Ocean Studies

Earth's spin axis is tilted ________________ from the perpendicular to the plane defined by the planet's annual orbit about the Sun

23 degrees 27 minutes

Coral reef

A calcareous reef in relatively shallow, tropical seas composed of a thin veneer of living coral growing on older layers of dead coral or volcanic rock

Sunspot

A dark blotch on the face of the Sun, typically thousands of kilometers across that develops where an intense magnetic field suppresses the flow of gases transporting heat from the Sun's interior

Acid

A hydrogen-containing compound that releases positively charged hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water. Strong acids more readily release hydrogen ions than weak acids.

Delta

A landform at the mouth of a river produced by the sudden divergence and dissipation of a stream's velocity and the resulting deposition of the river's suspended sediment load in the shape of the Greek letter "delta" when viewed from above

Ocean basin

A large topographic depression occupied by ocean water

Air mass

A large widespread volume of air, the thermal, moisture, and stability properties of which are characteristic of its source region and are modified as the air mass moves away from its source

Feedback

A process where a change in one variable interacts with other variables, and alters the original variable. If that interaction enhances the original change, then the feedback is positive. If the change suppresses the original, the feedback is negative.

Artificial beach nourishment

A process whereby sand dredged from offshore (or an inland source) is moved to badly eroded beaches with an aim of re-establishing the natural balance between sediment input and output on the beach. Expensive; new sand not the same as old sand and erodes faster.

Coastal Zone Management Program (CZMP)

A program authorized in 1972 whereby the federal government assists coastal states in managing and protecting their coastal resources

Integrated Ocean Drilling Project (IODP)

A program of ocean floor exploration underway in October 2003 with the goal of using two drill ships plus specialized drilling platforms to retrieve more cores from deeper holes in the ocean floor

Harmful algal blooms (HABs)

A proliferation of a single species of phytoplankton that can cause serious harm to the environment, demise of marine organisms, economic losses, and human health problems, including illness and death; also known as red tides.

Food chain

A sequence of feeding relationships among organisms whereby energy and biomass is transferred from one trophic (feeding) level to the next higher trophic level (i.e., from autographs to heterotrophs)

Atoll

A series of coral reefs surrounding a lagoon that remain after a volcanic island sinks beneath the waves or erodes away

(1) Typhoon and (2) cyclones are (respectively):

(1) Hurricanes in the western tropical North Pacific and China Sea (2) Hurricanes in the Indian Ocean and near Australia

Storm surge

An abnormal local rise in sea level accompanying a tropical cyclone or other intense storm system and whose height is the difference between the observed level of the sea surface and the level that would have occurred in the absence of the storm. Factors for storm surge potential: storm intensity, timing of astronomical tides, bathymetry, shoreline configuration (the more gradual the slope of ocean bottom the greater the storm surge)

Coriolis Effect

An apparent force relative to Earth's surface due to Earth's rotation that causes deflection of moving objects to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere; amount of deflection varies with latitude, wind speed, and spatial scale of atmospheric circulation.

Model

An approximate representation or simulation of a real system

Spring tide

An astronomical tide occurring twice each month at or near the times of new Moon and full Moon when the gravitational pull of the Sun reinforces that of the Moon, and having an unusually large or increased tidal range. Occurs when the moon and the sun line up.

Diurnal tide

An astronomical tide with only one high water (high tide) and one low water (low tide) occurring each lunar (tidal) day. Should occur at high latitudes.

Breaker

The collapsing of a wave as it becomes steeper and less stable upon entering shoaling water. Waves break when the wavelength is approximately a seven times the wave height and the wave crest angle is close to 120 degrees.

Longshore current

The component of water motion parallel to the shore and in the surf zone; the consequence of waves breaking at an angle to the shore

Bony fish

Members of this large, diverse group live in a variety of marine and freshwater environments. THey have bony skeletons, scales, a flap covering their gills and, the vast majority of them, a swim bladder

Evaporative cooling

The cooling a surface, such as Earth's, experiences as water evaporates, absorbing and transferring heat to the atmosphere via water vapor. Evaporation of water requires latent heat of vaporization.

Vertical migration

The daily migration of zooplankton from deep waters to the surface zone to feed on phytoplankton

Challenger Expedition

The first voyage dedicated exclusively to marine exploration. Conducted from December 1872 to May 1876, scientists sampled very ocean basin except the Arctic

Abyssal plain

The flat surface of the seafloor, usually at the base of a continental rise and formed by the deposition of sediments that obscure the preexisting topography.

Air pressure

The force exerted per unit area by the atmosphere as a consequence of gravitational attraction upon the molecules in a column of air lying directly above a specified location

Planetary albedo

The fraction (or percent) of incident solar radiation that is scattered and reflected back to space by the Earth's planetary system; satellite sensors indicate a planetary albedo of about 30%

Ecological efficiency

The fraction of the total energy input of a system that is transformed into work or some other usable form of energy

Cryosphere

The frozen portion of the hydrosphere, encompassing glacial ice, icebergs, sea ice, and the ice in permafrost

Continental rise

The gently sloping area of the seafloor beyond the case of the continental shelf

Watershed

The geographical area drained by a river and all its tributaries

Law of universal gravitation

The gravitational attraction between two objects is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them

Law of the minimum

The growth and well being of an organism is limited by the essential resource that is in lowest supply relative to what is required by the organism

Latent heat

The heat energy that is used to change the phase of water but not the temperature of the water; hence the term latent, meaning hidden

Wave crest

The highest point reached by an oscillating wave surface

Estuary

The highly productive portion of a river affected by ocean tides; the semi-enclosed region in the vicinity of a river's mouth, in which the freshwater of the river mixes with the saltwater of the ocean

Poleward heat transport

Meridional flow of latent heat and sensible heat from tropical to middle and high latitudes in response to latitudinal imbalances in radiational heating and cooling; brought about by air mass exchange, storms, and ocean circulation.

Phytoplankton

Microscopic unicellular algae and photosynthetic bacteria living in the ocean and responsible for considerable biological production

Aerosols

Minute solid and liquid particles which are suspended in the atmosphere

Deep-sea cabled observatory

Ocean observing system placed on the ocean floor and linked to a mainland facility by fiber-optic and power cables. The cables provide electricity to power sensors and deliver the stream of data obtained by those sensors.

Earth-atmosphere system

The interaction of processes operating at the Earth's surface with those of the overlying atmosphere

Twilight zone

The intermediate zone of the ocean, below the photic zone, but above the greater depths where there is less biological activity. Also known as the disphotic zone

New production

Primary production based on nutrients brought into the ecosystem by processes such as upwelling or winter mixing

Regenerated reproduction

Primary production using recycled nutrients

Climate sensitivity

Refers to the equilibrium change in global mean annual surface temperature caused by an increment in downward infrared radiation flux that would result from sustained doubling of atmospheric CO2 concentration compared to its preindustrial level

SOFAR channel

SOund Fixing And Ranging; a zone at an ocean depth of about 1000 m (3300 ft) where the speed of sound reaches a minimum value. Reasons (pg. 81): 1. Sound in seawater increases with increasing temperature, salinity, depth/pressure 2. Temperature = primary control of sound speed. Temperature decreases steadily until 1000 m then becomes uniformly low

Continental climate

Characterizes a middle of high latitude locale well inland from the moderating influences of the ocean or large lake; characterized by a significant difference between mean summer and winter temperatures, contrasts with maritime climate

Maritime climate

Characterizes a middle or high latitude locale downwind from the moderating influence of the ocean or large lake; characterized by minimal contrast between mean summer and winter temperatures; contrast with continental climate

Ecosystem

Community of plants and animals that interact with one another, together with the physical conditions and chemical constituents in a specific geographical area

Dams sequester sediments in the reservoir behind the dam, causing ________________

Compact soil, land surface subside, erosion by waves and currents increase

Shallow-water wave

Wave in water shallower than the wave-base (half the wavelength). C = √(9.8*D) D = depth in m 9.8 g/sec^2 = gravity

Atmospheric window

Wavelength bands in which atmospheric constituents absorb very little or no electromagnetic radiation; allows the escape of Earth's heat to space. A visible window extends from 0.3-0.9 micrometers and the major infrared window is from about 8-13 micrometers.

Forced waves

Waves generated by storm winds

Eustasy

Conditions of the world-wide sea level and its fluctuations which may be caused by changes in the global water cycle (e.g., the waxing and waning of Earth's glacial ice sheets).

Biosphere

Consists of all living organisms on Earth; composed of ecosystems

Sedimentary rock

Consolidated rock composed of any one or a combination of compacted and cemented fragments of rock and mineral grains, partially decomposed remains of dead plants and animals (e.g., shells, skeletons(, and minerals precipitated from solution

Terminal velocity

Constant downward-directed motion of a particle within a fluid due to a balance between gravity (directly downward) and fluid resistance (directed upward)

Decomposers

Consumers, usually microscopic, that feed on dead organic matter, either on the ocean bottom or in the water column, thus aiding in recycling nutrients

Ferromagnesian silicate minerals

Contain iron (Fe) and magnesium (Mg) ions. Dark in color and relatively dense. Basalt, the chief constituent of oceanic crust, is rich in this type of minerals. Weather more rapidly.

