dry tortugas

Paper, Ch: 2007, Hoegh-Guldberg, Question: 9 Corals may survive and recover their dinoflagellate symbionts after mild thermal stress, but typically show

Reduced growth, calcification, and fecundity and may experience greater incidences of coral disease.

Paper, Ch: 2007, Hoegh-Guldberg, Question: 4 Decreasing carbonate-ion concentrations in the seawater caused by increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide result in

Reduction of rate of calcification in marine organisms

slides, Lecture, Ch: 12, Lecture, Question: 2. The highest reef fish diversity in the world oceans is found

Regions with the highest coral diversity

Textbook, Ch: 10. The future, human population and management, Question: 6. There is some evidence that some corals can acclimate to increasing temperatures. What is the likely determinant for whether this is a possibility or not?

Specific clades of symbiodinium One determinant is the nature of the zooxanthellae Clade D, which has an increased resistance to warm temperatures.

Negombata magnifica

Sponge that can remove 23-63% of viruses from water passing through its filtration system

Paper, Ch: 2006, Grottoli, Question: 1 In the absence of their symbionts, bleached corals must rely on alternative sources of fixed carbon to meet their energy needs and these sources include

Stored energy reserves and heterotrophy.

??? Textbook, Ch: 6. Reef fishes: diversity, feeding and food chains, Question: 5. Some reef fish have a 4th photoreceptor, allowing them to see UV light

Such species may use UV wavelengths and markings for communication. UV sensitivity can also be useful for detecting zooplanktonic prey by creating contrast with the background.

Paper, Ch: 2007, Almany, Question: 6 Soon after hatching, larvae are capable of

Sustained directional swimming

aper, Ch: 2004, Bellwood, Question: 5 In the Great Barrier Reef,

System wide declines in coral coverage and increased contaminated coral specimens are becoming more present, despite being one of the most pristine reefs in the world.

slides, Lecture, Ch: 8, Lecture, Question: 15. The specific chemical that soft corals can release are known as:

Terpenoid or sarcophine compounds, which injure or impede the growth of neighboring corals.

slides, Lecture, Ch: 11, Lecture, Question: 10. Tridacna gigas is

The Giant Clam.

Textbook, Ch: 10. The future, human population and management, Question: 9. What is the main problem that arises from the "shifting baseline syndrome?"

The accepted baseline is not representative of the conditions prior to the changes that caused deterioration, thus the wrong baseline is addressed

Paper, Ch: 2006, Grottoli, Question: 2 The experimental results by Grottoli suggest that

The energy reserves and heterotrophic capability of the coral host have a key and previously unassessed role in coral resilience to bleaching.

slides, Lecture, Ch: 14, Lecture, Question: 4. In the Caribbean,

The genus Acropora has almost dies off completely due to disease

Host Symbiont Communication

The inter-partner communication between Symbiodinium and the coral host includes: - The ability to recognize specific host-symbiont combinations; - The ability of symbionts to colonize host cells; - The corresponding ability of hosts to tolerate the presence of the symbiont; and - Adaptations for mutual transport and exchange of nutritional resources

Paper, Ch: 2004, Bellwood, Question: 10 Three functional groups play important and complementary roles in preconditioning reefs to permit recovery of corals

The jaws of the bioeroding parrotfish, the beak of the scraping parrotfish, and the grazing herbivore parrotfish.

Textbook, Ch: stress, 9. Consequences to reefs of changing environment, Question: 12. The mass mortality of corals observed in the Caribbean did not occur in the Indo-Pacific, however outbreaks of what has caused notable damage at various times?

The outbreak of the crown-of-thorns starfish, and of the coral-eating mollusk Drupella.

Optical Properties Of The Skeleton

The path of light in corals is affected by - The living tissue - The skeleton This design allows light to travel through the coral and be collected by the algae and increase amount of light being backscattered by the skeleton - Skeletons capable of longer light transport are able to illuminate shaded areas in the colony

What is the "Anthropocene"?

The present, in many ways human-dominated, geological epoch

Textbook, Ch: world, 8. Coral Reefs in the modern, Question: 13. Boat anchoring can be very damaging to reefs when managed improperly. What is a relatively easy and practical solution to this problem?

The provision of mooring buoys. When these are attached to the substrate, which itself involves negligible damage, no further damage need occur from anchoring.

Paper, Ch: 2007, Almany, Question: 1 For the design of marine protected areas within a warm water coral reef environment, it is important to consider

The scale of larval dispersal of marine organisms.

Textbook, Ch: aquaculture, 7. Reef fisheries and reef, Question: 4. Which is not a common fishing method used in coral reefs?

The structural complexity of coral reefs doesn't allow the use of heavy fishing gear, such as trawls. Electric reels, longlines, traps, and use of spears are the common methods of fishing on reefs.

