Oceanography Final
Montreal Protocol
(1987) phase-out of ozone depleting substances
Foreshore
part of sand that is covered at high tide but uncovered at low tide
North Pacific Current
Kuroshiro Current -along coast of Japan, moves northward North Pacific current -eastward across Pacific California current -south along North America
Lagoon
a shallow stretch of seawater partly or completely separated from the open ocean by an elongate narrow strip of land such as reef or barrier island
length of moon cycle around earth
29.5 days
Estuaries—what they are
An estuary is a semienclosed coastal body of water which has a free connection with the sea and within which the seawater is measurably diluted by freshwater derived from land drainage. -these are flooded river valleys -an area where fresh water and salt water mix
Gyres: how waters move in the North and South Atlantic (original direction of motion and subsequent deflections)
At the center of a gyre, the Coriolis effect deflects the water so that it tends to move into the hill, whereas gravity moves the water down the hill. When gravity and the Coriolis effect balance, a geostrophic current flowing parallel to the contours of the hill is established. ▸ As a result of Earth's rotation, the apex (top) of the hill is located to the west of the geographical center of the gyre. A phenomenon called western intensification occurs in which western boundary currents of subtropical gyres are faster, narrower, and deeper than their eastern boundary counterparts.
Where the low and high pressure bands are
Band of low pressure, calm winds, and clouds in tropical latitudes where air converges from the southern and northern hemispheres band of high air pressure, calm winds, and clear skies that exists at about 25˚to 30˚ N and S latitude
Eddies—how they form
Pockets of water moving in a circular motion. -a meandering river (or Western-Boundary Current) pinches off portions of river which eventually form oxbow lakes (or if in ocean, eddies)
a.) El Nino What it is, what happens during it b.) How it affects world's weather
Refers to the irregular warming in the sea surface temperatures from the coasts of Peru and Ecuador to the equatorial central Pacific. It is very unpredictable. Has global weather implications: Wet weather on U.S. Gulf Coast during winter, which is usually the dry season, Strong winds storms on west coast, Heavy Rains in South America and Polynesia, Droughts in Australia, Africa, and Southern Inda, Indonesia, Reduced tropical upwelling, causing lower fish catches and coral mortality
a.) How circulation actually occurs when we include a rotating earth b.) Coriolis effect (wind "bending" in Northern and Southern hemisphere and why)
The Coriolis effect acts on all moving objects. However, it is much more pronounced on objects traveling long distances, especially north or south. This is why the Coriolis effect has a dramatic effect on atmospheric circulation and the movement of ocean currents. The Coriolis effect is a result of Earth's rotation toward the east. More specifically, the difference in the speed of Earth's rotation at different latitudes causes the Coriolis effect. In reality, objects travel along straight-line paths,4 but Earth rotates underneath them, making the object's path appear to curve.
Air pressure: What it is
The force with which an area of air presses down on the Earth's surface
Movement of tides around earth over course of a day
The position of the sun and the moon affect the tides and the moon's gravity that cause the tides to rise and fall.
Ozone hole issue
The severe depletion of the Antarctic ozone layer
Photic zone
The upper ocean in which the presence of solar radiation is detectable. It includes the euphotic and disphotic zone
Western shoreline:
Wave-cut terraces: old shorelines, has sea arches and sea stacks
Tsunamis are not caused by tides
True
Whales: 2 classes: a.) Toothed: what they eat b.) Baleen: what they eat
a. toothed whales -includes dolphins, pilot whales, killer whales, and sperm whale. typically eat fish, sperm whales like giant squid, killer whales typically eat fish like salmon, but occasionally, will take a seal b. baleen whales includes blue whales, finbacks, right whales, humpback etc. Eat mainly plankton (krill) but some will eat some shellfish as well
main force of gravity
a.) moon
Tomobolo
if a spit connects beach to an offshore island
Spit
if sediment transported across the mouth of a bay, can build up a narrow strip of sand
Respiration
process of using those sugars for fuel, either in a plant that produced the sugars or in an animal that eats the plant/other animals
Neritic zone
the coastal water environment.
Why there are two tidal bulges
two tidal bulges, one toward the moon and one away from. the maximum bulge will occur at the equator
West Australian Current
-goes north north
Tidal highs and lows can vary by place
True
Tides are not a change in sea level
True
Importance of convergence zones in terms of gases
-these areas are important because mix water masses—in downwelling regions, mix gases down from surface—so for example, CO2 can be moved to deeper locations
Two types of breaking waves, and their characteristics
- 1. plungers—top of wave curls over—falls over a pocket of air—in extreme cases, this produces the tube that surfers ride on -2. spillers—top of wave just sort of spills over and slides down the front of wave
annual and daily affects of water's moderating influence on climate
- Annual range in temperature for oceans and for land is different--ocean has much less extreme ranges
Tides what are tides?
- Gravitationally-driven movements —at given point in the day, the water level rises to a certain level (high tide), and then it falls to a certain level (low tide), then comes back in --not a change in sea level—when we talk about sea level, generally mean the average water level between high and low tides -but, different areas have different range between high and low tides, some areas, tides vary by just a couple of feet, other places, can be up to 30 feet
Thermohaline circulation
- In summer, get a lot of sunlight at ocean's surface, warms surface waters, lowers density—stable situation, where density increases with depth -but in the fall/winter, less sunlight on ocean, surface waters start to cool down—making water denser, --this denser water over less dense water is unstable—denser water will start to sink -in winter/fall, also have more storms, which mixes up the surface waters, so the temperature of the water is similar down to depth—basically we get rid of the rigid structure have in summer
Western intensification: what it is, and why it forms.
- in both hemispheres, the water moving along the continent on the western side of the ocean basin tends to move the fastest -due mainly to the fact that the strength of the Coriolis effect varies with latitude, causes water to speed up a bit --see this the most in northern Hemisphere--by contrast in Southern Hemisphere in Atlantic, Brazil sticks out too much and gets in the way, in Pacific, some water "leaks" out of current and into Indonesia top of hill of water displaced toward wst due to Earth's rotation
South Equatorial current
- in north, current runs east to west
Rising global temperatures and potential consequences: a.) Melting ice sheets b.) Weather patterns c.) Flooding d.) Economics
- melting glaciers/ice sheets—leads to increasing sea levels —if all ice melts, major coastal areas would be underwater —less land for people to live on —currently rising at 1 foot/century, but if CO2 levels continue to rise, could start to melt ice faster, have sea level rise faster too --changes in weather patterns—obviously, some areas would get warmer, but would also change precipitation patterns—warmer planet would have more evaporation, would lead to more clouds, more rain in certain areas --this would affect the main agricultural areas—some would become too dry/warm to produce food (i.e., Midwest), agricultural areas would probably shift towards the poles, i.e., Canada --minimally, this would affect economics—who controls food supplies -but, soils in these new areas may not be able to grow crops well—may drastically reduce world food supplies, could lead to food shortages --Glaciers and ice fields are melting at an alarming rate. Every single place in the world with glaciers and ice fields are reporting diminishing ice cover and thickness. They are also reporting milder winters, less snow, etc. While some places on earth are colder, there are more that are warmer - Flooding
Layers of the atmosphere: What the "ozone hole" problem is (what causes it, and what is being done)
--Ozone can be destroyed by man-made compounds such as CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons such as Freon), which are still released into the atmosphere at a high rate from the advanced nations of the world. Freon is a gas used in refrigeration. --Almost every air conditioner (car and house), refrigerator, and freezer ever built until about 1998 used these CFCs to keep things cool. With the passage of new international laws at the UN, the US and many other countries are phasing out CFCs and replacing them with compounds that are less harmful to the O3 layer
CO2 levels and post-Industrial Revolution trends
--burning of fossil fuels releases CO2 --This includes cars, planes, electrical, etc. -how is this affecting CO2 levels in the atmosphere? -if you look at records of CO2 levels in the atmosphere, have been increasing since the early 1900s --In the past forty years or so we have had about twenty of the hottest years on record! have suggested that volcanoes may be responsible for large, sudden increases in CO2and we know some of the sinks (oceans, plants). Since the mid-1800's or so, humans have been using industrial technology—cars, factories, planes, etc.