Non-ferromagnesian silicate minerals

Contains aluminum (Al), calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), or potassium (K) ions and are relatively light in both appearance and density. Granite, the chief constituent of continental crust, is rich in this type of minerals. Weather less rapidly

Black smokers

Substance that precipitate from hydrothermal vent waters appear as dark clouds and accumulate in the form of conical chimneys. they are distinguished from white smokers by their darker appearance and the types of minerals precipitated.

Ice shelves

Extensive areas of floating ice attached to land (at the grounding line) that fringe the coast. In Antarctica, ice shelves fringe about 44% of the coast.

Partial tides

Harmonic components that comprise the astronomical tide at any point. Each partial tide describes a unique individual or combination of periods of motion (i.e. spring-neap cycle, perigee-apogee cycle). Partial tides are predicted individually and added together to forecast the height and timing of future local tides.

First-year ice

Ice layer up to 1 m, form in one winter; dominates Southern Ocean around Antarctica

Multi-year ice

Ice melts little during summer (Arctic pack ice and central basin)

White smokers

Substances that precipitate form hydrothermal vent waters and accumulate in the form of conical chimneys. They are distinguished from black smokers by their lighter appearance and the types of minerals precipitated

Thermohaline circulation

Subsurface movements of water masses caused by density contrasts arising form differences in temperature and slinity

Front

a narrow zone of transition between air masses that contrast in temperature and/or humidity

When sea waves break, drops of salt water enter the atmosphere and evaporate leaving behind sea-salt crystals that function as _______________

cloud condensation nuclei (have a special chemical affinity for water molecules and readily promote cloud formation)

Open ocean convection

cold winds cool the surface water until its density is greater than that of the water below, creating an unstable water column through which it sinks

Most important synoptic-scale weather systems are ________ and ________.

highs (anticyclones), lows (cyclones)

The tide-generating force is _______ proportional to the _______ of the ________ between Earth and any other celestial body.

inversely, cube, distance

The _______ are narrow corridors of exceptionally strong winds in the upper troposphere of the westerlies. In the N Hemisphere, the middle-latitude ________ is situated over the _________ between colder air to the north and warmer air to the south and contributes to ___________.

jet streams, jet streams, polar front, development of storm systems

Outside of the tropics the annual temperature cycle ____ the annual solar radiation cycle b/c the Earth-atmosphere system takes time to adjust to seasonal changes in solar energy input

lags I.e. warmest time of year is after summer solstice and coldest time is after winter solstice

Winter beaches have a _____ slope and summer beaches have a ______ slope because _________________.

steeper, gentler In winter, erosive forces prevail over deposition forces because powerful storm waves cut back the beach, moving sands onto shallow submerged bars near the shoreline. In summer, depositional forces prevail over erosive forces.

The Moon's orbit about Earth is an ellipse so that the Moon is closest to Earth at _______ and therefore has a __________ tide-generating force, and farthest from Earth at ________ with a _________ tide-generating force.

perigee, stronger, apogee, weaker

Tides due to the Sun vary annually because Earth's orbit around the Sun is an ellipse so that the Earth is closest to the Sun around 1/3 each year at _____ and furthest from the Sun on 7/4 each year at _____.

perihelion, aphelion

Turbidity maximum

pg. 228 Coarse sediements settle to the bottom of the estuary while finer sediments (clays) remain suspended and concentrate near the halocline

Between flood and ebb tides are ________ period with little or no horizontal movement.

slack water/slack currents

The tide-generating force is produced by the combination of (1)__________ and (2)___________.

the gravitational attraction between Earth and the Moon and Sun, the rotations of the Earth-Moon and Earth-Sun systems.

Currents are narrowest and flow most rapidly along their ______ margins but are broad and slow-moving along their ______ margins. The Indian Ocean subtropical gyre varies more than the others because of ____________.

western, eastern, seasonal reversals in the monsoon winds

Condensation

the process whereby water changes phase from vapor to liquid

Tide pool

A volume of water left behind in a rock basin or other intertidal depression by an ebbing tide

Transitional wave

A wave entering water having a depth of between 1/20 and 1/ 2 of the wavelength

Deep-water wave

A wave on the surface of a body of water whose depth is more than 1/2 the wavelength. C = √(1.56 * λ)

Ice stream

A zone of relatively rapidly flowing ice within a glacial ice sheet

Lysocline

- calcium carbonate start to dissolve - at the base is the carbon compensation depth (which is starting to rise slowly)

The base of the photic zone is generally where the light is _______________

1% of the radiation incident on the surface

When erosion threatens to damage or destroy shoreline structures, three protective strategies are available, name each from their description: 1. Construction of dams, breakwaters, jetties, groins, and sea walls 2. Addition of sand to a beach 3. Inland displacement of a structure threatened by rising sea level and storm waves

1. Armor 2. Artificial beach nourishment 3. Strategic retreat

Three conditions are necessary for a tropical cyclone to form, name them. In addition, relatively _________ humid air in the mid-troposphere favors tropical cyclone development.

1. high sea-surface temperatures 2. adequate Coriolis Effect 3. weak winds aloft humid air

The period of the solar tide is ________

24 hrs.

Dam

A barrier constructed across a watercourse that impounds water in an upstream reservoir

Jetty

A breakwater oriented perpendicular to the shoreline and extending seaward up to a kilometer or more; intended to protect a harbor or tidal inlet form filling by littoral drift. Constricts the flow of tidal currents, accelerates water, reduce sediment disposition, erode channel bottom, disrupt littoral drift (up current from a jetty, beaches widen due to enhanced sediment deposition - beach nourishment - whereas beaches disappear down current from a jetty due to lack of sand input and wave erosion)

Non-point source of pollution

A broad area of the landscape that yields contaminants to the air or waterways

Resonance

A building of amplitude in a physical system when the frequency of an applied force is close to the natural frequency of the system. This can causes a seiche to become disastrous.

Berm

A platform of sand, flat-topped and sloping steeply seaward, formed near the mean high-water mark

Air pressure gradient

A change in air pressure from one place to another, indicated on maps by isobars

Glacial climate

A climate which favors the thickening and expansion of glaciers

Interglacial climate

A climate which favors the thinning and retreat of existing glaciers or no glaciers at all

Benthos

A collective term for marine organisms which live on or near the seafloor, or benthic zone

Food web

A complex of feeding relationships consisting of food chains linked together in an ecosystem

Seawall

A concrete embankment intended to protect beaches, roads, buildings, and shoreline cliffs from erosion by storm waves. Cuts of sediment source for beach by preventing erosion of bluffs, energy reflected from the seawall accelerates erosion and narrows the beach, deeper water storm waves break and erode seawall and destroy it

Submarine fan

A cone-shaped sedimentary deposit that accumulates on the continental slope and rise

Marine snow

A continuous flow of white particles through the ocean depths, composed of the remains of dead organisms from the upper layer of the ocean, fecal pellets, and various forms of non-living (inorganic) matter

Igneous rock

A crystalline or glassy rock formed from the cooling and solidification of magma (or lava)

Metamorphic rock

A crystalline rock derived from other rocks that were subjected to high temperatures, high pressures, and chemically active fluids

Island arc

A curved chain of volcanic islands that parallels a deep-sea trench where oceanic lithosphere is subducted causing volcanism and producing volcanic islands

Remotely operated vehicle (ROV)

A data-gathering submersible tethered to a ship by cables that transmit power and data

Beach

A deposit of unconsolidated sediment (usually sand and gravel), extending landward form low tide to a change in topography or where permanent vegetation begins

Wave-base

A depth of about 1/2 wavelength, where the diameter of the orbits of water particles in waves is essentially zero; the depth below which water is not affected by surface waves. pg. 186

Point source of pollution

A discernible localized source, e.g. a conduit such as a pipe of chimney that transports contaminants to a waterway or the atmosphere

Red tide

A discoloration of surface ocean waters usually in the coastal zone caused by a high concentration of microscopic organisms (e.g., dinoflagellates); also known as harmful algal bloom (HAB)

Tropical disturbance

A discrete system of organized convection in the tropics or subtropics with a detectable center of low air pressure; the initial stage in the development of a hurricane

Diatoms

A diverse group of minute shell-covered phytoplanktonic marine organisms having silica exoskeletons

Copepods

A diverse group of tiny crustaceans covered with an exoskeleton made of chitin

Spring bloom

A dramatic increase in phytoplankton populations in the ocean which occurs as a consequence of more sunlight and abundant nutrients

Sand spit

A finger-like ridge of sand or gravel that projects from the shore into the ocean

Overfishing

A fish species is taken at a rate that exceeds the maximum catch that would allow reproduction to replace the population

Guyot

A flat-topped seamount of volcanic origin rising more than 1 km above the sea floor

Profiling float

A free-moving instrument package that measure vertical profiles of ocean water temperature and salinity plus current velocity

Adaption

A genetically controlled trait or characteristic that enhances an organism's chance for survival and reproduction in its environment

Water mass

A large, homogenous volume of ocean water featuring a characteristic range of temperature and salinity identified by its source region (only at the surface of the ocean, when interacting with the atmosphere, are water properties altered. After sinking, temperature and salinity are conserved).

