Organic Chemistry

How are ionic compounds named?

With cations having a fixed charge, the cation has the same name a its neutral element. The name of the anion usually ends in the suffix -ide if it is derived from a single atom or -ate (or-ite) if it is polyatomic. When the metal has a variable charge, use the overall anion charge to determine the charge on the cation. Then name the cation using a Roman numeral or the suffix -ous (for the ion with the larger charge).

What is a chirality center?

a carbon with four different groups around it.

Dipoles

a molecule in which a concentration of positive electric charge is separated from a concentration of negative charge.

Anions definition

a negatively charged ion, i.e., one that would be attracted to the anode in electrolysis

Define mole

a quantity that contains 6.02 x 10^23 atoms, molecules, or ions.

What is a pure element?

a substance whose atoms all (or in practice almost all) have the same atomic number, or number of protons. Nuclear scientists, however, define a pure element as one that consists of only one stable isotope. An Element is a substance that is made up of only one type of atom.

What is specific gravity?

a unitless quantity that relates the density of a substance to the density of water at 4 Celsius. Since the density of water is 1.00 g/ml at 4 Celcius, the specific gravity of a substance equals its density, but it contains no units.

What are ketone bodies?

acetone, acetoacetate, beta-hydroxybutyrate, formed when acetyl CoA levels exceed the capacity of the citric acid cycle. Ketone bodies can be re-converted to acetyl CoA and metabolized for energy.

How do some cations cross the cell membrane?

active transport Some cations (Na+, K+ and Ca2+) must travel against the concentration gradient, a process called active transport, which requires energy input.

What are the 11 nonessential amino acids? AAAAACGGGPST

alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, tyrosine

What is a functional group?

an atom or a group of atoms with characteristic chemical and physical properties.

What is a valence electron?

an electron of an atom, located in the outermost shell (valence shell) of the atom, that can be transferred to or shared with another atom.

What are isotopes?

atoms that have the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons.

Functional groups; What are the properties of Thiols?

bent shape lower boiling points than alcohols with the same number of carbons.

How is pressure measured?

by a barometer and recorded in atmospheres (atm), millimeters of mercury (mm Hg), or pounds per square inch (psi). * 1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 14.7 psi.

How is the name of an element abbreviated?

by a one or two letter symbol

How are substituted benzenes named?

by naming the substituent and adding the word benzene. When two substituents are bonded to the ring, the prefixes ortho, meta, and para are used to show the relative positions of the two groups: 1,2-, 1,3- or 1,4- respectively. With three substituents on a benzene ring, number to give the lowest possible numbers.

How is a chemical equation balanced?

by placing coefficients in front of chemical formulas one at a time, beginning with the most complex, so that the number of atoms of each element is the same on both sides.

How is energy measured?

calories (cal) or joules, (J) 1 cal = 4.184 J. One nutritional calorie (Cal) =1 kcal = 1,000 cal.

What are the characteristics of ammonium salts and how are they named?

consist of a positively charged ammonium ion and an anion. named by changing the suffix -amine of the parent amine to the suffix -ammonium followed by the name of th anion. Ammonium salts are water-soluble solids. Water insoluble amine drugs are sold as their ammonium salts to increase their solubility in the aqueous environment of the blood.

What is a coefficient?

constant term related to the properties of a product. In the equation that measures friction, for example, the number that always stays the same is the coefficient. ... In chemistry, when you see a number in front of a chemical like 2H2o, you're looking at the coefficient.

What are the characteristic features of organic compounds?

contain carbon atoms and most contain hydrogen atoms. Carbon forms 4 bonds. Carbon forms single, double, triple bonds to itself and other atoms. Carbon atoms can bond to form chains or rings. Organic compounds often contain heteroatoms, commonly N, O, and the halogens.

What are the major structural features of disaccharides?

contain two monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic linkage. An a glycoside has the glycosidic linkage oriented down and a β glycoside has the glycosidic linkage oriented up. Disaccharides are hydrolyzed to two monosaccharides by the cleavage of the glycosidic C-O bond with water.

How do larger molecules and ions cross the cell membrane?

facilitated diffusion Larger polar molecules and some ions (CI-, HCO3-, and glucose) travel through channels created by integral membrane proteins (facilitated diffusion)

Functional groups; What are the properties of Aldehydes and ketones?

have lower boiling points than alcohols, but higher boiling points than hydrocarbons of comparable molecular weight.

What is the concentration of a solution?

it is a measure of much solute is dissolved in a given amount of solution.

How is the ion-product of water used to calculate hydronium or hydroxide ion concentrate?

kw= [H3O+] [OH-]=1.0 X 10-^14 at 25 celcius. If either [H3O+] or [OH-] is known, the other value can be calculated form Kw.

What are the main features of the genetic code?

mRNAs contain sequences of three bases called codons that correspond to the 20 amino acids. There are 61 codons that correspond to the 20 amino acids, as well as three stop codons that signal the end of protein synthesis.

How to convert a standard number to a number in scientific notation?

move the decimal point to give a number between 1 and 10. Multiply the result by 10^x, where x is the number of places the decimal point was moved. When the decimal point is moved to the left, x is positive. When the decimal point moved to the right, x is negative.

What role do carbohydrates play in determining blood type?

Human Blood type - A, B, AB, or O - is determined by three or four monosaccharides attached to a membrane protein on the surface of red blood cells.

What products are formed when a protein is hydrolyzed?

Hydrolysis breaks up the primary structure of a protein to form the amino acids that compose it. All of the amide bonds are broken by the addition of water, forming a carboxylate anion (-COO-) in one amino acid and an ammonium cation (NH3+) in the other.

How are alcohols named?

Identified by the suffix -ol

Isoleucine

Ile (I) lopsided valine....?, essential, Aliphatic, Hydrophobic (normally buried inside the protein core)

Functional groups; What are the properties of carbonyl?

polar, giving an aldehyde or ketone stronger intermolecular forces than hydrocarbons.

Describe the properties of ionic compounds.

Ionic compounds are crystalline solids. Ionic compounds have high melting points and boiling points. Most ionic compounds are soluble in water and their aqueous solutions conduct an electric current.

Ile - (I)

Isoleucine

How does the Ozone in the stratosphere shield the earth's surface?

It absorbs ultraviolet radiation.

What is ATP?

primary energy carrying molecule in metabolic pathways.

Why are functional groups important?

It determines all of the properties of a molecule- its shape, physical properties, and the type of reactions it undergoes.

(Atmosphere) What is carbon dioxide and what does it do?