extreme weather (e.g. Winnipeg interior) vs. milder weather (e.g. Vancouver coastal)
--on land, hottest and coldest places are in interiors of continents (e.g. Australian Outback, non-coastal Siberia) January averages—note that the extremely hot and cold places are in the continents' interiors, and the ocean temperatures remain more mild --we can see this on a US weather map on almost any day -On the same day it is 85 in Miami, it is 13 in Regina, Saskatchewan. This could easily be the case in April or maybe October. Such extremes would never be the case in the oceans. Here in the Gulf region, winter temperatures do not get below the 50s at sea, or above the 80s
Temperature gradients
--very difficult living environment—not only is it dark, but this close to vents, have incredible temperature gradients—mixing 350° vent water with 4° ocean water
Exchange of gases: the major three:
-Another air-sea interaction is the exchange of gases -exchange any gas between atmosphere and ocean—major ones are nitrogen, oxygen, and CO2
Layers of the atmosphere: What the ozone layer is
-Stratosphere -The molecule ozone (O3) is concentrated in a layer of the atmosphere called the stratosphere, where it absorbs significant amounts of shortwave radiation from the Sun. --O3 is created by the combination of molecular oxygen and O2 in the upper atmosphere. Specifically, ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation, which causes sunburn, and, at a cellular level, mutations, which can possibly lead to skin cancer.
"Greenhouse effect": how it works, its effect on earth's climate, evidence for it, "fossil fuel" burning (coal, oil, natural gas):
-CO2 in atmosphere—allows incoming radiation from sun to pass through atmosphere-- But doesn't allow radiation from surface to go back through atmosphere (has to do with change in the wave length of the radiation—traps heat)
b.) Energy sources from circulation: Potential problems caused by OTEC
-Discharge of cold water at the oceans surface from OTEC generators releases CO2 to the atmosphere --plants are inefficient because about one-third of the electricity the plant produces is used to pump cold water up from the deep ocean.
CO2 in atmosphere:
-Hear about CO2 all the time—increase in the CO2 content in atmosphere is thought to cause "greenhouse effect"—but what is this? -CO2 in atmosphere—allows incoming radiation from sun to pass through atmosphere-- But doesn't allow radiation from surface to go back through atmosphere (has to do with change in the wave length of the radiation—traps heat) -can see that the level of CO2 is rising—due to burning of fossil fuels
2004 December tsunami: which nations it affected, its extent of devastation, where the epicenter was located (just west of Sumatra)
-In February 2010 there was an earthquake in Chile that caused a local tsunami, accounting for some of the 279 reported fatalities --Worst tsunami disaster in modern history was tsunami of December 2004— killed hundreds of thousands-horrendous tragedy
High and low pressure areas in winter vs. summer as relating to continents
-In summer, land heats up much faster, so air over land is also heated, hot air is less dense, so it rises—low pressure system—so areas of low pressure expand over continents in summer -Oceans are colder than land in summer, colder=denser=high pressure system—so high pressure areas cluster over oceans in summer -Things change in winter, then, land is generally colder than ocean, so air over ocean is cold too—HIGH pressure area, so areas of high pressure expand over continents
Effect of land, water distribution (different heat capacities)
-Land has low heat capacity—gets hot or cold very easily—so get large temperature changes between day/night and summer/winter -But water has high heat capacity—takes a long time to get hot or cold— small temperature change between day/night or summer/winter -Can tell this just on a summer day—on shore, very warm, but if go near shore or out on boat, much cooler - Annual range in temperature for oceans and for land is different--ocean has much less extreme ranges
Tsunamis: Why they are difficult to detect out at sea
-NOT very large out at sea—1-2 m high or so
ocean absorption
-Oceans are a reservoir for CO2—which means CO2 is stored in the oceans—in fact, oceans are the largest reservoir of CO2 on earth—hold more CO2 than atmosphere -As CO2 levels in the atmosphere rise, more CO2 becomes dissolved in the oceans—it is basically a storage area for CO2 - CO2 levels affect the pH of the water—how acidic or basic water is -increasing CO2 levels make water more basic—plants/animals have a very low tolerance for changes in pH—so could kill off animals in oceans
Sea breezes, land breezes -Peninsular Florida weather: collision of sea breezes in late afternoon in central part of state, and what effects are
-Since land hotter than ocean, air over land rises, air from over ocean comes in to replace this—much cooler since it has been over ocean—forms on shore breeze (seabreeze) -But at night this actually reverses, at night, land cools off very quickly, but ocean's temperature doesn't change—so now, have warmer air over ocean rising, air from over land flows in to replace this—get an offshore breeze
OTEC (ocean thermal energy conversion)
-Thermal differences in surface and deep water -Thermal energy conversion plants use the surface water to make steam and then pass the steam through a turbine generator to make electricity -artificially causing an upwelling region—which would bring nutrient rich waters to surface, and could affect naturally biological balance -also have had ideas of putting turbines out in currents, just like we do in rivers -motion of water moves turbines, generates electricity -Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) plants require difference in water temp. of about 20ºC between the surface and deep layer in order to operate effectively. -Therefore, OTEC can be used most efficiently in the tropics between 25ºN and 25ºS
Layers of the atmosphere: How these are determined
-Troposphere—bottom layer—we live in troposphere—this is where all weather occurs in atmosphere (Also, temperature decreases with height—most of heat is gained from surface of Earth - Temperature structure of troposphere—as you climb a mountain, gets colder --boundary between troposphere and stratosphere is called the tropopause -Next layer is the stratosphere—(stratosphere--temperature increases with height—this is due to presence of ozone—ozone absorbs lots of heat, so it heats up this layer of the atmosphere) --mesosphere, thermosphere are above these (temperature drops as you go up in mesosphere, rises as you go up in thermosphere)
Coral's protective role for fish, etc., and how they form an ecosystem
-a reef is made up of hundreds of colonies of these corals which in turn colonies are made up of hundred or thousands of individuals -formation of these reefs provides lots of protection for fish and other creatures -since corals are forming in shallow waters, usually offshore of continent or on volcano, exposed to lots of wave energy --so the front of a reef does not have many inhabitants -most of fish/etc. will live on the top of the reef—in lagoon, an area of shallow water which is protected by the front of the reef
Kuroshiro Current
-along coast of Japan, moves northward
Also, why there is not Western intensification in the south Atlantic, and why there is less of it in the western Pacific
-found only in the northern Pacific Ocean -caused by the rotational center of a gyre being located to the west of the ocean basin's geographic center, thus causing more water to flow within a narrower "channel" -another name for the process of thermohaline flow -demonstrated by El Niño -another term for Ekman transport
Importance of divergence zones biologically Changes in currents along western US coast, affecting motion of water seasonally
-also get seasonal variations in wind direction causing upwelling/downwelling -along western North American coast, dominant winds change from north winds in summer to south winds in winter -remember that Ekman transport moves most water 90° from wind -so in summer, as wind moves north to south, water moved 90° to right—so water moves OFFSHORE, causes upwelling of deeper waters to replace this water -in winter, winds move south to north, so water moves 90° to right of this—moves water onshore—so forces waters to downwell along coast
Use of color by sea creatures
-also have had to adapt to using different colors are camouflage -some animals use "countershading" -these creatures have dark colored backs but light colored bellies
Tsunamis What they are and why they occur (causes)
-also known incorrectly as tidal waves—misnomer, not actually tidally driven -form usually due to earthquakes underwater—sudden movement of land pushes water out of the way, starts a large wave
Volcanic eruptions
-are examples of volcanic eruptions occurring just prior to a cooling event or even an ice age—often look for sulfuric acid spikes in glaciers. But volcanoes may also lead to warming of the climate!