Halocline

A layer of water characterized by a relatively large change in salinity with increasing depth

Thermocline

A layer of water in which the temperature decreases rapidly with increasing depth (e.g., between the warmed mixed layer and the colder, deep layer in a thermally stratified ocean)

Cotidal line

A line plotted on a chart connecting points at which high water (high tide) occurs simultaneously. Lines show the time lapse, in lunar-hour intervals, between the Moon's passage over a reference meridian (usually the prime meridian) and the succeeding high water a a specific location

Teleconnection

A linkage between weather changes occurring in widely separated regions of the globe

Ocean trench

A long narrow deep depression in the ocean floor caused by subduction of tectonic plates

Breakwater

A long, narrow offshore structure, usually constructed of large blocks of rock or concrete, oriented parallel to the shoreline and intended to provide clam waters for docking boats and to protect beaches from erosion by absorbing the energy of breaking waves or reflecting waves back to sea. Problems: 1. Sediments settle to the bottom of the calmer water on the landward side and requires costly dredging 2. disrupts littoral drift, maintain beach by piping slurry to down-current side of harbor

Subduction zone

A long, narrow zone at a convergent plate boundary where an oceanic plate descends beneath another plate, either oceanic or continental

Hot spot

A long-lived source of magma caused by rising plumes of hot material originating deep in the mantle. As a tectonic plate moves over a hot spot or as a hot spot moves, magma may break through the crust and form a new volcano.

Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO)

A long-lived variation in climate over the North Pacific Ocean and North America in which sea surface temperatures fluctuate between the north central Pacific and the west coast of North America; linked to changes in strength of the Aleutian low.

Ocean floor observatory

A long-term facility on the seafloor designed to collect data, perform experiments, and communicate information to scientists onshore.

Groin

A low artificial structure often composed of rock rubble that is built perpendicular to the shoreline to trap littoral drift to widen a beach; similar to a jetty but smaller and more closely spaced

Mangrove swamp

A marshy coastal wetland area with a dense growth of mangroves and other tropical plant species which tolerate salt water flooding

Glacier

A mass of ice that flows internally under the influence of gravity

Subtropical anticyclone (aka subtropical high)

A massive semi-permanent high pressure system that occurs in subtropical latitudes of both hemispheres; a major control of climate. Climates are relatively dry on the E flank and moist on the W flank.

Temperature

A measure of the average kinetic energy of the individual atoms or molecules composing a substance

Internal energy

A measure of the molecular activity of a system or the summation of total energies of all molecules in a specific mass

Salinity

A measure of the quantity of dissolved salt in seawater

NAO Index

A measure of the strength of the horizontal air pressure gradient between Iceland and the Azores in the Northern Atlantic; influences the climate of eastern North America and much of Europe and North Africa; varies from year to year and decade to decade.

Wave period

A measurement of the time needed for two successive wavelengths to pass a fixed point

Wave height

A measurement of the vertical distance between wave crest and wave trough; half the wave height is the amplitude

Bubble injection

A mechanism of gas transfer at the air/sea interface whereby breaking waves introduce a foam composed of small bubbles below the surface greatly enhancing exchange rates

Acoustic thermometry

A method of determining ocean temperature by measuring the speed of sound propagating through the ocean

Microbial loop

A micro-food web that works within (or along side) the classical food web. The smallest organisms, heterotrophic bacteria, use dissolved inorganic material directly as carbon and energy sources.

Symbiotic relationship

A mutually beneficial association between organisms

Fjord

A narrow inlet or arm of the sea bordered by steep cliffs; formed when the post-glacial rise in sea level flooded a glacially eroded river valley

Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)

A narrow, discontinuous belt of convective clouds and thunderstorms paralleling the equator and marketing the convergence of the trade winds of the two hemispheres; this zone shifts north and south seasonally with the sun. Warm and humid air ascends in the ITCZ giving rise to clusters of showers and thunderstorms that produce locally heavy rainfall.

Horse latitudes

A nautical term describing the latitude belts over the ocean at approximately 30 to 35 degrees N and S where winds are usually light or the air is calm and the weather is hot and dry. These zones coincide with the location of the subtropical anticyclones.

Surf

A nearly continuous train of waves breaking along a shore

Mud flat

A nearly level area of fine silt near the shore and an intertidal habitat for submerged aquatic vegetation and benthic animals.

SLOSH (Sea, Lake, and Overland Surges form Hurricanes)

A numerical model which accurately predicts the location and height of a storm surge

Lagoon

A partially enclosed shallow stretch of seawater separating a barrier island form the mainland.

Partially mixed estuary

A partially isolated body of water where fresh water from rivers and streams mixes with seawater to the extent that stratification is weak and the salinity typically varies by less than 10 parts per thousand from bottom to top. Mixing is greater than in a salt-wedge estuary but not as great as in a well-mixed estuary. Sediments both river-borne and offshore.

Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM)

A period about 56 million years ago, near the transition between the Paleocene and Eocene epochs, where deep-ocean temperatures rose 6 to 7 Celsius degrees (11 to 13 Fahrenheit degrees), adding to an already warm Earth. The PETM, which spanned 170 thousand years, is thought to have been caused by massive amounts of methane released from submarine gas hydrate deposits

Tsunami

A rapidly propagating shallow-water wave that develops when a submarine earthquake, landslide or volcanic eruption disturbs deep ocean water; known to build to tremendous wave height in shoaling coastal areas. The tsunami hazard is much less in the Atlantic Ocean than in the Pacific because of the absence of convergent plate boundaries and subduction zones. Often preceding the arrival of a tsunami in a coastal area is a trough that draws water off the beach and exposes the sea floor.

Northeast Snowfall Impact Scale (NESIS)

A rating system for snowstorms in the northeast US based upon the amount of snowfall, the area affected by the snowstorm and the population in the path of the storm. Snowstorms are assigned to one of the five categories: 1 (notable), 2 (significant), 3 (major), 4 (crippling), or 5 (extreme)

Asthenosphere

A region of the upper mantle between 200 and 400 km deep which exhibits plastic-like behavior and readily deforms in response to stress; underlies the lithosphere

Wave

A regular oscillation that occurs in a solid, liquid, or gaseous medium as energy is transmitted through that medium

Little Ice Age

A relatively cool interval during the Holocene interglacial, from about CE 1400 to 1900, when average temperatures were lower in many areas, and alpine glaciers advanced down mountain valleys. The Little Ice Age followed the Medieval Warm Period.

Medieval Warm Period

A relatively mild climatic episode during the Holocene from about CE 950 to 1250

Atmosphere

A relatively thin envelope of gases and suspended particles surrounding the Earth and held there by gravity

Seiche

A rhythmic oscillation of water in an enclosed basin or partially enclosed coastal inlet; a type of standing wave. The water level near the center does not change but the water moves fastest horizontally - the node. At either end of an enclosed basin, where vertical motion of the water surface is greatest and horizontal movement of water is minimal, are the antinodes. (think of it like a seesaw). Some basins are complex and have several nodes and antinodes, therefore seiches can be unimodal or multinodal.

Coral atoll

A ring-shaped island surrounding a seawater lagoon

Tombola

A sand spit linking an offshore island to the mainland or another island

Geostationary satellite

A satellite which revolves around Earth at the same rate and in the same direction as the planet rotates so that it always remains over the same point on the equator and monitors the same field of view. The satellite orbits Earth at an altitude of about 46,000 km (22,300 mi).

Turbidity current

A sediment-water mixture denser than normal seawater that flows down slope to the deep-seafloor

North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO)

A seesaw variation in air pressure between Iceland (the Icelandic low) and the Azores (the Bermuda-Azores subtropical high); influences the climate of eastern North America and much of Europe and North Africa over periods up to decades.

Arctic Oscillation (AO)

A seesaw variation in air pressure between the North Pole and the margins of the polar region. Changes in the horizontal air pressure gradient alter the speed of horizontal winds in the polar vortex.

Rock cycle

A sequence of events/processes involving the formation, alteration, destruction, and reformation of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks as a result of such process as erosion, transportation, deposition, lithification, metamorphism, melting, and crystallization

Global climate model

A simulation of Earth's climate system usually consisting of a series of mathematical equations and used to predict climate anomalies

Hydrothermal vent

A site where ocean water enters fractures in newly formed oceanic crust, is heated, and then surfaces again through fractures; usually located near oceanic ridge systems

Geologic time

A standard division of time on Earth into eons, eras, periods, and epochs based on occurrence of large-scale geological events; spans millions to billions of years in the past

Submarine canyon

A steep-sided canyon below sea level in the continental shelf and slope

Coast

A strip of land of indefinite width that extends from the low-tide line inland to the first major change in landform features; transitional between land and ocean

Seamounts

A structure of volcanic origin rising more than 1 km above the seafloor

Buffer

A substance that causes chemical equilibrium

Neutrally stable system

A system that, following a disturbance, does not return to its initial state and is easily mixed

Unstable system

A system which following a disturbance tends not to return to its original state or condition

Stable system

A system which tends to persist in its current state without changing and, following a disturbance, tends to return to its original state or condition

Oxygen isotope analysis

A technique used to identify climate fluctuations of the past by examining the ratio of light and heavy isotopes of oxygen (O16 and O18) found, for example, in shells extracted from del-sea sediment cores

Pressure gradient force

A three-dimensional force operating in a fluid that accelerates the fluid from regions of high pressure and toward regions of low pressure. See air pressure gradient

Tropical storm

A tropical cyclone having a sustained surface wind speed of 63 to 118 km/hr (39-73 mph)

Tropical depression

A tropical cyclone in which the sustained surface wind is at least 37 km/hr (23 mph) but less than 63 km/hr (39 mph); an early stage in the development of a hurricane

Alkaline substance

Also known as a base, this type of substance releases negatively charged hydroxyl ions (OH-) when dissolved in water and may be weak or strong

Neritic zone

Also called the coastal zone, the area seaward form shore to the continental shelf break at a depth of about 200 m (650 ft); includes the intertidal zone.