It is a greenhouse gas that absorbs thermal energy and redirects it back to the earth's surface.

What may happen with the increase of CO2 concentration due to the combustion of fossil fuels in the atmosphere?

It may increase the average temperature of the earth's atmosphere, causing global climate change.

What are the characteristics of a strong acid?

It readily donates a proton, and when dissolved in water, 100% of the acid dissociates into ions, forming H3O+. A strong acid forms a weak conjugate base. A weak acid forms a strong conjugate base.

What is denaturation?

process that alters the shape of a protein by disrupting the secondary, tertiary, or quaternary structure. High temperature, acid, base, and agitation can denature a protein. Compact water-soluble proteins uncoil and become less water soluble.

How are ketones named?

Ketones are identified by the suffix -one, and the carbon chain is numbered to give the carbonyl group the lower number.

How is matter classified?

pure substances and mixtures

How does Le Chatelier's Principle explain what happens when equilibrium is disturbed?

Le Chatelier's Principle states that a system at equilibrium reacts to counteract any disturbance to the equilibrium.

Leucine

Leu (L) valine extended by one methylene, essential, Aliphatic, Hydrophobic (normally buried inside the protein core)

What are Lewis structures and how are they drawn?

Lewis structures are electron-dot representations of molecules. Two electron bonds are drawn with a solid line and and nonbonded electrons are drawn with dots. Lewis structures contain only valence electron. Each H gets two electrons and main group elements generally get eight.

What are the general characteristics of lipids?

Lipids are biomolecules that contain many nonpolar C-C and C-H bonds, making them soluble in organic solvents and insoluble in water. Hydrolyzed lipids, including waxes, triaclyglycerols, and phospholipids, can be converted to smaller molecules on reactions with water. Nonhydrolyzable lipid, including steroids and fat soluble vitamins, cannot be cleaved into smaller units by hydrolysis.

Lysine

Lys (K) 3 carbon chain plus one methylene to amino, it lies ("Lys") about the 3 carbon trend, essential, Basic - positive charges, Charged (side chains often make salt bridges)

Lys (K)

Lysine

Describe the structure of the cell membrane.

Main component is phospholipids arranged in a lipid bilayer with the ionic heads oriented towards the outside of the bilayer, and the nonpolar tails on the interior.

What is the octet rule?

Main group elements are especially stable when they possess an octet of electrons. Main group elements gain or lose one, two, or tree electrons to form ions with eight outer shell electrons.

How is the concentration of a solution measured?

Mass, volume, or moles.

How are enzymes used in medicine?

Measuring blood enzyme levels is used to diagnose heart attacks and diseases that cause higher than normal concentrations of certain enzymes to enter the blood. Drugs that inhibit the action of an enzyme can be used to kill bacteria. ACE inhibitors are used to treat high blood pressure HIV protease inhibitors are used to treat HIV by binding to an enzyme needed by the virus to replicate itself.

Methionine

Met (M) special - starts every protein, 3 carbons with a thioether; methyl-blocked sulfhydryl...? essential, Sulfur-containing, Hydrophobic (normally buried inside the protein core)

What is metabolism?

Metabolism is the sum of all the chemical reactions that take place in an organism. Catabolic reactions break down large molecules and release energy, while anabolic reactions synthesize larger molecules and require energy.

How can the periodic table be used to determine the charge of an ion?

Metals form cations and nonmetals form anions. The charge on main group ions can be predicted from the position in the periodic table. For metals in groups 1A, 2A and 3A the group number = the change on the cation. For non-metals in 5A, 6A, and 7A, the anion charge = 8- (the group number).

What reduction and oxidation products are formed from monosaccharides?

Monosaccharides are reduced to alditols with H2 and Pd. Monosaccharides are oxidized to aldonic acids with Benedict's reagent.

What are the major structural features of monosaccharides?

Monosaccharides with a carbonyl group at C1 are called aldoses and those with a carbonyl at C2 are called ketoses. Generally, all other carbons have OH groups bonded to them. The terms triose, tetrose, and so forth are used to indicate the number of carbons in the chain. The acrylic form of monosaccharides is drawn with Fischer projection formulas. A D sugar has the OH group of the chirality center farthest from the carbonyl on the right side. An L sugar has the OH group of the chirality center farthest from the carbonyl on the left side.

What are the three major types of carbohydrates?

Monosaccharides: 3 to 6 carbons with a carbonyl group at either the terminal carbon or the carbon adjacent to it. Generally all other carbons have OH groups bonded to them. Disaccharides: composed of two monosaccharides. Polysaccharides: composed of three or more monosaccharides.

How are covalent compounds with two elements named?

Name the first nonmetal by its element name and the second using the suffix -ide. Add prefixes to indicate the number of atoms of each element.

A pH = 7 means [H3O+]=[OH-] and the solution is ?

Neutral

Describe the acid-base properties of amino acids.

Neutral, uncharged amino acids exist as zwitterions containing an ammonium cation (-NH3+) and a carboxylate anion (-COO-). When strong acid is added, the carboxylate anion gains a photon and the amino acid has a net + 1 charge. When strong base is added, the ammonium cation loses a proton and the amino acid has a net -1 charge.

What are the main coenzymes in metabolism and describe their roles?

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) is a biological oxidizing agent that accepts electrons and protons, thus generating its reduced form NADH. NADH is a reducing agent that donates electrons and protons, reforming NAD+. Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) is a biological oxidizing agent that accepts electrons and protons, thus yielding its reduced form, FADH2, FADH2 is a reducing agent that donates electrons and protons, reforming FAD. Coenzyme A - reacts with acetyl groups (CH3CO-) to form acetyl CoA.

How do organic compounds differ from ionic inorganic compounds?

Organic compounds are composed of discrete molecules with covalent bonds. Ionic inorganic compounds are composed of cations and anions, held together by the strong attraction of oppositely charged ions.

What are oxidation reactions?

Oxidation results in the loss of electrons. Metals and anions tend to undergo oxidation. In some reactions, oxidation results in the gain of O atoms or the loss of H atoms.

What are the main structural features of peptides?

Peptides contain amino acids, called amino acid residues, jointed together by amide (peptide) bonds. The amino acid that contains the free groups on the carbon is called the -NH3 + group on the α carbon is called the N terminal amino acid, and the amino acid that contains the free -COO- group on the α carbon is the C- terminal amino acid Peptides are written home left to right, from the N-terminal to the C terminal end, using the one- or three-letter abbreviations for the amino acids.