Competitive Behavior

The two basic strategies to compete for space in stony corals are: - Indirect or overtopping - Direct or aggression - Langs results showed Mussidae, Meandrinidae, and Faviidae were the most aggressive species. - The fast growingbranching corals were most aggressive

Paper, Ch: 2007, Hoegh-Guldberg, Question: 5 Given that recent and future rates of change dwarf even those of the ice age transitions, when biology at specific locations changed dramatically, it is likely that

These changes will exceed the capacity of most organisms to adapt

Paper, Ch: 2007, Hoegh-Guldberg, Question: 5 Given that recent and future rates of change dwarf even those of the ice age transitions, when biology at specific locations changed dramatically, it is likely that

These changes will exceed the capacity of most organisms to adapt.

Coenosarc

Thin tissue connecting polyps which can deposit limestone beneath it

Florida Reef Habitats

Three main types of habitats are - Hardbottom - Patch reefs - Bank reefs

Textbook, Ch: 6. Reef fishes: diversity, feeding and food chains, Question: 12. Parrotfish have beak-like mouthparts for what purpose?

To consume a calcareous diet, including coral and algae

Textbook, Ch: 6. Reef fishes: diversity, feeding and food chains, Question: 10. Many reef fish species consume and assimilate detritus, which is an important pathway for transferring energy from organic materials deposited on sedimentary and rocky substrate:

To secondary consumers.

Textbook, Ch: world, 8. Coral Reefs in the modern, Question: 4. One overlooked consideration is that many events and impacts are pulsed, rather than continuous:

True.

slides, Lecture, Ch: 8, Lecture, Question: 8. The Jamaican spiny flower coral is especially effective at outcompeting other corals:

True.

Textbook, Ch: aquaculture, 7. Reef fisheries and reef, Question: 8. Scuba diving is sometimes also used for harvesting marine life, not just for recreational purposes:

True. Multiple invertebrate species are harvested by means of scuba divers, such as lobster.

Plan Theme 1

Understand coral reef ecosystems

Indirect impacts of human activities on coral reefs include

Warming of sea water, increased acidity of sea water, less alkaline sea water, over-fishing that induces changes to the trophic system and algal domination of reefs, and invasive species that eliminate local species and change the food web structure

slides, Lecture, Ch: 8, Lecture, Question: 13. Overtopping as a strategy is used when:

When fast growing corals come into contact with other coral species and kill them off by food and light deprivation.

slides, Lecture, Ch: 11, Lecture, Question: 3. Microatolls are

Where the water surface limits the upward growth, forcing the coral to expand horizontally/radially. Are used to reconstruct Holocene sea-level changes in tropical locations because of the close correlation between their upper surfaces when alive with the air and sea interface around the lowest tide.

slides, Lecture, Ch: 13, Lecture, Question: 4. The spur and groove formation describes

abundant structure of bank reef in FLK

Orbicella Species Compared:

annularis - separate nodules or columns, smooth but irregular surfaces. Edges are commonly not growing. franksi - surfaces with scattered lumps, consisting of enlarged or protruding polyps. Growing edges contain large and small calices. faveolata - massive with upward projections often arranged in rows Calices on growing edges are regularly spaced. Gross shape is skirted mounds

slides, Lecture, Ch: 12, Lecture, Question: 8. Detrivore fish are those that feed on

dead organic material Detritus (organic matter). They must eat large quantities of organic matter and often selectively feed in areas of high quality detritus.

Textbook, Ch: stress, 9. Consequences to reefs of changing environment, Question: 17. The evolutionary history of the different types/parts of coral reefs makes it so that they are largely independent on one another, each having become stable environments:

false.

slides, Lecture, Ch: 12, Lecture, Question: 1. Which factors led to the evolution of different reef fish communities and reef fish species?

formation of barriers bw major regions

slides, Lecture, Ch: 11, Lecture, Question: 4. Reef rock is

limestone rock deposited by reef organisms

slides, Lecture, Ch: 11, Lecture, Question: 11. Bioerosion can be caused by

o Boring ploychaetes o Boring mollusks o Bacteria o All of above?? o A and B (WRONG)

Paper, Ch: 2006, Mora, Question: 7 Through the prevention of harvesting, Marine Protected Areas are expected to

o Generate larger body sizes o Increase abundance o Increase fucindity o All of above ^^

Paper, Ch: 2006, Mora, Question: 3 Growing evidence suggests that the resilience of coral reefs is dependent on

o Presence of Herbivores o Presence of large carnivores o Presence of range of functional groups o All of above^^^

Paper, Ch: 2006, Mora, Question: 6 One of the main impacts of effective MPAs on marine organisms is

prevention of harvesting

Paper, Ch: 2007, Almany, Question: 4 Retention of fish larvae in the habitat of origin may be favored if

probability of encountering better adult habitat by dispersal is high

slides, Lecture, Ch: 13, Lecture, Question: 1. Which factors led to the evolution of different reef lines in the Florida Keys

sea level rise since last glaciation The combination of subtropical climate and the Gulf Stream current

slides, Lecture, Ch: 12, Lecture, Question: 6. An example for s venomous fish is

stone fish

Textbook, Ch: 10. The future, human population and management, Question: 12. Designating an area as protected but still allowing some level of "take" activity is not nearly as effective as a fully protected area:

true