Remote sensing

Acquisition of data on the properties of some object without the sensor being in direct contact with the object

Ocean stewardship

Action taken by society to protect ocean resources for now and the future

Rip current

Aka rip tide Whereas the shoreward transport of water occurs over broad areas of surf zone, the return seaward flow of water tends to concentrate in narrow widely spaced belts often corresponding to depressions in the seafloor or breaks in sand bars. The narrow seaward flow of water must balance the broad shoreward flow of water so that the offshore flow occurs as a relatively swift surface or near-surface current Usually the strength of a rip current increases as wave height and wave period increase. Viewed from above, a rip current is marked by choppy water made turbid by suspended sand and floating debris being transported seaward.

On the poleward side of subtropical highs, surface westerlies flow into regions of low pressure. The convergence of the middle latitude westerlies with the polar easterlies is marked by the _______ and the ________ in the N Hemisphere and a _____________ in the S Hemisphere.

Aleutian low (N Pacific), Icelandic low (N Atlantic), continuous belt of low pressure surrounding the Antarctic continent

Agnathans

Also known as jawless fishes, members of this major fish group have cartilaginous skeletons and long, eel-like bodies, which lack scales or armor. The distinguishing features of this group (in addition to the absence of jaws) include the lack of an identifiable stomach and lack of paired appendages, such as fins. Agnathans are the most primitive of the three major fish groups

Jawless fishes

Also referred to as Agnathans, members of this major fish group have cartilaginous skeletons and long, eel-like bodies, which lack scales or armor. The distinguishing features of this group (in addition to the absence of jaws) include the lack of an identifiable stomach and lack of paired appendages such as fins

Tidal currents

Alternating horizontal movements of water accompanying the rise and fall of astronomical tides. Along the boundaries of an ocean basin (the location of antinodes), tidal ranges and hence tidal currents reach their maximum speed.

Mixed tide

An astronomical tide with two high waters (high tides) and two low waters (low tide) occurring during a tidal day and having a marked diurnal inequality. When the point on Earth directly under the Moon is near the Tropic of Cancer or Tropic of Capricorn, the diurnal inequality is at its maximum and the tides are called tropic tides. When the Moon is above or nearly above the equator, the diurnal inequality is at its minimum and the tides are known as equatorial tides.

Semi-dinural tide

An astronomical tide with two high waters (high tides) and two low waters (low tides) occurring during a tidal (lunar) day and having a small diurnal inequality. In theory, all locations on the planet except at the lights latitudes would rotate through the two tidal bulges and experience two equal high tides and two equal low tides per tidal day.

Hydrogen bonding

An attractive force whereby a positively charged (hydrogen) pole of a water molecule attracts the negatively charged (oxygen) pole of another water molecule

Doldrums

An east-west equatorial belt of light and variable surface winds where the trade winds of the two hemispheres converge

Barrier island

An elongated, narrow accumulation of sand oriented parallel to a shoreline, but separated from the mainland by a lagoon, estuary, or bay

La Niña

An episode of strong trade winds and unusually low sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific. Essentially the opposite of El Niño, la Niña is accompanied by weather extremes in various parts of the world

Salt-wedge estuary

An estuary where river inflow is swift and tidal currents are weak; the denser high-salinity seawater forms a distinct layer beneath the low-salinity river water. The only mixing is internal waves propagated by the halocline. Sediments mostly river-borne.

Well-mixed estuary

An estuary where strong tidal currents dominate the inflow from rivers and thoroughly mix the fresh water and saltwater. Sediments mostly from offshore sources

High biomass bloom

An excessive proliferation of phytoplankton (due to input of excessive levels of nutrients) that upon decomposition greatly depletes the dissolved oxygen supply of seawater

Polar amplification

An increase in the magnitude of a climate change with increasing latitude

Hurricane

An intense tropical cyclone originating over tropical ocean waters, usually in late summer or early fall, with a sustained wind speed of 119 km per hr (74 mph) or higher. Develops in a uniformly warm and humid air mass.

System

An interacting set of components that behave in an orderly way according to the law of physics, chemistry, geology, and biology

Newton's first law of motion

An object in constant straight-line motion or a rest remains that way unless acted upon by an unbalanced force

Consumer

An organism that is unable to manufacture its food from nonliving materials but is dependent on the energy stored in other living things; also known as a heterotroph

Sea wave

An oscillation on the ocean surface that propagates along the interface between the atmosphere and the ocean

Exotic species

Animals and plants introduced into an ecosystem usually by humans intentionally or unintentionally; also known as alien or invasive species

El Niño

Anomalous warming of ocean surface waters in the eastern tropical Pacific; accompanied by suppression of upwelling off the coasts of Ecuador and northern Peru and along the equator east of the international dateline. Typically lasting for 12 to 18 months and occurring every 3 to 7 years, El Niño is accompanied by changes in oceanic and atmospheric circulation plus weather extremes in various parts of the world

Dinoflagellates

Any of a class of single-cell marine organisms with two flagella (thread-like tails) that can be phytoplankton or zooplankton

Mangrove

Any of various coastal or aquatic salt-tolerant trees that form large colonies in swamps or shallow water

Extratropical cyclone

Any synoptic-scale storm system that is not a tropical cyclone, usually referring only to migratory low pressure systems of middle and high latitudes. Surface winds blow counterclockwise

South Pacific Bare Zone

Area with scarcity of sediments b/c surface waters are nutrient poor, carbonate/silica remains of animals dissolve before research ocean floor, distance from landmass means limited windblown dust, almost no hydrothermal activity means no hydrogenous particles, surface currents do not steer sediment-loaded Antarctic ice bergs into this region

Dynamic model of tides

As Earth rotates from W to E, the tidal bulge shifts toward the western boundary of the ocean basin and the water surface slopes gently downward toward the E. Tide waves are also subject to the Coriolis Effect. In the N Hemisphere, the tidal crest rotates into the S portion of the basin so the water surface slopes coward toward the N, the tidal crest continues to rotate around the basin in a counterclockwise direction. In the S Hemisphere, tidal wave rotate in a clockwise direction.

Equilibrium model of tides

Assumes a frictionless Earth entirely covered by water

Neap tides

Astronomical tides that have the least monthly tidal range occurring at the first and third quarter phases of the Moon. Occurs when the sun and moon are at 90 degrees to each other.

Tektite

Black fragments of glass formed form rock which has been liquefied when a meteor strikes the Earth

Distributaries

Branching series of channels through which water spreads fine, often nutrient-rich sediment over the surface of the delta

Calcareous sediments (most abundant of biogenies sediment) consist of _______________

Calcium carbonate tests of foraminifera (single celled organisms), shells of pteropods (small, floating snails), and coccoliths (platelets secreted by one-celled algae known as coccolithophorids). Some dissolve before reaching ocean bottom.

Adaptive coloration

Camouflage whereby an organim's color pattern closely matches its background substrate

Siliceous sediments are 2nd in abundance to calcareous sediments on ocean floor, they come from ___________

Cell walls of diatoms (single-celled algae) and radiolaria (single-celled zooplankton). Dissolve at all ocean depths. Siliceous mud is most common in the Pacific (Diatom-rich mud in colder places, while radiolarian-rich mud dominate equatorial latitudes)

Salt marsh

Coastal wetland consisting of salt-tolerant grasses regularly covered with seawater

Nor'easter

Common contraction for northeaster, an intense extratropical cyclone that tracks along the East Coast of North America and is named for the direction form which its most destructive winds blow

ENSO

Contraction for El Niño/Southern Oscillation. The term for the coupled ocean-atmosphere interactions in the tropical Pacific Ocean characterized by episodes of anomalously high sea surface temperatures in the equatorial and tropical eastern Pacific. It is associated with large-scale swings in surface air pressure between the western and eastern tropical Pacific and is the most prominent source of inter-annual variability in weather and climate around the world.