Phenylalanine

Phe (F) alanine with a phenol group which you KNOW is aromatic, the "Y" in phenyl can remind you which 3 amino acids with names beginning with T (the "T"s) are aromatics, essential, Aromatic, Hydrophobic (normally buried inside the protein core)

Phe (F)

Phenylalanine

What is Density?

Physical property reported g/ml or g/cc that relates the mass of an object to its volume. A less dense object will float on top of a more dense liquid.

What are polyatomic ions and how are they named?

Polyatomic ions are charged species that are composed of more than one element. The names for polyatomic cations end in the suffix -onium. Many polyatomic anions have names that end in the suffix -ate.

What are polymers?

Polymers are large molecules made up of repeating smaller molecules called monomers covalently bonded together.

What is pressure?

Pressure is the force per unit area. The pressure of a gas is the force exerted when gas particles strike a surface.

Proline

Pro (P) 3 carbon chain to proline's own nitrogen, structurally "special" and found in turns Sulfur-containing, nonessential, Aliphatic, Hydrophobic (normally buried inside the protein core)

What are reduction reactions?

Reduction results in the gain of electrons. Nonmetals and cations tend to undergo reduction. In some reactions, reductions results in the loss of O atoms or the gain of H atoms.

How are fatty acids classified?

Saturated -No Carbon-Carbon double bonds. Unsaturated- generally contain cis double bonds. Fatty acids are saturated if they contain no carbon-carbon double bonds and unsaturated if they contain one or more double bonds. Naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids generally contain cis double bonds.

What is a scientific notation?

Scientific notation is a method of writing a number as yx 10^x where y is a number between 1 and 10, and x is a positive or negative exponent.

Serine

Ser (S) "hydroxyl alanine", nonessential, Aliphatic hydroxyl, Polar (usually participate in hydrogen bonds as proton donors or acceptors)

Polar side chains: "Santa's Team Crafts New Quilts Yearly" (S, T, C, N, Q, Y)

Serine, Ser, S Threonine, Thr, T Cysteine, Cys, C Asparagine, Asn, N Glutamine, Gln, Q Tyrosine, Tyr, Y

How are ethers named?

Simple ethers are named by naming the alkyl groups bonded to the ether olygen and adding the word ether.

Before receiving a blood transfusion, why do we need to know the blood type of the individual?

Since the blood of an individual may contain antibodies to another blood type, blood type must be known before receiving a transfusion.

How are dilutions performed?

Since the number of moles of solute is constant in carrying out a dilution, a new molarity or volume (M2 and V2) can be calculated from a given molarity and volume (M1 and V1) using the equation M1V1 = M2V2, as long as three of the four quantities are known.

What hydrolysis products are formed from a triacylglycerol?

Soaps Triacylglycerols are hydrolyzed in acid or with enzymes (in biological systems) to form glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids. Base hydrolysis of a triacylglycerol forms glycerol and sodium salts of fatty acids - soaps.

How does soap clean away dirt?

Soaps are salts of carboxylic acids that have many carbon atoms in a long hydrocarbon chain. A soap molecule has an ionic head and a nonpolar hydrocarbon tail. Soap forms micelles in water with the polar heads on the surface and the hydrocarbon tails in the interior. Grease and dirt dissolve in the nonpolar tails, so they can be washed away with water. Micelles definition: an aggregate of molecules in a colloidal solution, such as those formed by detergents.

What are the three states of matter?

Solid liquid and gas

What determines whether a substance is soluble in water or a nonpolar solvent?

Solubility rule: Like dissolves Like Most ionic compounds are soluble in water. Small polar compounds that can hydrogen bond are soluble in water. Nonpolar compounds are soluble in nonpolar solvents. Compounds with many nonpolar C-C and C-H bonds are soluble in nonpolar solvents.

How is specific heat used?

Specific heat is used as a conversion factor to calculate how much heat a known mass of a substance absorbs or how much its temperature changes

What are the four stages of metabolism?

Stage 1- Digestion: Large molecules are hydrolyzed to smaller molecules. Stage 2- Biomolecules are degraded into two carbon acetyl units. Stage 3- Citric Acid Cycle- Converts two carbon atoms to two molecules of CO2, and forms reduced coenzymes, NADH and FADH2. Stage 4- Electron Transport Chain & Oxidative Phosphorylation produce ATP, and oxygen is converted to water.

What are the main structural features of steroids?

Steroids like cholesterol are tetracyclic lipids that contain tree six-membered rings and one five-membered ring. Because cholesterol is insoluble in the aqueous medium of the blood, it is transported through the bloodstream in water-soluble particles called lipoproteins.

What is energy?

the capacity to do work. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion, whereas potential energy is stored energy.

Term Avogadro's number

the number of particles in a mole - 10^23.

What is Osmosis?

the passage of solvent, usually water, across a semipermeable membrane. Solvent always moves from the less concentrated solution to the more concentrated solution, until the osmotic pressure prevents additional flow of solvent.

How are alkyl halides named?

they are named as halo alkanes

What are the basic features of fibrous proteins like α-keratin?

α-keratin in hair is fibrous protein composed almost exclusively of α-helix units that wind together to form a superhelix. Disulfide bonds between chains make the resulting bundles of protein chains strong.

What is specific heat?

The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 degree Celsius.

What does the atomic number of a neutral atom tell?

The atomic number tells you the number of protons in one atom of an element. It also tells you the number of electrons in a neutral atom of that element. ... The atomic mass of an element is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom.

How are Isotopes related to the atomic weight?

The atomic weight is the weighted average of the mass of the naturally occurring isotopes of a particular element.

What are the main features of amino acid catabolism?

The catabolism of amino acids forms an α-keto acid and NH4+ ion enters the urea cycle where it is converted to urea and eliminated in urine. The carbon skeletons of the amino acids are catabolized by a variety of pathways to yield pyruvate, acetyl CoA, or an intermediate in the citric acid cycle.

What are the main features of the citric acid cycle?

The citric acid cycle is an eight step cyclic pathway that begins with the addition of acetyl CoA to a four carbon substrate. In the citric acid cycle, two carbons are converted to CO2 and four molecules of reduced coenzymes are formed. One molecule of a high energy nucleoside triphosphate is also formed.

How can a balanced equation and molar mass be used to calculate the number of moles and mass of a reaction product?

The coefficients in a balanced chemical equation tell us the number of moles of each reactant that combine and the number of moles of each product formed. When the mass of a substance in a reaction must be calculated, first its number of moles is determined using mole ratios, and then the molar mass is used to covert moles to grams.