(Waves) a.) Circular motion of wave water b.) Relationship of wavelength to wave depth c.) Speed=wavelength/period d.) Know three factors that affect wave height e.) 1/7 ratio f.) Wave break g.) Maximum height of wave h.) Wave sorting i.) Swell j.) Wave trains
-as crest approaches, this particle gets moved upward -as crest is directly over particle, stops moving up and Moves forward—this is the only forward movement -but as soon as the crest starts to pass, the particle will fall again -as trough passes, the particle will actually start moving in the opposite direction -as trough continues to move, particle will start to move upwards as next crest approaches -so, if you draw this motion of forward, down, backwards, up, get a circle—water molecules in a wave move in circular orbits --for surface waters, the size of the orbit is the same length as the wave height -as you get further beneath surface, get smaller and smaller orbits because less and less energy with depth --when the depth equals 1/2 the wavelength, motion stops—wave only "felt" down to this depth Speed=wavelength/period 1. wind speed—how fast the wind is blowing 2. wind duration—how long the wind blows 3. fetch—the distance over the water that the wind blows in a single direction --there is also a maximum height that a wave can reach -depends on the ratio of the height to the wavelength of the wave—this is a measure of the steepness of the wave (Steepness=height/length) -when this ratio is 1/7, wave becomes too steep and it will start to collapse—or breaks -typically get small, unstable waves—when these "collapse" or break—form white caps -as long wavelength waves get way ahead of storm—this is what causes the long, uniform waves called "swell"—when a storm is coming—they say on the news sometimes that the storm swell is of a certain height -now usually not just one storm out in the ocean—lots of storms—so have these progressions of waves or a "wave-train" moving in different directions -obviously, there are going to have times when the wave trains from different storms are going to run into each other—what happens then? -depends on what parts of waves hit
Gulf Stream
-as moves North along North America
Canary Current
-as moves south along Europe/Africa
North Equatorial Current
-as moves west across s. Atlantic
West wind drift, Benguela Current
-as moves west to east, called West Wind Drift
Wave refraction: what it is and why it occurs
-as waves move into shore line and start to interact with the bottom, can also "refract" -this happens because the seafloor is not a constant depth, going to have variations like hills/valleys -as the waves approach the beach, one part of it will probably move into an area where the bottom is shallower, starts to slow down, rest of the line of waves continues at regular speed --this is why waves often hit beach at an angle—which in turn causes longshore drift
Harnessing energy of tides a.) How it is done, and what conditions are needed for it b.) Pitfalls of this technique
-basically, have to have an area with fairly large tidal range (5-7 m) -build a dam across a harbor, as tide rises, let water in behind the dam, then close doors -as tide moves back out, now have trapped water behind dam, steep drop off in front of dam -let water out from behind the dam, turns a turbine, and generates electricity -can generate a lot of power this way, especially if have a really large tidal range but, does damage to ecosystems—if damming an area, some areas are flooding, also affected creatures/processes which depend on tides
Rising and falling air locations
-get rising air at equator and at about 60°N/S latitude (low pressure) -has to be falling somewhere—basically at one place—at about 30°N/S latitude (high pressure)
Coral reefs: what conditions are needed for them to form, know that there are some cold water coral reefs
-book says that coral reefs can only form in warm water --for the most part that is true, but in the last couple of years, have discovered that there actually "cool-water" reefs -similar to better known warm water reefs just in cooler water --in either case, HAVE to be in shallow water—maximum seems to be about 150m deep --this is because need sunlight to grow—HAVE to be well into the photic zone -so what is a coral reef? -actually two organisms
Troposphere
-bottom layer— we live in troposphere—this is where all weather occurs in atmosphere (Also, temperature decreases with height) -most of heat is gained from surface of Earth -Temperature structure of troposphere—as you climb a mountain, gets colder
What coral is, how it eats
-coral itself is an ANIMAL—secretes a CaCO3 shell and attaches itself to the bottom -but has to be in sunlight because this animal actually houses an algae -animal part is actually carnivorous—uses stinging cells similar to catch its prey --but have found that the algae actually partially feed the coral as well
North Atlantic Current
-current blowing west to east across northern Atlantic
Tsunami warning system: where it failed us
-do have a tsunami warning system—if any earthquake occurs around Pacific, immediately watch for tsunamis -But they did not have a proper one in place for the Indian Ocean -since they travel so fast, can cross the whole Pacific within a few days
Spring tides: what they are, their causes, and in what phases of the moon we find them
-during the new moon phase of the moon, have Earth, then moon, then sun -in this position, since moon and sun are lined up, so are their tidal bulges and depressions -result is higher high tides and lower low tides since adding together the tidal bulges/depressions of two bodies--called "spring tides"
South Equatorial Current
-east to west current
North Pacific Current
-eastward across Pacific
West Wind Drift (South Pacific)
-eastward current-this current actually goes around Australia—sometimes called the circum-polar current
a.) Deep water vs. shallow water waves b.) At what point waves shift over from deep water to shallow water
-for a wave to be considered a "deep-water wave", the water depth must be greater than 1/2 the wavelength -so, if the wavelength is 100 meters (distance from crest to crest), then it is only considered a deep-water wave if it occurs in water which is deeper than 50 meters --remember, that the water in a wave stops moving at a depth=1/2 the wavelength, so for a deep-water wave, motion of the water stops before it hits the seafloor -these occur in water which is shallower than 1/2 of the wavelength --so the motion of the water in the wave actually hits the seafloor --basically, the seafloor interferes with the movement of the water in a wave -so have wave moving from deep water, water deeper than the level of wave action, so no interference with seafloor -but as moves in towards the coast, moves into shallower water (sloping up towards the beach) -at some point, reaches a point where the depth of the water is less than 1/2 of the wavelength—wave motion hits the seafloor -now water is trying to move along seafloor—but have friction resisting forward motion --wave slows down due to this friction -if look at the orbits of motion with in the wave, the deeper ones actually hit the bottom, so the motion flattens out—get an ellipse instead of a circle -at a certain point, get so shallow, that wave gets too steep and the wave actually breaks, or falls over, like "stubbing your toe"
Fluid balances (osmosis), and how controlled