_______ flow along the surface whereas _________ flow at greater depths below the surface

Counter Currents, Under Currents

Wilson cycles

Cycles of ocean basin spreading and closing operating over hundreds of millions of years Stages (pg. 52): 1. embryonic - crust fractures, rift valley forms (often fills with fresh water) 2. juvenile - rift valleys widen and connect to ocean, freshwater lakes become narrow saline gulfs (Red Sea, Gulf of California) 3. mature - additional oceanic crust is generated (Atlantic ocean) 4. declining - subduction at borders of ocean basin (Pacific ocean), typically an ocean basin widens for about 200 million years before subduction begins 5. terminal - subduction causes narrowing of sea separating the continents (Mediterranean between European continent and Africa) 6. suturing - intervening sea is gone, continental crust override one another causing uplift and mountain building (Himalayan Mountains, Appalachian Mountains)

Deep layer

Dark, cold nearly isothermal ocean water below the pycnocline; accounts for most of the ocean's mass

Calcareous oozes

Deep-sea pelagic deposits containing at least 30% calcareous (calcium carbonate) skeletal remains by weight

Heinrich Events

Deep-sea sediment layers record sudden releases of icebergs during the last Ice Age

Coastal downwelling

Downward motion of warm surface waters along the coast caused by Ekman transport onshore (common along the west coasts of continents), or in the open ocean when surface waters diverge from a region.

Cold-core rings

Eddies having a core of relatively cold water that break off from an ocean surface current; viewed from above in the Northern Hemisphere, they rotate in a counterclockwise direction. Contain nutrients and marine organisms.

Warm-core rings

Eddies having a core of relatively warm water that break off form an ocean surface current; viewed from above in the Northern Hemisphere, they rotate in a clockwise direction. Low levels of biological production.

Earth's planetary system

Encompasses the atmosphere, ocean, and land, and interactions between these systems

Electromagnetic radiation

Energy in the form of waves that have both electrical and magnetic properties; these waves can travel through gases, liquids, and solids and require no physical medium. All objects emit all forms of electromagnetic radiation, although each object emits its peak radiation at a certain wavelength within the electromagnetic spectrum. Forms of electromagnetic radiation include gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, microwaves, and radio waves

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

Established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP). THe IPCC is charged with evaluating the state of climate science as the basis for policy action and serving the interests of scientists, public policymakers, and through them the public at large

Pelagic deposit

Fine-grained sediments that accumulate over time on the deep-ocean floor

Bycatch

Fish and other marine animals that are caught in addition to the target species; they are often disposed of

Catadromous fishes

Fish that breed in the open ocean, but spend their adult lives in fresh water. An example is the American eel

Anadromous fishes

Fishes which travel from salt water to fresh water or up rivers to spawn. They include salmon, shad, sturgeon and striped bass

Recreational fisheries

Fishing for sport rather than for commercial purposes

Conservation of angular momentum

For a body rotating in a plane about a point, a decrease in the radius of the orbit is accompanied by an increase in the angular velocity. Involves 3 factors: surface winds, the Coriolis Effect, and frictional drag of the coast (continental slope).

Bowen ratio

For any moist surface, the ratio of heat energy used for sensible heating (conduction and convection) to the heat energy used for latent heating (evaporation of water or sublimation of snow or ice), deepening on the amount of surface moisture

Pressure

Force per unit area

Tropical cyclone

Generic term for a non-frontal synoptic-scale cyclone originating over warm tropical or subtropical ocean waters with cyclonic surface wind circulation (e.g., hurricane, tropical storm). Surface winds blow counterclockwise. Warm ocean waters sustain the system's circulation by the latent heat released when water vapor is conveyed upward and condenses within the storm system.

Western boundary current

Generic term for a relatively strong and narrow flow of ocean water (current) that runs along the western edge of a major ocean basin; the Gulf Stream is an example

Cetaceans

Group of marine mammals (including whales, porpoises, and dolphins) that spend their entire lives at sea

Latent heat of sublimation

Heat absorbed from the environment when water changes phase from liquid to vapor

Latent heat of deposition

Heat released to the environment during the change in phase of water form vapor to solid (ice).

Latent heat of condensation

Heat released to the environment during the change in phase of water from vapor to liquid

Latent heat of fusion

Heat released to the environment when water changes phase from liquid to solid

Greenhouse effect

Heating of Earth's surface and lower atmosphere as a consequence of differences in atmospheric transparency to electromagnetic radiation. The atmosphere is nearly transparent to incoming solar radiation, but much less transparent to outgoing infrared radiation. Terrestrial infrared radiation is absorbed and radiated principally by water vapor and, to a lesser extent, by carbon dioxide and other trace gases, thereby slowing the loss of heat to space by the Earth's planetary system and significantly elevating the average temperature of Earth's surface

_____ track toward E and SE, _____ track toward E and NE. Exceptions are ___________ that are imbedded in the trade wind and track from E to W until come under influence of westerlies and turn toward N and NE.

Highs, lows, tropical cyclones (i.e. hurricanes)

Geostrophic flow

Horizontal movement of surface water parallel to ocean height contours and arising from a balance between the pressure gradient force and the Coriolis Effect

Magma

Hot molten rock material formed deep in the crust or upper mantle which wells up and migrates along rock fissures; called lava when it flows into Earth's surface

Ekman spiral

In response to a steady wind blowing over the ocean surface, water at increasing depths moves in directions more and more to the right (in the Northern Hemisphere) until at about 100 m depth of water is moving in a direction opposite that of the wind; the spiral is in the opposite direction in the Southern Hemisphere

Tidal bore

In some coastal areas where the tidal range is relatively large and the flood tide enters a narrow bay or channel, a wall of turbulent water, usually less than a meter in height, forms and moves upstream in a river or shallow estuary

Kelp

Includes various species of brown algae which grow to enormous size, found in cool waters worldwide, especially in coastal upwelling zones

Mariculture

Industrial farming of fish and shellfish in the ocean

Pollution

Intentional or unintentional disturbance of the environment that adversely affects the wellbeing of organisms (including humans) directly or the natural processes by which they depend

Indonesian Through-flow

Inter-basin transport; warm, low salinity waters from the Pacific transported to Indian Ocean via passages between Indonesian islands. Causes warm surface waters to accumulate in the western equatorial Pacific Ocean.

Manganese nodules

Irregularly shaped, sooty black or brown nodules on the seafloor which contain a high concentration of manganese and iron. Begin as coatings on hard objects exposed on ocean bottoms, must remain unburied to grow in size. Rich manganese nodule deposits found in regions far from shore with small input of lithogenous and biogenies sediments

Shore

Land exposed at low tide up to the coastline

Swell

Large long-period ocean waves that radiate away from the region where they were generated by strong storm winds. Consists of free waves where the only force acting on them is gravity.

Rings

Large turbulent rotating warm-core and cold-core eddies that break off from the relatively swift western boundary currents (e.g., the Gulf Stream).

Subtropical gyres

Large-scale roughly circular surface current systems in the ocean basins. Depending on location, gyres are either subtropical or sub-polar and are the dominant type of flow within the ocean's mixed layer. The trade winds, on the equatorward flank of a subtropical anticyclone, and the westerlies, on the poleward flank of a subtropical anticyclone, drive the subtropical gurus, centered near 30 degrees latitude in the North and South Atlantic, the North and South Pacific, and the Indian Ocean

Euphausiid

Larger members of the zooplankton community, including krill

Pycnocline

Layer of ocean water in which density increases rapidly with depth (due to vertical changes in temperature and/or salinity); in low and middle latitudes situated between the mixed layer and deep layer.

Wetland

Low-lying flat areas that are covered by water or have soils that are saturated with water for at least part of the year

Pinnipeds

Marine mammals which have distinctive swimming flippers; species include seals, walruses and sea lions

Mixotrophs

Marine organisms having characteristics of both plants (autotrophs) and animals (heterotrophs)

Infauna

Marine organisms that burrow into and live within marine sediments on the ocean floor

Filter feeders

Marine organisms that use tiny hairs (called "cilia"), mucous-covered surfaces or other strategies to capture food particles suspended in the water.

Biogenous sediment

Marine sediment formed from the excretions, secretions, and remains (e.g., shells) of organisms. Most are either calcium carbonate or silica (both form shells)

Lithogenous sediment

Marine sediment formed mostly by the weathering and erosion of pre-existing rock. Composition depends on source rock.

Density

Mass per unit volume

Washover

Material deposited by high waves on the back side of a barrier island

Another source of deep waters in the North Atlantic Ocean consists of very salty outflows from the _________________. These waters originate as cold, dry _______________ cool the surface waters and enhance evaporation. The water than move into the open sea through the ____________.