How much ATP is formed by the complete catabolism of glucose?

The complete catabolism of glucose forms Six CO2 molecules and 32 molecules of ATP

Describe the main features of the β-oxidation of fatty acids.

β-oxidation cleaves two-carbon acetyl CoA units from an acyl CoA derived from a fatty acid Each cycle of β-oxidation consist of a four step sequence that forms one molecule each of acetyl CoA, NADH, and FADH2-. To determine the ATP yield from the complete catabolism of a fatty acid, we must consider the ATP used up in the synthesis of the acyl CoA, the ATP generated from coenzymes produced during β-oxidation, and the ATP that results from the catabolism of each acetyl CoA.

What is the heat of reaction?

The heat reaction, also called the enthalpy change and symbolized by (see picture) is the energy absorbed or released in a reaction.

How do reactions utilize ATP to drive energetically unfavorable reactions?

The hydrolysis of ATP provides the energy to drive a reaction that requires energy.

What is the ideal gas law?

The ideal gas law is an equation that relates the pressure (P), volume (V), temperature (T), and number of moles (n) of a gas; PV = nRT, where R is the universal gas constant. The ideal gas law can be used to calculate any one of the four variable, as long as the other three variables are known.

What is the ion-product of water?

The ion-product of water, Kw, is a constant for all aqueous solutions.

What is temperature?

The measurement of how hot or cold and object is.

How is molar mass calculated?

The molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance, reported in grams. The molar mass is numerically equal to the formula weight but the units are different (g/mol not amu).

How are the mass of a substance and its number of moles related?

The molar mass is used as a conversion factor to determine how many grams are contained in a given number of moles of a substance. Similarly, molar mass is used to determine how many moles of a substance are contained in a given number of grams.

What is pH?

The pH of a solution measures the concentration of H3O+ pH= -log [H3O+].

What are the general characteristics of the primary structure of proteins?

The particular sequence of amino acids joined together by amide bonds.

How does the periodic table help to classify an element as metal, nonmetal or metalloid?

The periodic table contains a stepped line from boron to astatine. All metals are located to the left of the line. All nonmetals except hydrogen are located to the right of the line. The seven elements located along the line are metalloids.

What relationship exist to keep a constant amount of gas?

The pressure and volume of a gas are inversely related, so increasing the pressure decreases the volume at constant temperature. The volume of a gas is proportional to its Kelvin temperature so increasing the temperature increases the volume at constant pressure. The pressure of a gas is proportional to its Kelvin temperature, so increasing the temperature increases the pressure at constant volume.

What are the basic features of the periodic table?

The schematic of all known elements arranged in rows (periods) and columns (groups), organized so that elements with similar properties are grouped together. Vertical columns are assigned group numbers using two different numbering schemes: 1 - 8 plus the letters A or B, or 1 - 18; It is divided into main group elements (groups 1A-8A), the transition metals (groups 1B-8B), and the inner transition metals located in the two rows below the main table.

How are atomic size and ionization energy related to location in the periodic table?

The size of an atom decreases across a row and increases down a column. Ionization energy- the energy needed to remove an electron from an atom- increases across a row and decreases down a column

What effect do temperature and pressure have on solubility?

The solubility of solids in a liquid solvent generally increases with increasing temperature. Increasing pressure increases the solubility of a gas in a solvent. Pressure changes do not affect the solubility of liquids and solids.

What are the general characteristics of the secondary structure of proteins?

The two most common types of secondary structure are the α-helix and the β-pleated sheet. Both structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the N-H and C=O groups.

How does penicillin act as an antibiotic?

The β-lactam of penicillin reacts with an enzyme needed to synthesize the cell wall of a bacterium. Without a cell wall, the bacterium dies.

What are the differences in the polysaccharide starch?

There are two forms of starch - amylose which is an unbranched polymer, and amylopectin, which is a branched polysaccharide polymer. Both forms contain 1→4-α - glycosidic linkages.

What are the basic features of fibrous proteins?

They are composed of long linear polypeptide chains that serve structural roles and are water insoluble.

What product is formed when a thiol is oxidized?

Thiols (RSH) are oxidized to disulfides (RSSR). Disulfides are reduced to thiols.

Threonine

Thr (T) one of 3 "T"s, without "Y" so aliphatic (also its symbol is the first letter of its name like the other aliphatics), its "threo" parts are methyl, hydroxyl, and hydrogen on a single C, essential, Aliphatic hydroxyl, Polar (usually participate in hydrogen bonds as proton donors or acceptors)

What are the general characteristics of the tertiary structure of proteins?

Three dimensional shape adopted by the entire peptide chain.

Intermolecular forces are the forces of attraction between molecules. What type of intermolecular forces exist?

Three types of intermolecular forces exist in covalent compounds. London dispersion forces are due to momentary changes in electron density in a molecule. Dipole-dipole interactions are due to permanent dipoles. A solid consist of highly organized, very close particles held together by strong attractive forces.

Intermolecular forces are the forces of attraction between molecules. What type of intermolecular forces exist?

Three types of intermolecular forces exist in covalent compounds. London dispersion forces are due to momentary changes in electron density in a molecule. Dipole-dipole interactions are due to permanent dipoles. Hydrogen bonds- A solid consist of highly organized, very close particles held together by strong attractive forces.

What is transcription?

Transcription is the synthesis of mRNA from DNA. The DNA helix unwinds and RNA polymerase catalyzes RNA synthesis from the 3' to 5' end of the template strand, forming mRNA with complementary bases. Synthesis def: the production of chemical compounds by reaction from simpler materials.

How are proteins synthesized by the process of translation?

Translation begins with initiation the binding of the ribosomal subunits to MRNA and the arrival of the first tRNA with an amino acid. During elongation, tRNAs bring individual amino acids to the ribosome one after another and new peptide bonds are formed. Termination occurs when a stop codon is reached.

What are triaclyglycerols?

Triacylglycerols, triglycerides, are triesters formed from glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids. Triesters def: Three ester groups

Tryptophan

Trp (W) one of 3 "T"s with a "Y" so it is aromatic, will "tryp" you up because it is hard to remember, has a 3 carbon start to N (or indole ring on methylene), essential, Aromatic, Polar (usually participate in hydrogen bonds as proton donors or acceptors)

Trp - (W)

Tryptophan

What are the basic features of the DNA double helix?

Two polynucleotide strands that wind into a right-handed double helix The sugar phosphate backbone lies on the outside of the helix and the bases lie on the inside. The double helix is stabilized by hydrogen bonding between complementary base pairs; A pairs with T and C pairs with G.