-have creature with lot of fresh water in it, living in salty water -sets up a gradient—high levels of fresh water in organism and low levels of fresh water outside the organisms—natural tendency is for water to flow from high to low areas—so fresh water wants to flow OUT of organism into ocean water— which would lead to dehydration in the creatures -so have to get around this problem of fluid loss -some creatures, like sharks/sea cucumbers have evolved so their body fluids are saltier than other creatures—closer to seawater, so there is no gradient, and then no fluid loss -other creatures like fish constantly drink seawater, excrete salt from the gills, so as they lose fluids to ocean due to salt imbalance, constantly replacing it too 3 -then, also have other creatures who live in ocean areas part of time, but breed in freshwater or in estuaries with high changes in salinity—not exactly known how these creatures are able to move to such contrasting areas of salinity
b.) How the communities of organisms there live
-have lots of communities around these areas -these are fairly large biologic communities that live thousands of meters below seafloor, in total darkness—not surviving on photosynthesis at all -vent fields are typically size of swimming pool to size of tennis court -found at all spreading centers, but with huge distances in between—thousands of miles -so how do these communities survive? -through chemosynthesis rather than photosynthesis -how does this work? As fluids come out of vent, rich in sulfur (that got stripped out of the rocks) -there are bacteria in/on the rocks which take that sulfur out of the fluids and use it to make food, just like a plant uses sunlight/and CO2 to make food. --this conversion of sulfur to foods is the basis of the chemosynthetic food chain—other organisms feed off these bacteria
How sharks and whales stay under water so long
-have more blood than land animals—so they can store up more oxygen while at the surface -also can slow down their heart rates during dives, slower beats, more efficient -and shuts down blood flow to extremities, just keeps blood flowing to major organs -then when comes up to surface, everything goes back to normal
slightly stratified estuary
-have stronger influx of river water and moderate currents - get salt water moving underneath fresh, but mostly mixing
Destructive Interference
-if a wave crest hits a trough —basically moving the crest of one wave into the trough of the other —makes smaller waves -reduced wave height -When two waves that are 180 degrees out-of-phase interfere, perfect destructive interference occurs
Constructive Interference
-if wave crests (or troughs) hit—just make bigger waves —basically just adding one wave to another—wave heights increase -When waves with identical wavelengths interfere, perfect constructive interference occur for waves that are in phase and moving at the same velocity
Why the Pacific and Indian Oceans do not have northern deep water formation
-in Pacific, North Pacific is a little less salty than in Atlantic, even if it gets REALLY cold, isn't dense enough to sink down and form the equivalent of NADW -don't also seem to be forming lots of AABW there either -currently thought that waters in the Pacific are really a mixture of different deep waters, AAIW, AABW, and also some NADW -in Indian Ocean, also don't get distinct layering system -in Southern Hemisphere, so no deep water forming close to North Pole (because of land) -most of water is probably mixture of different deep waters --So northern deep water is ONLY formed in Atlantic Ocean --You have both surface and deep water flows
Convergence/Divergence: What these are, and what happens to ocean water at these locals at the surface and in terms of upwelling, downwelling
-in convergence zones—water masses moving towards each other—downwelling of surface water occurs -in divergence zone—water masses moving away from each other—upwelling of deep waters occur
How deep sea vent communities terminate
-individual vent fields are NOT permanent features—appear to thrive on order of few years to a few decades, then they shut down. Why? -fractures may seal off in some areas, cutting off the hydrothermal circulation on one area -circulating water may strip all of heat out of certain rocks, shuts down -also, sometimes get a lava flow over community, kills off all the organisms which are attached to rocks
1. vertically-mixed estuary
-lots of mixing between salt/fresh water -usually in areas with little river outflow AND strong currents—mixes water very nicely -so do NOT get layered structure—just get a gradient in salt content
Damming
-sediments in rivers are the main source of sand on beaches -if you dam up rivers, sediment is trapped behind dams -so amount of sand is reduced to beaches -longshore transport is constantly removing sand—so if don't replenish it, beaches erode away
c.) The most prominent organism found there
-most of the organisms are tubeworms -tubeworms up to 3 feet long -clams up to 1 ft. across -mussels, shrimp, crabs-huge crabs
Peru Current
-northward along South America
How whales/sharks overcome "the bends"
-one thing is that they don't breathe air under pressure, like a scuba divers, so when the air goes into their lungs, at regular air pressure -also, their lungs are compressible—at higher pressures at depth, their lungs squish down, this forces out any air that is not deep in the lungs, which may also help with preventing the bends
Harnessing energy of waves a.) How it is done b.) Pitfalls of this technique
-several different ways to do this, can have the wave basically run into a funnel, as wave motion moves up, water moves up funnel, then have this water run down a channel and turn a turbine -also, can build an "air trap"—basically, water flows inside, as wave in this chamber moves up, squashes/compresses the air trapped at the top of the chamber—forces air to turn a turbine -unlike tidal generators, could build these generators in much greater area -But, don't really know how this would affect coastal processes—need waves to produce longshore drift, etc. -haven't been used widely
Bulge of water in middle of the gyre, motion of water down the slope of surface of gyre, and inward at depth
-so, set up large circular areas of movement around edges of ocean basins -but, Ekman transport is 90° to right or left of wind, so overall motion of water is in towards the center -all this water moving towards each other—get essentially a bulge of ocean water in the center of the circle -but then gravity starts making water flow down the slope of this bulge - if the amount of water flowing inward is equal to the amount flowing down slope of bulge—then in balance—instead of moving inward, the water just moves around in circle
East Australia Current
-south along Australia
California Current
-south along North America
Agulhas Current
-southward current
highly stratified estuary
-strong river influx and weaker currents—not as much mixing occurs
Stratosphere
-temperature increases with height, due to presence of ozone -ozone absorbs lots of heat, so it heats up this layer of the atmosphere
Controls on growth of phytoplankton, including seasonal spikes of primary production
-the amount of biomass/phytoplankton is highly dependant on the amounts of nutrients in an area—since they need nutrients to live -have both regional and seasonal changes just like with sunlight
What benthic organisms are, how we classify them
-these are creatures that live ON the seafloor -many of the creatures can move, either by walking or by swimming short distances, but spend most of their life on the ocean floor, not in water -as we mentioned previously, we can break up the benthic area into 2 regions, the intertidal zone (which is exposed at low tide, but covered at high tide) and the subtidal zone, which is always below low tide—always covered with water.
Biomass: including relationship between primary productivity and biomass.