Mediterranean Sea, Mistral winds, Strait of Gibraltar

Eastern boundary currents

On the eastern sides of the ocean basins, the currents are slower, much wider, shallower, and not as close to the coast. (i.e. the Canary, California, and Peru Currents)

Western boundary currents

On the western sides of the basin close to the east coasts of continents, currents are relatively fast, narrow, and deep. (i.e. Gulf Stream, Kuroshio Current, Brazil Current)

Hydrosphere

One of the major interacting subsystems of the Earth's planetary system which includes water in all three phases (ice, liquid, and vapor) that continually cycles from one reservoir to another within that system (i.e., the global water cycle)

Benthic zone

One of the two basic subdivisions of the marine biome which includes the seafloor and bottom dwelling organisms

Sustained wind speed

One-minute average measured at a standard anemometer height of 10 m (33 ft)

Rise in temperature of shallow water may cause dissolved carbonate to precipitate as tiny pellets called _______

Ooliths Type of hydrogenous sediment

Southern Oscillation

Opposing swings of surface air pressure between the western and central tropical Pacific Ocean; associated with intense El Niño events

Fecal pellets

Organic excrement found especially in marine sediment deposits and made up of the undigested organic matter secreted by animals

Epifauna

Organisms that live on the surface rather than within marine sediments on the ocean floor

Top predators

Organisms that occupy a high trophic level in a marine food web

Cosmogenous sediment

Particles entering the Earth system from outer space, often originating from meteorite fragments. Can be remnants of solar system planet formation, rich in iron.

Sediment

Particles of organic or inorganic origin that are transported form their place of origin and deposited by wind, water, or ice; typically in unconsolidated form

Hydrogenous sediment

Particles which are chemically precipitated from seawater, also product of chemical reactions by hydrothermal vents. Include some carbonate, halite (NaCl), gypsum, and manganese nodules.

Biogeochemical cycle

Pathways along which solid, liquid, and gaseous materials flow among the various reservoirs of Earth's planetary system

Nekton

Pelagic animals that are free-swimmers such as fish, adult squids, turtles, and marine mammals

Siliceous ooze

Pelagic deposit made form the shells of silica-secreting organisms

Plankton

Plants and animal life found floating or drifting in the ocean and used as food by early all marine animals

HNLC regions

Portions of the ocean featuring High Nutrients and Low Chlorophyll. Biological reproduction is low even though surface waters have relatively high concentrations of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus compounds)

Acid rain

Precipitation with a pH of less than 5.6

Reflection

Process whereby a portion of the radiation striking the interface between two different media (e.g., atmosphere and ocean) is redirected such that the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence

Bioluminescence

Production of light by living organisms. Light is generally the product of a chemical reaction that takes place in specialized cells or organs

Ocean Drilling Program (ODP)

Project that obtained samples of oceanic crust and sediment using the drill ship JOIDES Resolution; operated from 1983 to 2003

Countershading

Protective coloration found in fish whereby their dorsal (back) side is a dark color making it difficult to see them from above and their ventral (underbelly) side is a light color making it difficult to see them from below

Distillation

Purification of water through phase changes (e.g., evaporation followed by condensation). When water vaporizes, all suspended and dissolved substances such as sea salts are left behind

Wave-dominated delta

Rate of sediment removal exceeds the input because strong wave action and currents limit sediment deposition, forming only a slight bulge on an otherwise straight coastline. (i.e. Niger)

Gyre

Refers to the nearly circular motion of the surface ocean currents in each of the major ocean basins centered under subtropical anticyclones. Viewed from above the subtropical gyres rotate clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere

Placer deposits

Relatively dense and resistant metals and gemstones left behind as a lag concentrate after the mechanical sorting action of river or ocean currents remove the less dense sand grains

Erosion

Removal and transport of sediments by running water, glaciers, wind or gravity

Thermal inertia

Resistance to a change in temperature

Neritic deposits

River-borne lithogenous sediment which settles along the continental margin.

Sub-polar gyres

Roughly circular surface current systems, smaller than their subtropical counterparts, occur at high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere;; the Alaska gyre in the far North Pacific and the gyre south of Greenland in the far North Atlantic. The counterclockwise surface winds in the Aleutian and Icelandic sub-polar low pressure systems drive the ocean currents in the sub-polar gyres

Three types of estuaries:

Salt-wedge, partially mixed, well-mixed

Brine rejection

Salts are excluded from the ice structure as seawater freezes and the remaining unfrozen water becomes saltier and therefore freezes at still lower temperatures

Polar-orbiting satellite

Satellite in a relatively low-altitude orbit that passes near the north and south geographical poles. Earth rotates through the plane of the satellite's orbit, which is at an altitude of about 800 to 1000 km (500 to 620 mi)

Wind-waves

Sea waves that are the produced as the kinetic energy of the wind is transferred to surface waters

Littoral drift

Sediment transport by a longshore current along a coast, either nourishing or cutting back beaches

Turbidities

Sedimentary deposits produced by turbidity currents

Tephra

Sediments derived from explosive volcanism

Echo sounder

Sends a narrow beam of sound vertically to the seafloor where it is reflected back to the ship, the time interval between emission and return of the sound signal is calibrated in terms of water depth. (i.e. Fish finders)

Krill

Shrimp-like crustaceans that are the major food source for whales and other organisms in the Southern Ocean

Producers

Simple marine organisms also called autotrophs that manufacture the food they need rom the physical environment

Coccolithophorids

Single-cell photosynthesizing organisms covered with tiny calcium carbonate plates. They are unusual in that they appear to thrive in nutrient-poor waters, forming large blooms that turn surface waters greenish blue as viewed from space

Zooplankton

Single-celled and multi-cellular animals that drift passively with ocean currents.

Sound waves bend toward regions where sound waves travel more ______ and away from regions where sound waves travel ______.

Slowly, faster

Capillary waves

Small ocean waves with a wavelength of less than 1.7 cm (0.7 in). At these short wavelengths, water's surface tension is the restoring force that smoothes and flattens the small waves back to equilibrium. For larger waves, gravity is the restoring force (leveling wave crests to fill in wave troughs).

Milankovitch cycles

Systematic variations in the precession and tilt of the Earth's rotational axis and the eccentricity of its orbit about the Sun; affects the seasonal and latitudinal distribution of incoming solar radiation and influences climate fluctuations operating over tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands of years

Tidal day

The Moon-based day based on the interval of time between two successive passes of the Moon over a meridian (approximately 24 hours, 50 minutes). Because of the tidal day is longer than the solar day, the times of high and low tide change by about 50 minutes from one solar day to the next.

pH

The acidity of water (or any other liquid) is expressed in terms of the hydrogen ion concentration

Specific heat

The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 Celsius degree

Net primary production

The amount of organic matter produced by living organisms within a given volume of area in a given time, minus that which is consumed through cellular respiration by the organisms

Net production

The amount of organic matter produced during photosynthesis that exceeds the amount consumed in the process of cellular respiration

Primary production

The amount of organic matter synthesized by simple organisms from inorganic substances

Assimilative capacity

The amount of waste that an ecosystem can assimilate (via decomposition by bacteria, fungi, and invertebrates) without damaging ecosystem functions or building up waste products to levels that may cause unwanted or harmful impacts on living organisms (including humans).

Solar altitude

The angle of the Sun above the horizon; varies from 0 degrees (horizon) to 90 degrees (zenith)

Significant wave height

The average height of the tallest one-third of the waves observed in a patch of ocean

Residence time

The average length of time for a substance in a reservoir to be replaced completely

Global radiative equilibrium

The balance between net incoming solar radiation and infrared radiation emitted to space by the Earth-atmosphere system

Refraction

The bending of a wave in response to changing wave speed. If wave crests approach the shoreline at an angle other than 90 degrees, the wave bends. The segment of wave entering shoaling water begins to "feel" the bottom and slow. Consequently, the wave crest is refracted toward the shallower water. Refraction causes approaching wave crests to come into near alignment with the depth contours (bathymetry) of the ocean bottom and to closely conform to the shape of the shoreline. Waves approaching an irregular coastline are refracted, converging toward headlands (rocky cliffs that project seaward) and away from coves or bays

Convergent plate boundary

The boundary between two tectonic plates that are moving toward one another; responsible for subduction

Shoreline

The boundary line between a water body and land, usually taken at mean high tide

Calving

The breaking away of a mass of ice from the leading edge of a glacier forming icebergs upon entering the ocean

Particulate organic carbon (POC)

The carbon contained in organic particles that sink out of the ocean's surface layer and is then consumed by zooplankton or decomposed by bacteria and converted back to dissolved inorganic carbon

Global water cycle

The ceaseless movement of water among its various reservoirs on a planetary scale

Schooling

The characteristic behavior of many fish species to swim together in organized groups to avoid predation

Bioturbation

The churning and stirring of sediment deposits by benthic animals in the course of feeding or movement

Carbonate compensation depth (CCD)

The depth of the ocean below which material composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) dissolves and does not accumulate; aka saturation horizon. Around 4500 m, but has shifted upward b/c acidification.

Tidal range

The difference in height between consecutive high water (high tide) and low water (low tide)

Diurnal inequality

The difference in heights between the two successive high waters (high tides) or the two successive low waters (low tides) of a tidal day

Wavelength

The distance between successive wave crests (or equivalently, the distance between successive wave troughs)

Fetch

The distance the wind blows over a continuous water surface. With the same wind speed, higher waves can be produced with a longer fetch.

Sorting

The dynamic process by which sedimentary particles are separated by size; well-sorted sediment has a narrow range of particle sizes whereas poorly-sorted sediment has a broad range of particle sizes. The greater distance the sediment is transported, the better sorted it becomes. Grain size along with sorting can be used to infer the current direction and speed, the overall energy of the environment, and the transport mechanism.