What are the key features of the metric system of measurement?

Type of measurement that's base unit is related to the base unit by a prefix that indicates if the unit is larger or smaller than the base unit. (m) meter length (g) gram, mass (L) liter,volume (s) second, time

Tyrosine

Tyr (Y) hydroxylated phenylalanine, one of 3 "T"s that has "Y" in its name so it is an aromatic, nonessential, Aromatic, Polar (usually participate in hydrogen bonds as proton donors or acceptors)

Tyr (Y)

Tyrosine

Valine

Val (V) simple again, but shaped like the "V" in its name, essential, Aliphatic, Hydrophobic (normally buried inside the protein core)

What products are formed when carboxylic acids are treated with base?

Water soluble salts of carboxylate anions (RCOO-). Carboxylate anions are identified by the suffix -ate.

How is the concentration of a solution expressed?

Weight/volume (w/v) percent concentration is the number of grams of solute dissolved in 100 mL of solution. Volume/volume (v/v) percent concentration is the number of milliliters of solute dissolved in 100 mL of solution. Parts per million (ppm) is the number of parts of solute in 1,000,000 parts of solution, where the units for both the solute and the solution are the same. Molarity (M) is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution.

What are the general characteristics of the quaternary structure of proteins?

When a protein contains more than one polypeptide chain, the quaternary structure describes the shape of the protein complex formed by two or more chains.

How are polymers formed from alkene monomers?

When alkenes are polymerized, one bond of the double bond breaks, and two new single bonds join the alkene monomers together in long carbon chains.

What products are formed when a vegetable oil is partially hydrogenated?

When an unsaturated oil is partially hydrogenated, some but not all of the cis C=C's add H2, reducing the number of double bonds and increasing the melting point. Some of the cis double bonds are converted to trans double bonds, forming trans fats, whose shape and properties closely resemble those of saturated fats.

What are the major pathways for pyruvate metabolism?

When oxygen is plentiful, pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA, which can enter the citric acid cycle. When the oxygen level is low, the anaerobic metabolism of pyruvate forms lactate and NAD+. In yeast and other microorganisms, pyruvate is converted to ethanol and CO2 by fermentation.

What products are formed when an amine is treated with acid?

Amines act as proton acceptors in water and acid. For example, the reaction of RNH2 with HCl forms the water soluble ammonium salt RNH3+CI-.

Characterize the physical properties of alkanes.

*Nonpolar *weak intermolecular forces, *low melting points *low boiling points. *Melting points and boiling points increase as the number of carbons increases due to increased surface area. *Insoluble in water

What suffixes are used to identify a Amide?

-amide

What suffixes are used to identify a Amine?

-amine

What suffixes are used to identify a Ester?

-ate

What suffixes are used to identify a carboxylic acid?

-oic acid

What are the major structural features of phospholipids?

1. Phosphorus atom 2. Polar (ionic) head, two nonpolar tails derived from glycerol 3. Two molecules of fatty acids, phosphate and and alcohol (either ethanolamine or choline). All phospholipids contain a phosphorus atom, and have a polar (ionic) head and two nonpolar tails. Phosphoacylglycerols are derived from glycerol, two molecules of fatty acids, phosphate, and an alcohol

List the three types of RNA molecules and describe their functions.

1. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Provides the site where proteins are assembled. 2. Messenger RNA (mRNA): Contains the sequence of nucleotides that determines the amino acid sequence in a protein. 3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) contains an anticodon that identifies the amino acid that it carries on its acceptor stem and delivers that amino acid to a growing polypeptide.

Organic molecules; What three assumptions are used in drawing skeletal structures?

1. There is a carbon at the intersection of two lines or at the end of any line. 2. Each carbon has enough hydrogens to give it four bonds. 3. Heteroatoms and the hydrogens bonded to them are drawn in.

Describe the principal features of acids.

A Bronsted-Lowry acid is a proton donor, often symbolized by HA. Bronsted-Lowry acid must contain one or more hydrogen atoms.

Describe the principal features of bases.

A Bronsted-Lowry base is a proton acceptor, often symbolized by B:. To form a bond to a proton, a Bronsted-Lowry base must contain a lone pair of electrons.

What do the terms in a chemical equation mean?

A chemical equation contains the reactants on the left side of an arrow and the products on the right. The coefficients tell how many molecules or moles of a substance react or are formed.

When is a molecule chiral or achiral?

A chiral molecule is not superimposable on its mirror image. An achiral molecule is superimposable on its mirror image.

What is a Mixture?

A combination of two or more elements or compounds which have not reacted to bond together; each part in the mixture retains its own properties.

How are conversion factors used to convert one unit to another?

A conversion factor is a term that converts a quantity in one unit to a quantity in another unit. To use conversion factor to solve a problem, set up the problem with any unwanted unit in the numerator of one term and the denominator of another term, so that unwanted units cancel.

What are the basic components of an atom?

A dense nucleus containing positively charged protons and neutral neutrons, and an electron cloud containing negatively charged electrons. Most of the mass of an atom resides in the nucleus, while the electron cloud contains most of its volume.

What are the characteristics of the three states of matter?

A gas consists of randomly arranged, disorganized particles that are far apart and move very fast. A liquid consists of randomly arranged particles that are much closer and held together by attractive interactions. A solid consists of highly organized, very close particles held together by strong attractive forces.

What changes are depicted on heating and cooling curves?

A heating curve shows how the temperature of a substance changes as heat is added. Diagonal lines show the temperature increase of a single phase. Horizontal lines correspond to phase changes- solid to liquid or liquid to gas. A cooling curve shows how the temperature of a substance changes as heat is removed. Diagonal lines show the temperature decrease of a single phase. Horizontal lines correspond to phase changes- gas to liquid or liquid to solid.

What are the main structural features of nucleosides?

A nucleoside contains a monosaccharide joined to a nitrogen containing base. The monosaccharide is either ribose or 2-deoxyribose, and the bases are abbreviated as A, G, C, T, and U

What are the main structural features of nucleotides?

A nucleotide contains a monosaccharide joined to a nitrogen-containing base, and a phosphate bonded to the 5'-OH group of the monosaccharide. The monosaccharide is either ribose or 2-deoxyribose, and the bases are abbreviated as A, G, C, T, and U

Describe the energy changes that accompany changes of state.