-total amount of living material in an area. These two closely related—in areas of high primary productivity (high phytoplankton) going to have high amount of other creatures which eat phytoplankton or other creatures, so in areas of high primary productivity, have high biomass and vice versa
Trash Dumping
-until very recently, this was legal too, now outlawed -but again, some may still do it —just bring garbage out on barge, then tip it
Sea stars: how they move and eat
-used to be called starfish, but now calling them this because they are actually NOT a fish, and it was confusing -legs of a sea star have little tubes on bottom -uses these tubes to eat its prey—clams and mussels! -basically wraps around mussel/clam -mussel has to use muscles to keep its shell closed, -but, sea stars have continuous rows of these tubes down each leg, uses some of these tubes to try to pry open shell, can rest some tubes while others continue trying to pry it open, eventually mussel gets tired, can't keep shell shut -once sea star gets the shell open a tiny bit, it is all over, its stomach comes out of its body, into the clam shell and digests the clam, then, moves back into sea star
salt wedge estuary
-very little mixing between fresh and salt water -higher density salt water flows inland at base, fresh river water flows over it, little mixing along interface
The four main types of estuaries
1) coastal plain estuaries 2) tectonic estuaries 3) bar-built estuaries 4) fjord estuaries
Two major classifications of nekton (Invertebrates and Vertebrates, and what distinguishes them)
1. invertebrates—creatures who do not have backbones 2. vertebrates—creatures who do have back bones
Reptiles: 3 main types in the oceans
1. salt-water crocodiles, similar to alligators/freshwater crocs, but MUCH larger—huge! 2. seasnakes—manydifferenttypesofseasnakes— 3. Sea Turtles
Energy sources from circulation: Two effects of Ocean Thermal Energy conversion (OTEC)
1.) it has to be proven to be cost effective 2.) renewable -would have the difficulties of actually building a structure out in a current -would also have to harness only rapidly moving currents, an imbalance
Fjords
A long narrow deep U-shaped inlet that usually represents the seaward end of a glacial valley that has become partially submerged after the melting of the glacier
Estuaries
A partially enclosed costal body of water in which salty ocean water is significally diluted by freshwater from land runoff.
Antarctic Intermediate Water, Antarctic Deep Water, and where they lie in relation to the North Atlantic Deep Water
AIW and NADW have about the same temperatures. AAIW is denser than the surface water above it, so it is cooler than surface water.
"Idealized" non-rotating earth: how circulation would look and why
Air always moves from high pressure to low pressure, so air travels from the high pressure at the poles toward the low pressure at the equator. Thus, there are strong northerly winds in the Northern Hemisphere and strong southerly winds in the Southern Hemisphere.3 The air warms as it makes its way back to the equator, completing the loop
Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, "tidal bore"
Bay of Fundy: -world's largest tidal range found? -A small harbor near Blomidon Provincial Park, Nova Scotia, Canada in the Bay of Fundy Tidal Bore: -A steep-fronted wave that moves up some rivers when the tide rises in the coastal ocean. -Wall of water that moves up rivers, large amplitude tides, and true "tidal wave".
a localized tsunami
Chile 2010
CFC's
Chlorinated Fluorocarbons are chemicals that break down the ozone layer atmospheric constituents that have the greatest ability to absorb heat on a per-mole basis.
Heat budget: how heat on earth is kept in balance by oceans
Distribution and disposition of heat energy on Earth's surface
Diurnal tides, and causes
Diurnal: 1 high tide and 1 low tide per day; tidal period 24 hours and 50 min; shallow inland sea -moon is not always positioned over the Earth's equator—sometimes it is a bit north of equator, sometimes a bit south -then, the tidal bulges are north and south of equator—-now, depending on where you are on the earth, may not get two high/low tides in a day —when we start off, under the tidal bulge, then rotates out to a low tide, but as it continues to the opposite side of the bulge, is too far north of the bulge—so don't get another high tide -this type of tide is called a "diurnal tide"
Air pressure: How flows between high and low pressure
Earth's surface winds are caused by air moving from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure.
Ekman spiral: what it is, how it influences water motion, and the difference in deflection angle between surface waters and waters at depth
Ekman spiral a "theoretical" model of the effect of the surface wind on the upper surface layer of the ocean. -wind blowing only on the surface of the ocean causes water in the entire upper surfaces layer of the ocean to move in a different direction. (90 dgrees to the right in the N hemisphere) -90 degrees to the right of the wind in the northern hemisphere and 90 degrees to the left of the wind in the southern hemisphere
About what percent of heat is absorbed by the earth's surface, about what percent by the atmosphere, about what percent reflected by atmosphere, and about what percent reflected by earth's surface
However, only about 47% of the solar radiation that is directed toward Earth reaches Earth's surface and is absorbed by the oceans and continents. Of the 53% of solar radiation that isn't absorbed by land or water, about 23% is absorbed by molecules in the atmosphere, dust, and clouds, and about 30% is reflected back into space by atmospheric backscatter, clouds, and reflective regions of Earth's surface.
example of a tsunami
Japan 2011
Bands
Location: There is a band of low pressure at equator and at 60°N/S and a band of high pressure at 30° N/S due to convection cells in the atmosphere -Wind blows along surface AWAY from high pressure towards low pressure areas, so winds blow north AND south away from 30° lat towards equator and poles -but winds get deflected to right as they flow -forms three bands of winds • northeast trades, westerlies, and the polar easterlies
How oceans balance budget by giving of heat
On average, heat gained and heat lost by the oceans balance each other on a global scale, whereby the excess heat from low latitudes is transferred to heat-deficient high latitudes by both oceanic and atmospheric circulation.
When the lows dominate the continents, when the highs dominate the continents, and why
Seasonal changes in heath and pressure. The highs predominate continents in winter, and the lows in summer -ocean is warm relative to continents in winter, so warms air, creates low pressure areas—so low pressure expands over oceans in winter -variation is temperature of land/oceans also has other effects on weather—affects local winds -during the day, especially in summer, hot outside, land heats up a lot, but oceans do not
Semidiurnal Tides, Causes
Semidiurnal: 2 high tides and 2 low tides; tidal period is 12 hours 25 min; high tides of similar height and low tides of similar height; east coast (High tide is lower than normal and low tide is higher than)
Caribbean Current
South Equatorial Current -in southern Atlantic, water moving from east to west near equator —but it bumps into the bulge in the coast of Brazil—splits the current -northern part goes into Caribbean where it eventually becomes the Florida Current -rest of the current goes south along Brazilian coast—Brazil current -as moves west to east, called West Wind Drift -as moves north along Africa—Benguela current -so four main currents make up the South Atlantic Gyre --at equator, moving ocean water to the west in both sides, also have a smaller flow of water back to east, to get rid of some of this water piling up against continents—Equatorial Counter Current
Layers of the atmosphere: Which one has the ozone layer
Stratosphere
Seasonal differences in movement of sand (on and off shore)--Winter and summer beach profile
Summer, have low wave action, typically moves a lot of sand ONTO the beach, builds up the berm, forms the classic profile we just talked about, NOT a lot of sand offshore. Winter, lots of storm waves—wash sand off the beach—erode away the berm completely in most cases, transport sand to offshore area—makes the hill or ridge of sand off shore
secondary force of gravity
Sun
Interference Pattern
The wave pattern produced when two or more waves interact.