Tidal period

The elapsed time between successive high tides or successive low tides

Azoic hypothesis

The erroneous belief that deep-ocean waters (below 300 fathoms or 550 m) lacked sufficient dissolved oxygen to support marine life

Coastline

The farthest inland extent of storm waves, in some cases marked by sand dunes or wave-cut cliffs

Trophic level

The feeding position of an organism within a food chain or food web

Exclusive economic zone (EEZ)

The jurisdictional area initially established in 1983 for marine resources; the inner boundary of that zone is coterminous with the seaward boundary of costal nations and extends seaward boundary of coastal nations and extends seaward 370 km (200 nautical miles)

Duration

The length of time the wind blows from the same direction

Wave trough

The lowest point in an oscillating water surface

Troposphere

The lowest thermal layer of the atmosphere; where the atmosphere interfaces with the ocean, cryosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere and where most weather takes place

Principle of constant proportions

The major constituents of seawater occur in the same relative concentrations throughout the ocean system

Maximum sustainable yield

The maximum catch of a fish species that will ensure the long-term viability of its population

Ecologically sustainable yield

The maximum catch that a marine ecosystem can sustain without undergoing an undesirable change in state

Carrying capacity

The maximum population of a species that can be sustained by the resources of the habitat

Limiting factor

The most deficient of the essential resources in organism required for growth and well being

Heat

The name applied to a form of energy transferred between systems in response to a difference in temperature. Heat is always transferred from a warmer system to a colder system.

Ekman transport

The net transport of water due to the Ekman spiral; 90 degrees to the right of the surface wind in the Northern Hemisphere and 90 degrees to the left of the surface wind in the Southern Hemisphere

Wave frequency

The number of waves passing a fixed point over an interval of time

Compensation depth

The ocean depth below which no net primary production occurs, usually where the light level diminishes to about 1% of what it is at the surface

Pelagic zone

The open-ocean environment, divided into the neritic zone (seaward to a depth of 200 m) and the oceanic zone (depth greater than 200 m).

Secondary production

The organic material produced in the growth of consumers (heterotrophs)

Eyewall

The organized ring of intense thunderstorms (cumulonimbus clouds) surrounding the eye of a tropical cyclone, typically a hurricane. Most dangerous part of hurricane is eye wall on advancing system where wind blow in same direction as storm's forward motion - strongest surface winds.

Lithosphere

The outer, rigid part of the Earth, consisting of the upper part of the mantle, oceanic crust and continental crust

Continental crust

The outermost part of the lithosphere overlying the mantle and forming the solid surface of Earth's landmasses; mostly granite in composition

Oceanic crust

The outermost part of the lithosphere overlying the mantle and lying beneath the ocean; mostly composed of the fine-grained ferromagnesium igneous rock known as basalt

pH scale

The pH increases from 0 to 14 as the hydrogen ion concentration decreases. Pure water has a pH of 7, which is considered neutral; a pH above 7 is increasingly alkaline whereas a pH below 7 is increasingly acidic. The pH scale is logarithmic; that is, each unit increment corresponds to a tenfold change in acidity

Maunder minimum

The period of greatly diminished sunspot activity between CE 1645 and 1715 identified by and named for E. Walter Maunder

Astronomical tides

The periodic rise and fall of sea level resulting from the gravitational interaction and motions of the Moon, Sun, and Earth system

Weathering

The physical disintegration, chemical decomposition, or solution of exposed rock which takes place where the lithosphere (mainly the crust) interfaces with the other Earth subsystems

Physical pump

The physical process whereby carbon dioxide sinks deeply in the cold ocean water at high latitudes and is sequestered in the deep ocean for varying lengths of time

Bioaccumulation

The process by which persistent materials (that resist chemical, physical, or biological breakdown) gradually become increasingly concentrated in living tissue as one organism consumes another within a food web

Scattering

The process by which small particles suspended in a medium such as air or water diffuse a portion of the incident radiation in all directions.

Plate tectonic

The process by which the massive plates of the lithosphere are slowly driven across the face of the globe by huge convection currents in Earth's mantle

Sublimation

The process by which water changes directly from a solid to a vapor without first becoming liquid

Photosynthesis

The process whereby autotrophs use light energy from the Sun to combine carbon dioxide form the atmosphere with water to produce sugar, a form of carbohydrate that contains a relatively large amount of energy

Biological pump

The process whereby carbon cycles through the ocean as organic matter decomposes

Cellular respiration

The process whereby food is broken down liberating energy for maintenance, growth and reproduction, which releasing carbon dioxide, water and heat energy to the environment

Absorption

The process whereby incident radiant energy is retained by a substance. The absorbed radiation is then converted to another form of energy (e.g. heat)

Chemosynthesis

The process whereby marine organisms in the absence of sunlight derive energy from substances such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) or methane

Lithification

The process whereby sediment is converted to sedimentary rock involving compaction and/or cementation; part of the rock cycle

Deposition

The process whereby water changes directly from vapor to solid (ice crystals) without first becoming liquid

Evaporation

The process whereby water changes phase from a liquid to a vapor

Transpiration

The process whereby water that is taken up form the soil by plant roots eventually escapes as vapor through the tiny pores (stomates) on the surface of green leaves

Celerity

The rate at which a surface wave progresses outward in still water from the point where the water was disturbed. C=λ/T (λ=wavelength, T=wave period). An individual wave travels twice as fast as the leading edge of he wave train, The group speed (V) is the speed of the wave train, V=C/2.

Albedo

The ratio of the amount of electromagnetic radiation reflected by a body to the amount incident on it; commonly expressed as a percentage. Usually, albedo refers to radiation in the visible range or to the full spectrum of solar radiation

Transform plate boundary

The region where adjacent tectonic plates slide laterally past one another

Continental slope

The relatively steep downward sloping area from the shelf-slope break to the more gently sloping continental rise or directly into an ocean trench

Constructive wave interference

The result when the crests of sets of waves coincide to form a wave of greater height

Eye

The roughly circular area of comparatively light winds and fair weather found at the center of an intense tropical cyclone (i.e., a hurricane)

Tide-dominated delta

The sediment is moved by the ocean waters but the tidal currents rework it into long, narrow islands and submarine ridges (i.e. Ganges)

Intertidal zone

The shore area between high and low tides

Continental drift

The slow movement of landmasses as part of tectonic plates. The continents of today were once a single landmass (Pangea) that broke apart with the various fragments moving over the surface of the planet

Geosphere

The solid potion of planet Earth consisting of rocks, minerals, and sediments

Weather

The state of the atmosphere at some place and time, described in terms of such variables as temperature, precipitation, cloud cover, and wind speed

Sea

The state of the surface of the ocean with regard to waves or swells

Continental shelf

The submerged zone between the shoreline and continental slope where the seafloor slopes seaward at a gradient of less than one degree

Beach sediment budget

The sum of all sediment outputs and inputs on a beach; determines whether the beach is growing or shrinking

Mixed layer

The surface layer of the ocean that is mixed by the action of waves and tides so that the waters are nearly isothermal and isohaline; underlain by a pycnocline

Holocene

The time interval since the end of the Pleistocene Ice Age (about 10,500 years ago); the current interglacial climate

Lifetime of a gas

The time it takes for a gas to be reduced to 37% of the original amount emitted

Sulfurous aerosols

The tiny droplets of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and sulfate particles which form in the stratosphere when sulfur dioxide combines with moisture

Gross primary production

The total amount of carbon fixed into organic matter through photosynthesis in a given unit of time; usually expressed in units of grams of carbon per square m per day or year

Latent heating

The transfer of heat energy from one place to another as a consequence of the phase changes of water

Bio-fouling

The undesirable accumulation of organisms on any submerged surface

Photic zone

The upper sunlit layer of ocean where photosynthesis takes place

Electromagnetic spectrum

The various forms of electromagnetic radiation arranged and distinguished by type by their wavelength (or frequency)

Ocean commons

The vast portion of the ocean that is beyond the control of any coastal nation and essentially free to all for unlimited exploitation

Seawater

The water of the ocean, distinguished form fresh water by its higher salinity

Climate

The weather of some locality averaged over some specific interval of time (e.g., 30 years) plus extremes in weather observed during the same period or during entire period of record

Coral bleaching

The whitening of coral colonies due to the loss of symbiotic zooxanthellae from the tissue of coral polyps; may be triggered by a rise in seawater temperature

Divergent plate boundary

The zone between tectonic plates that are pulling apart with magma and new crust moving in to fill the gap; most often occurring at a mid oceanic ridge

Callendar effect

Theory that global climate change can be brought about by enhancement of the natural greenhouse effect by increasing levels of atmospheric CO2 from anthropogenic sources, principally the burning of fossil fuels. The theory is named for the British engineer Guy Stewart Callendar who investigated the link between global warming and fossil fuel combustion beginning in the late 1930s

Cartilaginous fishes

These generally primitive fishes lack true bones and their skeletons consist of cartilage. Examples include sharks, skates, and rays.