A phase change converts one state to another. Energy is absorbed when a more organized state is converted to a less organized state. Thus, energy is absorbed when a solid melts to form a liquid, or when a liquid vaporizes to form a gas. Energy is released when a less organized state is converted to a more organized state. Thus, energy is released when a gas condenses to form a liquid, or a liquid freezes to form a solid. The heat of fusion is the energy needed to melt 1 g of a substance, while the heat of vaporization is the energy needed to vaporize 1 g of a substance.

When is a molecule polar or nonpolar?

A polar molecule has either one polar bond, or two or more bond dipoles that do not cancel. A nonpolar molecule has either all nonpolar bonds, or two or more bond dipoles that cancel.

Cation definition

A positively charged ion

What is a pure compound?

A pure compound consists of a specific set of molecules which are made up of two or more molecules whose ratio to one another never changes. Here are some examples of substances that can present as pure compounds: Water Hydrogen peroxide Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Potassium chloride Calcium oxide Calcium carbonate Sulfuric acide Potassium nitrate Aluminum oxide Silicon dioxide Compound: A substance that is made up of more than one type of atom bonded together.

What is a Fischer projection?

A specific way of depicting a chirality center. The Chirality center is located at the intersection of a cross. The Horizontal lines represent bonds that come out of the plane on wedges, and the vertical lines represent bonds that go back on dashed lines.

What are the characteristics of a strong base?

A strong base readily accepts a proton, and when dissolved in water, 100% of the base dissociates into ions, forming OH-.

What are waxes?

A was is an ester (RCOOR') formed from a fatty acid (RCOOH) and a high molecular weight alcohol (R'OH). Waxes (RCOOR') are hydrolyzed to fatty acids (RCOOH) and alcohols (R'OH).

A pH < 7 means [H3O+]=[OH-] and the solution is ?

Acidic

What are the two types of alkanes?

Acyclic alkanes (CnH2n + 2) have no rings. Cycloalkanes (CnH2n) have one or more rings.

Alanine

Ala (A) methyl for R, a simple functional group to start just like "A" (in alanine) starts the alphabet, nonessential, Aliphatic, Hydrophobic (normally buried inside the protein core)

What products are formed when an alcohol undergoes dehydration or oxidation?

Alcohols form alkenes on treatment with strong acid. The elements of H and OH are lost from two adjacent atoms and a new double bond is formed. Primary alcohols -(RCH2OH) are oxidized to aldehydes (RCHO), which are further oxidized to carboxylic acids (RCO2H). Secondary alcohols -(R2CHOH) are oxidized to ketones. Tertiary alcohols- have no C-H bond on the carbon with the OH group, so they are not oxidized.

How are aldehydes named?

Aldehydes are identified by the suffix -al, and the carbon chain is numbered to put the carbonyl group at C1.

What products are formed when aldehydes are oxidized?

Aldehydes are oxidized to carboxylic acids (RCOOH) with K2Cr2O7 or Tollens reagent. Ketones are not oxidized since they contain no H atom on the carbonyl carbon.

What are the characteristics of an alkane?

Alkanes are hydrocarbons having only nonpolar C-C and C-H single bonds.

What are the products of the combustion and incomplete combustion of an alkane?

Alkanes burn in the presence of air. Combustion forms CO2 and H2O as products. Incomplete combustion forms CO and H2O.

What are the characteristics of Alkenes?

Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain a carbon-carbon double bond and have molecular formula CnH2n. Each carbon of the double bond is trigonal planar.

What types of reactions do alkenes undergo?

Alkenes undergo addition reactions with reagents X-Y. One bond of the double bone and the X-Y bond break and two new single bonds (C-X and C-Y) are formed. Alkenes react with H2 (Pd catalyst) and H2O (with H2SO4).

Functional groups; What are the properties of Alkyl halides?

Alkyl halides with one halogen have one polar bond and a net dipole.

What are the characteristics of alkynes?

Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain a carbon-carbon triple bond and have molecular formula CnH2n-2. Each carbon of the triple bond is linear.

What reactions involve amides?

Amides are hydrolyzed to carboxylic acids (RCOOH) and ammonium ions (R'2NH2+) in the presence of an acid catalyst (HCI). Amides are converted to carboxylate anions (RCOO-) and amines (R'2NH) with aqueous base (NaOH in H2O).

How are Alkenes named?

An alkene is identified by the suffix-ene, and the carbon chain is numbered to give the C=C the lower number.

How are alkynes named?

An alkyne is identified by the suffix -yne, and the carbon chain is numbered to give the C≡C the lower number.

What is the difference between an electrolyte and a nonelectrolyte?

An electrolyte dissolves in water to form ions, so it conducts an electric current. A strong electrolyte dissociates completely to form ions, whereas a weak electrolyte contains mostly uncharged molecules in water, together with a small number of ions. A nonelectrolyte dissolves in water to form uncharged molecules that do not conduct an electric charge.

What is an electron dot symbol?

An electron dot symbol uses a dot to represent each valence electron around the symbol for an element.

What is an energy diagram and how is it plotted? (Heat Reaction- Endothermic/Exothermic)

An energy diagram illustrates the energy changes that occur during the course of a reaction. Energy is plotted on the vertical axis and reaction coordinate is plotted on the horizontal axis. The transition state is located at the top of the energy barrier that separates the reactants and products.

Outline the main steps in the replication of DNA

An original DNA molecule forms two DNA molecules, each of which has one strand from the parent DNA and one new strand. In replication, DNA unwinds and the enzyme DNA polymerase catalyzes replication on both strands. The identity of the bases on the template strand determines the order of the bases on the new strand, with A pairing with T and C pairing with G.

Arginine

Arg (R) 3 carbon chain linked to a C full of only N's (no H's & C has 4 bonds) through an N, nonessential, Basic - positive charges, Charged (side chains often make salt bridges)

Arg (R)

Arginine

What is the relationship between melting points and the number of double bonds fatty acids contain?

As the number of double bonds in the fatty acid increases, its melting point decreases.

Asparagine

Asn (N) amide derivative of aspartate, nonessential, Amide derivatives of acids - loose OH for NH2 to loose charge, Polar (usually participate in hydrogen bonds as proton donors or acceptors)

Aspartate

Asp (D) "carboxyl alanine" with acidic nature noted by suffix "ate", the alphabetical ordering of the first letter of their names correlates with an increase in length of side chain, nonessential, Acidic - negative charges, Polar (usually participate in hydrogen bonds as proton donors or acceptors)

Asn- (N)

Asparagine

Asp (D)

Aspartate

Electrically charged side chains: "Dragons Eat Knights Riding Horses" (D, E, K, R, H)

Aspartate, Asp, D Glutamate, Glu, E Lysine, Lys, K Arginine, Arg, R Histidine, His, H

What are the basic features of equilibrium?