"The Eastern American Fall Line" and Washington DC
This fall line connects Richmond, Fredericksburg, Washington DC, Baltimore and Havre de Grace
Mediterranean salt water "tongue"
Tongue of salinity minimum at mid‐depth Important mid‐depth THC component Warmer and fresher than AABW Formed further north in the Southern Ocean
Layers of the atmosphere: Which one is the "weather sphere"
Troposphere
Deep-sea vent communities a.) What they are
Vents along Mid Ocean Ridge—have hydrothermal circulation going on. -remember, seawater gets into cracks along ridge, heat from magma heats up seawater, dissolves out lots of minerals from rocks, then, when water rises back to ocean floor, cools rapidly and dumps out the minerals—mainly metals have hydrothermal circulation going on, remember, seawater gets into cracks along ridge, heat from magma heats up seawater, dissolves out lots of minerals from rocks, then, when water rises back to ocean floor, cools rapidly and dumps out the minerals—mainly metals. -these are fairly large biologic communities that live thousands of meters below seafloor, in total darkness—not surviving on photosynthesis at all- --most of the organisms are tube worms ---very difficult living environment—not only is it dark, but this close to vents, have incredible temperature gradients—mixing 350° vent water with 4° ocean water --fractures may seal off in some areas, cutting off the hydrothermal circulation on one area -circulating water may strip all of heat out of certain rocks, shuts down -also, sometimes get a lava flow over community, kills off all the organisms which are attached to rocks
Three major greenhouse gases and their origins
Water vapor - Carbon dioxide - Methane -
Dune
a costal deposit of sand lying landward of the beach and deriving its sand from onshore winds that transport beach sand inland
a.) Rising and falling air locations b.) Bands, Westerlies c.)Trade Winds, Polar Easterlies
a.) convection current - a single closed-flow circuit of rising warm material and falling cool material doldrums - the zone of rising air near the equator known for sultry air and variable breezes b.) bands: Subtropical High (STH) pressure system - band of high air pressure, calm winds, and clear skies that exists at about 25˚to 30˚ N and S latitude Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) - Band of low pressure, calm winds, and clouds in tropical latitudes where air converges from the southern and northern hemispheres Westerlies: Global Winds that blow from the 30o latitudes to the 60o latitudes in both hemispheres. They blow from the west and blow towards the poles. c.) Global Winds that blow from the 30o latitudes to the equator. The early traders used these winds to sail west., the primary wind system in the tropics that flows toward the ITCZ on the equatorial side of the Subtropical High pressure system. These winds flow to the southwest in the northern hemisphere and to the northwest in the southern hemisphere
a.) Influence of coastlines on tides
a.) -Also have an effect of the coastline -If have a narrow bay, as tide moves in, get essentially funneled into it—this is what makes really big tides—i.e., Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia—this is location of largest tides in world—30 m tidal range -When the tide causes water to come in a single wave to fill up a bay that is dry at low tide, we call it a tidal bore
Tides a.) Driving forces b.) Centrifugal force and gravity
a.) -Gravitational attraction, mainly of the moon but also of the sun -so, there is a balance of gravity and centrifugal force holding moon in orbit around sun --keeps the Earth and the moon in their positions b.) -Have moon and Earth in space, both are pulling on each other, but they do not go crashing into each other -Have an equal force pulling in opposite direction on moon and Earth—centrifugal force -The moon completes its orbit around the earth in 27.3 days
Waves a.) Force primarily responsible for waves b.) Crest c.) Trough d.) Amplitude e.) Wavelength f.) Period
a.) currents are motion of surface water due to sustained wind systems—these winds are the prevalent winds that occur in bands around the Earth (but can also get motions of water due to more localized winds—i.e., storm systems.) a.) -highest point—crest -lowest point—trough b.) -distance from trough to trough OR crest to crest c.)-wavelength -vertical distance from crest to trough d.) amplitude=1/2 wave height e.) —wave height -vertical distance from either crest OR trough to level of undisturbed water f.) -time for two successive troughs or crests to pass a point—period
Hurricanes a.) What they are, how they build energy (latent heat) *Key recent events 2004 season (4 storms), 2005 season (Katrina, and exhausting of the alphabet), 2008 (Frances), 2009 (milder), Sandy (2012)*
a.) need WARM WATER FOR FUEL. sea surface temp above 26 degrees C warm surface water layer at least 60 m deep. you need more water vapor to go into converging winds, because it is easier evaporate, then condense and release latent heat. warm tropical waters, low pressure
a.) Nature of shallow water waves (stubbing toe due to interference with sea floor) b.) The way circular motion of water changes
a.) slow due to friction b.)-as crest approaches, this particle gets moved upward -as crest is directly over particle, stops moving up and Moves forward—this is the only forward movement -but as soon as the crest starts to pass, the particle will fall again -as trough passes, the particle will actually start moving in the opposite direction -as trough continues to move, particle will start to move upwards as next crest approaches -so, if you draw this motion of forward, down, backwards, up, get a circle—water molecules in a wave move in circular orbits
Wind-driven motion a.) Current formation: from wind b.) Influence of Coriolis Effect on currents
a.) the main factor in the formation of surface currents b.) eastward flow between north and south equatorial currents, due to minimal coriolis effect at equator, gyres, surface currents
Thermohaline circulation 1.) Seasonal variations 2.) Summer (stable profile, more layered) 3.) Winter (unstable profile) wind mixing effects 4.) "Freshwater lid" from melting, rivers in high latitudes Atlantic Ocean Structure
a.)Due to variation of solar radiation at various latitudes and seasons the thermoclines look different. permanent vs. seasonal thermocline (if seasonal is found at all will be above permanent thermocline in mixed layer) (a) mid-latitudes with significant seasonal variation, (b) low latitudes where climate tends to be uniformly warm through the year, and (c) high latitudes where climate tends to be uniformly cold through the year. a)mid-latitudes temp and depth of the mixed layer undergo seasonal changes, shallow seasonal thermocline in the summer and its disappearance in the winter strong winds produce deep mixing and surface-water temperatures are cold, producing nearly a vertical temperature profile in the upper 200 to 300 m. In the summer surface temperatures rise and winds decrease, the mixed layer will become more shallow and a strong (steep temperature gradient) seasonal thermocline can develop above the permanent thermocline At low latitudes, surface temperatures are warm and constant throughout the year no seasonal thermoclines and the three distinct temperature layers are quite stable. At high latitudes above about 60°, there is no permanent thermocline However, weak seasonal thermoclines can develop in the summer. At high latitudes there is often a layer of cold water 50 to 100 m below the surface
Density-driven circulation a.) Sea ice formation and salinity (again)
a.)extremely dense (the densest water in ocean) due to its extreme cold and salty nature. Formed from southern Hemisphere sea ice formation. - As ice forms in ocean, does not take out salt—leaves it behind, so if a lot of ice forms, left over water is saltier
Diatoms
aka "golden algae" because of their color. have microscopic shell made out of silica—so if have enough of them in an area, can make silica sediments.all different shaped diatoms—but all of them have fairly large surface area, so they stay afloat -also have oils in them to lower density—floats
rays skeleton makeup
rays, are flat, elongated fish again, with only cartilage, not bones
Vertebrates a.) Fish
all other nekton creatures are vertebrates, so they have a backbone - 1. Fish -dominant type of nekton—most abundant.