Standing wave

This is in contrast to the wind-driven waves that are progressive waves in that they move through a body of water. With wind-driven waves, crests and troughs travel along the water surface but with standing waves, crests alternate vertically with troughs but at fixed locations; a seiche is an example of standing wave

Meridional overturning circulation (MOC)

This large scale ocean overturning transport heat energy, salt, and dissolved gases (e.g., the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide) over great distances and to great depths in the world ocean and plays an important role in Earth's climate system. In the North Atlantic, for example, a warm surface ocean current flows north and eastward from the Florida Strait. At high latitudes, the surface waters cool, sink, and flow southward as cold bottom water.

Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale

This scale identifies hurricanes in five categories (1 to 5) based on ranges of wind speed; a category five hurricane has the highest range of wind speeds and is most intense. The scale also describes damage potential at each category

Greenhouse gases

Those atmospheric gases that absorb and emit terrestrial infrared radiation and contribute to the greenhouse effect in the Earth-atmosphere system. The principal greenhouse gas is water vapor; others are carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, and nitrous oxide

Flood tides

Tidal currents directed toward land, causing water levels to rise in harbors and rivers

Ebb tides

Tidal currents flowing seaward with falling sea levels

Sensible heating

Transport of heat energy form one location or object to another through conduction, convection, or both, which brings about temperature changes

The only places on Earth where the solar altitude every reaches 90 degrees during the course of a year are within the latitude belt bounded by the _______________ and the _________________

Tropic of Cancer (23.5 degrees N), Tropic of Capricorn (23.5 degrees S)

Growth overfishing

Type of overfishing in which fish are taken too small, before the animals have grown to a size that would produce the maximum yield

Recruitment overfishing

Type of overfishing where adult fish are taken in such great numbers that too few survive to replenish the breeding stock

Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs)

Un-piloted, remotely controlled powered vehicles that are not tethered to a mother ship. They carry sensors that measure ocean water properties (e.g., temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen).

ENSO Alert System

Under this system, launched by NOAA's Climate Prediction Center in 2009, and El Niño or La Niña watch is issued when conditions in the equatorial Pacific are favorable for their development within three months and an El Niño or La Niña advisory is issued when conditions have already developed and are expected to continue

Rogue wave

Unusually high wave that occurs in the open ocean as well as some coastal areas; may be the product of constructive wave interference. Defined as either 2.2 times greater than the significant wave height, or reaches a minimum of 25 m.

Abyssal storm

Unusually strong bottom current (of the order of 1.0 knot) that scours the ocean floor generating moving clouds of suspended sediments.

Equatorial upwelling

Upward circulation of cold, nutrient-rich bottom water toward the ocean surface; the consequence of convergence of the trade winds of the North and South Hemispheres plus Ekman transport

Coastal upwelling

Upward motion of cold, nutrient-rich deep water along the coast caused by Ekman transport offshore, or in the open ocean when surface waters converge toward some region.

Deep Sea Drilling Program (DSDP)

Using the drill ship "Glomar Challenger", this project sampled marine sediments and oceanic crust for scientific purposes from 1968 to 1983.

Proxy climate data sources

Various environmental sensors from which scientists infer past climate information. These sources, acting as substitutes for actual weather instruments, include historical documents, deep-sea sediment cores, pollen profiles, tree growth rings, and glacial ice cores.

Deep scattering layer (DSL)

WWII submarine sonars first detected vertical migration as a sound-scattering layer that moved up through the water after sunset and down again at sunrise. Sound waves were reflected by the millions of zooplankton organisms moving together up and down in the water column to and from the surface. Submarine commanders were able to use this knowledge to hide their vessels beneath the sound-scattering layer

Ice-albedo feedback

Warming that causes a reduction in Arctic sea-ice cover is enhanced by the lower albedo of the open ocean waters; an example of positive feedback

Precipitation

Water is frozen or unfrozen forms (rain, snow, drizzle, ice pellets, hail) that falls from clouds and reaches Earth's surface

Internal tides

Waves generated by tides well below the sea surface and occurring at tidal frequencies. Tidal currents flowing over topographic irregularities on the ocean floor generate internal waves that propagate away from their source and mixes the deep ocean. For example, as tidal currents encounter a seamount, relatively dense water is forced up into less dense water. After it passes the obstacle, the dense water sinks with momentum and overshoots, then it rises back up and causes a wave. Internal tides also influence the gradient of continental slope.

Internal waves

Waves tha generate and propagate well below the sea surface along the boundary between layers of water that differ in density. Favorable sites for development are where density varies, i.e. at the base of pycnoclines or in estuaries. The smaller the density contrast between two fluids in contact, the slower the internal wave propagates and the greater the wave height.

Synoptic-scale systems

Weather phenomena operating at the continental or oceanic spatial scale, including migrating tropical cyclones, and extratropical cyclones. These systems have dimensions of 100 to 10,000 km (60 to 6000 mi) and last form days to a week or so

Planetary-scale systems

Weather phenomena operating at the largest spatial scale of atmospheric circulation; includes the global wind belts (i.e., trade winds, westerlies, polar easterlies) and semipermanent pressure systems (e.g., subtropical anticyclones)

Microscale system

Weather phenomena representing the smallest spatial subdivision of atmospheric circulation, such as a weak tornado. These systems have dimensions of 1 m to 1 km (3 ft to less than a mile) and last from seconds to an hour or so

Mesoscale system

Weather phenomena that are so small that they influence atmospheric conditions over only a portion of a city or country; includes thunderstorms and sea breezes. THese systems have dimensions of 1 to 100 km (1 to 60 mi) and last from hours to a day or so

Destructive wave interference

When the troughs of sets of waves coincide with the crests of another set of waves producing waves of reduced height

Surf zone

Where shoreward moving waves break in shoaling coastal waters

Progressive wave

Wind-driven waves that move through a body of water

Ocean acidification

With the continuing upward trend in the concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide, concern is focused on the potential effects on the ocean's buffering ability and the viability of certain marine organisms. CO2 that is absorbed by the ocean participates in chemical reactions that increase the acidity (lowers the pH) of ocean waters.

Spatial and temporal changes in air pressure at Earth's surface arise from variations in _________, ___________, and ___________.

air temperature (principally), humidity, atmospheric circulation In the free atmosphere, air density varies inversely with both temperature and humidity

Anti-estuarine circulations

aka reverse estuaries Arid costal regions that receive less fresh water input than is lost through evaporation, the surface water becomes very saline and sink and flow seaward. Characterize the Mediterranean and Red Sea.

What are the structures of a typical undeveloped barrier reef, starting at the ocean side and going toward the mainland?

beach, dunes, marsh, flats, lagoon, flats, marsh, upland areas (pg. 222 figure)

Phosphatic sediments are rare biogenous sediments, they consist of ________________

bones, teeth, scales. Occur in places of high biological productivity

Radar-altimeter

bounces microwave signals off the sea surface and precisely measures sea level

Oceani scientists use the term ____ for measurements made at various depths in the ocean

cast

Moon's declination

cycles every 18.6 years The plane of the Moon's orbit is inclined by 5 degrees to Earth's equatorial plane so that during one lunar month, the Moon's latitudinal position moves from directly over the equator northward as much as 28.5 degrees N (5 degrees beyond the Tropic of Cancer), back to the equator, on southward to 28.5 degrees S (5 degrees beyond the Tropic of Capricorn), or as little as 18.5 degrees N and S (5 degrees less than the Tropic positions).

Under clear skies, the albedo of a flat, tranquil water surface _____ with increasing solar altitude

decreases

Barrier islands ______________ due to storm-induced washover.

migrate toward the mainland

On a global average annual basis, Earth's surface undergoes _____________ and the atmosphere undergoes _____________, but heat is also transferred from Earth's surface to the atmosphere by _________ and _________

net radiational heating, net radiation cooling, latent heating (phase changes of water), sensible heating (conduction and convection)

The water pressure expressed in decibars (0.1 bars) is _____________ to the water depth expressed in meters

numerically equivalent (i.e. the water pressure at 100 m depth is about 100 decibars)

River-dominated delta

rate of input of sediments (from rivers or streams) exceeds the rate of removal of sediments (by waves and currents) and the delta develops the class triangular shape. (i.e. Mississippi)

Differences in ________________ determines the dominant composition of lithogenous sediments delivered to the sea, which is mainly ________

rates of weathering, quartz grains (most resistant) and clay particles (common weathering products)

As the storm travels into higher latitudes, some of that water vapor condenses into clouds, thereby ____________________

releasing latent heat to the troposphere

If a breaking wave approaches the shore directly, a thin sheet of water rushes straight up the sloping beach face as _______, stops briefly, and then flows straight the slope as a ________. If a breaking wave approaches the shore at an oblique angle, the swash follows a _________ up the beach face, then __________ down slope. Together, the upwash and backwash constitute a zigzag motion that rolls particles along the beach face, known as _____________.

swash, backswash, diagonal, straight, beach drift

In broad estuaries, the Coriolis Effect influences the circulation and mixing of estuaries, causing a _____________ and _______________.

tilted halocline, lateral mixing

The primary mechanism whereby lithogenous particles reach the far-from-land deep ocean is _______

wind-borne dust (compose much of the red and brown clays near center of major ocean basins)

Suspended particles in water preferentially scatter ___________ light

yellow and green