At equilibrium, the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal and the net concentrations of all substances do not change.

Describe the relationship between the volume and number of moles of gas.

Avogadro's law states that when temperature and pressure are held constant, the volume of a gas is proportional to its number of moles. One mole of any gas has the same volume, the standard molar volume of 22.4 L, at 1 atm and 273 K (STP).

A pH > 7 means [H3O+]=[OH-] and the solution is ?

Basic

Functional groups; What are the properties of Alcohols?

Bent shape and polar C-O and O-H bonds. Their OH Bond allows for intermolecular hydrogen bonding between two alcohol molecules or between an alcohol molecule and water. As a result alcohols have the strongest intermolecular forces of the families of molecules in this chapter (12).

Functional groups; What are the properties of Ethers?

Bent shape and two polar C-O bonds, so they have a net dipole.

What are the characteristics of aromatic compounds?

Benzene, molecular formula C6H6, is the most common aromatic hydrocarbon. Benzene contains a six membered ring with three double bonds, and each carbon is trigonal planar.

What are the basic features of globular proteins like hemoglobin and myoglobin?

Both are conjugated proteins composed of a protein unit and a heme molecule. The Fe2+ ion of the heme binds oxygen.

What are the basic features of ionic and covalent bonds?

Both follows one general rule: Elements gain, lose, or share electrons to attain the electronic configuration of the noble gas closest to them in the periodic table. Ionic bonds result from the transfer of electrons from one element to another. Ionic compounds consist of oppositely charged ions that feel a strong electrostatic attraction for each other. Covalent bonds result from the sharing of electrons between two atoms. Covalent bonding forms discrete molecules.

Which three gas laws describe the relationship between the pressure, volume, and temperature of a gas?

Boyle's Law Charles's law Gay-Lussac's Law

Hydrolysis

Breaking down complex molecules by the chemical addition of water

How are Alkyl groups formed?

By removing one hydrogen from an alkane. Alkyl groups are named by changing the -ane ending of the parent alkane to the suffix -yl.

How are alkanes named?

By using the IUPAC system of nomenclature. A name has three parts: 1) The parent indicates the number of carbons in the longest chain or the ring; 2) The suffix indicates the functional group (-ane=alkane); 3) The prefix tells the number and location of substituents coming off the chain or ring.

What reactions involve carboxylic acids?

Carboxylic acids are converted to esters by reaction with alcohols (R'OH) and acid (H2SO4).

What determines the formula of an ionic compound?

Cations and anions always form ionic compounds that have zero overall charge. Ionic compounds are written with the cation first, and then the anion, with subscripts to show how many of each are needed to have zero net charge.

What are the differences in the polysaccharide cellulose?

Cellulose is an unbranched polymer composed of repeating glucose units joined in 1→4β-glycosidic linkages.

How are cis and trans isomers different?

Cis and trans isomers are one type of stereoisomer. A cis alkene has two alkyl groups on the same side of the double bond. A trans alkene has two alkyl groups on opposite sides of the double bond.

What are the basic features of fibrous proteins like collagen?

Collagen is found in connective tissue, it is composed of a superhelix formed from three elongated left handed helices. Helices Def: plural form of helix.

What are constitutional isomers?

Constitutional isomers differ by the way the atoms are connected to each other. CH3Ch2Ch2Ch3 and HC(CH3)3 are constitutional isomers because they have molecular formula C4H10, but one compound has a chain of four carbons in a row and the other does not.

What is the difference between constitutional isomers and stereoisomers?

Constitutional isomers differ in the way the atoms are bonded to each other Stereoisomers differ only in the three dimensional arrangement of atoms.

What are the main structural features of an amino acid?

Contain amino group (NH2) on the α carbon to the carboxyl group (COOH). Amino acids exist in their neutral form as zwitterions having the general structure +H3NCH(R)COO-. Because they are salts, amino acids are water soluble and have high melting points. All amino acids, except glycine (R=H) have a chirality center on the α carbon. L Amino acids are naturally occurring. Amino acids are subclassified as neutral, acidic, or basic by the functional groups present in the R group.

How is the molecular shape around an atom determined?

Count groups- atoms and lone pairs - and keep the groups as far away from each other as possible. Two groups= linear, 180 degree bond angle; three groups= trigonal planar, 120 degree bond angle; four groups =tetrahedral, 109.5 degree bond angle.

Cysteine

Cys (C) "sulfhydryl alanine," reactive, can form disulfides, nonessential, sulfur containing, Polar (usually participate in hydrogen bonds as proton donors or acceptors)

How do the nucleic acids DNA and RNA differ in structure?

DNA is a polymer of deoxyribonucleotides, where the sugar is 2-deoxyribose and the bases are A, G, C, and T. DNA is double stranded. RNA is a polymer of ribonucleotides, whee the sugar is ribose and the bases are A, G, C, and U. RNA is single stranded.

What is Dalton's law and how is it used to relate partial pressures and the total pressure of a gas mixture?

Dalton's law states that the total pressure of gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of its component gases. The partial pressure is the pressure exerted by each component of a mixture.

What are isomers?

Different compounds with the same molecular formula.

How do small molecules cross the cell membrane?

Diffusion Small molecules like O2 and CO2 diffuse through the membrane from the side of higher concentration to the side of lower concentration.

What is dilution?

Dilution is the addition of solvent to decrease the concentration of a solute.

How does electronegativity determine bond polarity?

Electronegativity is a measure of an atom's attraction for electrons in a bond. When two atoms have the same electronegativity value, or the difference is less the 0.5 unit, the electrons are equally shared and the bond is nonpolar. When two atoms have very different electronegativity values - a difference of 0.5-1.9 units- the electrons are unequally shared and the bond is polar.

What rules determine the electronic configuration of an atom?

Electrons are added to the lowest energy orbitals, giving each orbital two electrons in order to write the ground state electronic configuration of an atom. Electron configuration is shown using superscripts to indicate how many electrons an orbital contains.

What are the main components of the electron transport chain?

Electrons from reduced coenzymes enter the electron transport chain and are passed from one molecule to another in a series of redox reactions. At the end of the chain, electrons and protons react with inhaled oxygen to form water.

How are electrons arranged around an atom?

Electrons occupy discrete energy levels (numbered 1, 2, 3, and so on) that contain orbitals (s,p,d, and f). Each orbital can hold two electrons

How is the location of an element in the periodic table related to its number of valence electrons?

Elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons.