Neap Tides: what they are, their causes, and in what phases of the moon we find them
also get spring tides during the full moon, when moon moves to other side of Earth, but sun, moon, Earth still aligned in this position too -when moon is in its first quarter or last quarter, at 90° angle to the sun, with the Earth -so lunar tidal bulges/depressions are on one side of earth, solar tidal bulges/depressions are on the other side -do not line up, they are separate bulges—so the high tides are not quite as high, low tides are not quite as low—more moderate tides—called "neap tides"
Sea Stacks
an isolated pillar like rocky island that is detached from a headland by wave erosion
Sea Arches
an opening through a head land caused by wave erosion. Usually develops as sea caves are extended from one or both sides of the headland
What nekton are
are all creatures that actually swim in the ocean—so covers a huge range of creatures.
Longshore current
as wave hits different parts of beach at different times, pushes water down the beach
Food Chain
at base have phytoplankton which produce their own food, then have zooplankton which eat them, larger creature eats that and so on
Equatorial Counter Current
at equator, moving ocean water to the west in both sides, also have a smaller flow of water back to east, to get rid of some of this water piling up against continents
Hurricanes b.) Where they form, how they move
b.) large rotating storm that originates over
b.) Differences in heat by latitude c.) Effect of angle of sunlight
b.)+ c.)Close to the poles, most incoming solar radiation strikes Earth's surface at low angles. In addition, ice has a high albedo, so more energy is reflected back into space than is absorbed. In contrast, between about 35 degrees north latitude and 40 degrees south latitude,1 sunlight strikes Earth at much higher angles, and more energy is absorbed than is reflected back into space.
Density-driven circulation b.) Precipitation and evaporation's effect on salinity (again)
b.)as water evaporates, it leaves salt behind. Also, little rain falls to dilute the water in the area. - More precipitation = low salinity
barrier islands
basically, get a large sand bar separated from the main land by some water -sand bar is the barrier island and the water separating the island from the mainland is a lagoon -range in length from few km to 200 km (Padre Island, Texas) -width--few 10's of km (max)
Vertebrates b.) Bony fish: why fish swim in "schools"
beneficial to swim in groups—each individual is less likely to get eaten -also, some suggestion that shadows/glitter of a school confuses predators
Tropopause
boundary between troposphere and stratosphere is called the tropopause
Density-driven circulation c.) Effects of saltiness, temperature on density of water
c.) Density currents
Jellyfish
common type of zooplankton -can be much larger than other types -float around with currents, don't have much ability to actually swim—so fits definition*
Hurricanes d.) Naming scheme
d.) During even-numbered years, men's names were given to the odd-numbered storms and during odd-numbered years, women's names were given to odd-numbered storms
Density-driven circulation d.)Effects of latitude on ocean temperature
d.)Low latitudes =highest temps at the surface then we get a rapid decrease called thermocline high latitudes= cooler surface with no rapid change
Dinoflagellates
do not have silica shells, may have hard coating made out of biological material called cellulose. Unlike diatoms, can photosynthesize AND ingest some organic matter—almost like cross between plant and animal—because of this, can live in lower light levels than diatoms
Hurricanes e.) When the season is supposed to be
e.) June 1- November 30 (Atlantic)
Plastics
even though they don't actually contaminate oceans, HUGE problem -kills thousands of animals annually -have things like fishing nets, beer cans, plastic rings for 6-packs, etc. -animals either get stuck in them or eat them, and die—includes seals, fish, turtles, birds, etc. -these items are thrown off boats, thrown on beaches, in water by beach goers, etc.
Chemical Dumping
factories used to dump toxic chemicals directly into ocean -outlawed now -also, some companies still do this illegally -also, some chemicals are still leaking out of abandoned factories—still source of many toxic chemicals
Beaches a.) Gravel and sand beaches
gravel: individual particles are much larger—anywhere from pebble sized up to grapefruit sized or so sand: don't typically have beaches made up of particles smaller than sand
Which areas of the earth have heat excess and which have heat deficit
heat has to be moved from the tropics to the higher latitudes (regions beyond the 40th degree of latitude) because they have a heat deficit while the tropical belt has excess heat
Air pressure: Hot and cool air's tendencies to move
hot - up cool - down
Volcanic sand
if in a volcanic area, may break up volcanic rocks, like basalt, get black sand beaches—in Hawaii
What interesting evolutionary question deep sea vents raise
if look at vent communities in different areas/diff. Oceans—very similar -how are you getting similar creatures from these isolated "gardens" all over the planet? -most of the organisms can't swim—attached to bottom -others could swim or walk, but this is thousands of miles -current theory says that the larvae/eggs may be dispersed by currents along the axial valleys -but genetic studies suggest organisms at different vents are not directly related--may have similar species evolving in vents but completely separately --this idea has led to suggestion that perhaps life on Earth started in these types of areas
Sewage
in US, all sewage must be treated before being discharged into oceans, but not the case in all other countries—so raw sewage may be discharged into sea -also, even in US, during large storms, sewage tanks often flood, and release raw sewage into ocean—after big storms, many beaches closed due to this. -also, have problems with treated water—generally treat water with chlorine— this may also be toxic to sealife
Toxic sediments, including how they can be mitigated, and inherent problems with this mitigation
in addition to contaminating water, sediment can also become contaminated -some chemicals that get discharged into water actually stick to sediments in the water, and then settle down to seafloor -here, may be released back into water for years -affects animals/plants living on seafloor, also affects any animals that eat those plants/animals
Milankovitch cycles (what they are, and specific ones listed below):
in very basic terms—changes in the Earth's orbit/position around the sun lead to climate changes -includes 3 different ways that the Earth's orbit changes
Layers of the atmosphere: What it does for us
it absorbs significant amounts of shortwave radiation from the Sun.
Sea Turtle issue
lights confuse them as they use the moon for direction
Habitat loss from building
lose all that habitat, also lose tourist dollars too—not only affecting environment--buildings/houses along shore -see all kinds of big homes sitting right on the beach or on dunes -houses/driveways/people walking over dunes—kills dune plants -dunes are important habitat for many bird species—like to nest in grasses -sea turtle issue--lights confuse them as they use the moon for direction -if kill off grasses, not only lose nesting places, also remove one of things keeping sand in dune areas—dunes start to move -moving sand is not stable—houses/roads/etc. are going to be destroyed -insurance rates increase
Terrigenous sand
made of from particles of broken rocks, mainly the minerals most resistant to breaking down—quartz and feldspars— washed down from rivers—makes nice white sand, like the ones we have here
Coral sand
made up of pieces of smashed coral or shells—but need to have coral reef off shore—typically more pink
Invertebrates: e.g. Squid
main type- squid have HUGE range of sizes, from a few centimeters to the giant squid which is thought to be 65 ft. long.
Mammals
mammals are creatures that are warm-blooded, and breathe air on the surface—do NOT breathe under water like fish
Zooplankton
microscopic animals
Phytoplankton
microscopic plants
Crustaceans
most common type of zooplankton -look like little shrimp. 2 types copepods and euphausilids
Florida & Brazil Currents
northern part goes into Caribbean where it eventually becomes the Florida Current -rest of the current goes south along Brazilian coast
Green sand
not common, but in some volcanic areas, get concentrations of mineral called olivine, forms green sand beaches, in Hawaii
Bioluminescence
other sea creatures can actually produce their own light—glow at night or in the dark—bioluminescence.
Basic science of greenhouse effect
process that influences the temperature of Earths surface and atmosphere
Cody Scarp
sea levels have risen and fallen in the past, e.g. Cody Scarp (old shore line in south Tallahassee)
Manatees' dangers
since they tend to be near-shore, shallow water and are slow—have lots of problems with boating accidents—get hit and killed by boats a lot -on the endangered species list, but numbers are small
"Rip" current
so get areas where water is moving at each other—can't pile up the water, so it must be going somewhere -actually moves straight offshore, away from beach
Meroplankton
specific type of plankton—only plankton for part of its life cycle.so this would include eggs, juvenile oysters, lobsters, fish, crabs, etc
a.) evidence of past tsunamis b.) Know some of the secondary problems associated with tsunamis
the Japan earthquake of March 11, 2011 occurred in a subduction zone where the Pacific plate was diving under the Eurasian and North American plates The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, officially named the Great East Japan Earthquake, was a magnitude 9.0 undersea megathrust earthquake off the coast of Japan—in addition to over 10,000 deaths it led to a malfunction at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant
difference in heat capacities between land and water
the amount of heat required to change a unit mass of a substance by one degree in temperature.; Water has a higher specific heat than solids (land), so it takes more energy to heat up water than it does land. Also, solids (land), will lose heat a lot faster as well.
precision
the direction that the Earth's axis tilts also changes -today, the Earth's axis is pointing towards the North Star—to the north -but will swing around so that the axis will then point to Vega instead --this changes on the order of 23,000 years
Atmospheric Blanket
the greenhouse gases are acting like a blanket for the Earth—keeping it warm
Benthic zone
the sea floor environments. Can also divide this up into different areas—again, we will just discuss 2 of these— intertidal zone—which is the area between high and low tides (exposed sometimes/covered other times), and the subtidal zone, which is deeper than low tide (always covered)
eccentricity
the shape of the Earth's orbit around the sun -goes from round to more oval shaped --this means that as the shape changes, the distance from the Earth to the sun also changes --this changes on the order of 100,000 years
inclination
the tilt of the Earth's axis changes -if you look at the Earth, the axis is not straight up and down—it is tipped about 23.5° -but this tilt changes—goes between 22.5° and 24.5°
Buoyancy/floatation
the water will support most of an organism's weight, so they don't need the strong bone structure of land animals or hard tough parts of land plants. How does an organism control its buoyancy so it can move around in water? -if you want to dive down to the bottom, have to put some effort into it, and as soon as you stop swimming downward, float to surface
b.) Sharks' sensors, teeth
their teeth are modified scales—constantly being replaced over its lifetime, also have multiple rows of teeth, so if a few get lost, no big deal -excellent senses—good eyesight, good hearing, but have some "extra" senses as well
Jetties:
this are walls built out from beach, usually to keep channels/harbors open -sole purpose here is to keep longshore transport from blocking off opening to channel/harbor -two problems, everything to one side of jetty is being starved of sediment/ everything on other side—sediment is building up too much
Pinnipeds: what mammals are included
this includes seals, sea lions, walrus, -named for their flippered feet -spend some time in water, some time on shore
Greenhouse gasses
three big ones—water vapor, carbon dioxide, and methane. The greenhouse gases are acting like a blanket for the Earth—keeping it warm
Plate tectonics
through geologic time, continents are moving, colliding/separating, etc. -as these changes occur, going to form new mountain chains, change the shape of ocean basins --this is going to affect the wind patterns and ocean current patterns Winds and ocean currents transfer heat from warm parts of the Earth to cooler. --if the patterns of winds/currents change due to plate tectonics, affects how and where the heat is transported on Earth
Layers of the atmosphere: What the layers are called
troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere are above these (temperature drops as you go up in mesosphere, rises as you go up in thermosphere)
Migration: leading theory for sea creatures' ability to find their way back to same places each year
turtles, along with other types of sea creatures (whales, some fish) are known to migrate incredible distances to breed. one idea is that these animals follow the dominant wave direction— remember there are prevailing winds occurring in bands, so if these create waves, they should go mainly in one direction
Radiolaria
type of zoo plankton. Have SiO2 shells
Foraminifera
type of zooplankton .have CaCO3 shells
Sharks and rays: a.) Rays' skeleton makeup
unlike bony fish—these fish do NOT have hard skeletons or bones -their skeletal structure is made of cartilage—like the stuff in your ears or nose -much more flexible material than bone
North Atlantic Deep Water why it sinks and where it goes
water from high northern latitudes moves southward, while water from low latitudes moves northward along the coast then east across the NAt. These waters converge in cool areas with high precip in Greenland/Labrador currents. The resulting mixed water sinks and moves southward
Breakwaters:
which are basically long wall running parallel to shore. People living on beaches also want to protect their property from storms. Supposed to take most of the pounding of waves, so waves don't hit beach and move sand. Does create a "quiet" zone behind breakwater, but since have fewer waves in this area, sediment not moving due to longshore transport, so you are "starving" beaches of sand further down—not too nice for people in that part of beach! -also, since blocking some of the force of the waves in one area, areas to either side may actually get more wave energy—so may get worse erosion on either side of breakwater.
Primary production
which is the basis of all life in the oceans—the base of the food chain. Since phytoplankton are the base of the food chain—the only "plants" which can produce their own food—these are known as "primary producers" --they are producing the base food materialthe food chain.
Surface runoff (Including fertilizers and algal blooms.)
wide range of chemicals get into ocean by getting washed into rivers/streams by rainwater -things like pesticides, fertilizers, road salt, oil/gasoline that drip from cars, chemicals from the breakdown of tires -all of these make their way to oceans, most are toxic to animals/plants -for fertilizers, actually cause blooms of growth of microscopic plants/animals, more than the area can really support, as these die, their remains decay, uses up lots of oxygen in water, then lack of oxygen leads to kill off of other plants/animals -very difficult to control, trying to use newer types of chemicals which either break down before reaching the oceans, or won't be toxic to life in oceans
Oysters: connection to Apalachicola, how they reproduce
—mainly found in estuaries -stationary bivalve—has two shells like a clam, but can't move like a clam -need a steady supply of moving water over them—need to get plenty of nutrients -form huge beds—some of them are just empty shells of old generations, others are young -during reproduction, females release millions of eggs, males release sperm -fertilized eggs/larvae are planktonic—float around until they find somewhere to live -favorite spots are either living oyster shells, dead oyster shells, or rocks -secrete a material to attach themselves to one of these hard substances --takes 1-5 years for them to mature—very slow! --Oysters are a very important part of the economy of north Florida coastal areas**