What are the main structural features of enzymes?

Enzymes speed up reactions by bringing reactants together and reducing the activation energy required to start the reaction (enzymatic reaction). Enzymes are specific: they have a specific shape, therefore only a certain substrate will fit its active site. Enzymes are biological catalysts that greatly increase the rate of biological reactions and are highly specific for a substrate or a type of substrate. An enzyme binds a substrate at its active site, forming an enzyme-substrate complex by either the lock and key model or the induced fit model. Enzyme inhibitors cause an enzyme to lose activity. Irreversible inhibition occurs when an inhibitor covalently binds the enzyme and permanently destroys its activity. Competitive reversible inhibition occurs when the inhibitor is structurally similar to the substrate and competes with it for occupation of the active site. Non Competitive reversible inhibition occurs when an inhibitor binds to a location other than the active site, altering the shape of the active site.

What reactions involve esters?

Esters are hydrolyzed to carboxylic acids (RCOOH) in the presence of an acid catalyst (H2SO4). Esters are converted to carboxylate anions (RCOO-)with aqueous base (NaOH in H2O)

What are the three temperature scales and how are they related?

Farenheit, Celsius and Kelvin. Fahrenheit and Celsius are divided into degrees, the size of the degree and the zero point on these scales are different. The Kelvin scale is divided into kelvins, and one kelvin is the same size as one degree Celsius.

How do the triacylglycerols in a fat and oil differ?

Fats and oils are both triacylglycerols Fats have few double bonds Solid at room temperature. (lard) Oils have larger number of double bonds Liquid at room temperature (olive oil)

How do saturated and unsaturated fatty acids differ?

Fatty acids are carboxylic acids (RCOOH) with long carbon chains. Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds in the carbon chain and unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds in their long carbon chains. All double bonds in naturally occurring fatty acids are cis. As the number of double bonds in the fatty acid increases, the melting point decreases.

• Histidine - His - H • Serine - Ser - S • Threonine - Thr - T • Cysteine - Cys - C • Alanine - Ala - A • Leucine - Leu - L • Methionine - Met - M • Valine - Val - V • Proline - Pro - P • Glycine - Gly - G

First 3 letters for code are the same First letter for code that is different is Arginine- Arg (R) Remember ARE in Arginine=R Lysine - Lys (K) Remember K is before L or (Lyon King) Aspartate- Asp (D) Remember (date) Aspardate ;) Glutamic - Glu (E) Think of the word glue glu-e Tyrosine - Tyr (Y) Think tyr is almost like try which ends in y Phenylalanine - Phe (F) Remember Phe sounds like F

What are the characteristics of amines?

Formed by replacing one or more H atoms of NH3 by alkyl groups. The N atom has a lone pair of electrons. Primary (1) and 2 degree amines (RNH2 and R2NH) can hydrogen bond. All carbonyl compounds have a polar C=O. RCO2H, RCONH2, and RCONHR' are capable of intermolecular hydrogen bonding.

What are gas laws?

Gas laws describes the behavior of all gases regardless of their identity.

What are the characteristics of amides?

General structure RCONR'2 , where R' = H or alkyl. All carbonyl compounds have a polar C=O. RCO2H, RCONH2, and RCONHR' are capable of intermolecular hydrogen bonding.

What are the characteristics of esters?

General structure RCOOR All carbonyl compounds have a polar C=O. RCO2H, RCONH2, and RCONHR' are capable of intermolecular hydrogen bonding.

Glutamine

Gln (Q) amide derivative of glutamate, nonessential, Amide derivatives of acids - loose OH for NH2 to loose charge, Polar (usually participate in hydrogen bonds as proton donors or acceptors)

What are the basic features of globular proteins?

Globular proteins have compact shapes and are folded to place polar amino acids on the outside to make them water soluble.

Glutamate

Glu (E) aspartate plus one methylene, G is after A, nonessential, Acidic - negative charges, Charged (side chains often make salt bridges)

Glu (E)

Glutamate

Gln - (Q)

Glutamine

Glutamine - Gln - Q Asparagine - Asn - N Tryptophan - Trp - W Isoleucine - Ile - I

Glutamine - Gln - (Q) Remember Gluttony brings on Q (queen size). GLN- first two letters of glutamine and last letter of queen. Asparagine- Asn- (N) Think of first two letters in asparagine and second to last letter is N. Tryptophan - Trp - (W) Think Wow what a TRP (without the i). Isoleucine - Ile - (I) Think first letter of isoleucine and I Love ewe (ILE)

glycine

Gly (G) hydrogen for R, most simple, optically inactive, nonessential, Aliphatic, Hydrophobic (normally buried inside the protein core)

Non-polar side chains: "Grandma Always Visits London In May For Winston's Party" (G, A, V, L, I, M, F, W, P)

Glycine, Gly, G Alanine, Ala, A Valine, Val, V Leucine, Leu, L Isoleucine, Ile, I Methionine, Met, M Phenylalanine, Phe, F Tryptophan, Trp, W Proline, Pro, P

What are the differences in the polysaccharide Glycogen

Glycogen resembles amylopectin but is more extensively branched.

What are the main aspects of glycolysis?

Glycolysis is a linear, 10 step pathway that converts glucose to two three-carbon pyruvate molecules. The net result of glycolysis is 2 CH3COCO2-, 2 NADHs, and 2 ATPs.

What are the main components in oxidative phosphorylation?

H+ ions are pumped across the inner membrane of the mitochondrion, forming a high concentration of H+ ions in the intermembrane space, thus creating a potential energy gradient. When the H+ ions travel through the channel in the ATP synthase enzyme, this energy is used to convert ADP to ATP - a process called oxidative phosphorylation.

What are the characteristics of carboxylic acids?

Have the general structure RCOOH; All carbonyl compounds have a polar C=O. RCO2H, RCONH2, and RCONHR' are capable of intermolecular hydrogen bonding.

Histidine

His (H) 3 carbons to N and loop back through C 'n' N, essential,Basic - positive charges, Polar (usually participate in hydrogen bonds as proton donors or acceptors)

What are the characteristics of solutions?

Homogeneous mixture that contains small dissolved particles. The substance present in the lesser amount is called the solute, and the substance present in the larger amount is the solvent.

What are the characteristics of colloids?

Homogeneous mixture with larger particles (1nm-1μm), often having an opaque appearance.

Draw the products of some common acid-base reactions.

In a Bronsted-Lowry acid-base reaction with hydroxide bases (MOH), the acid HA donates a proton to OH- to form H2O. The anion from the acid HA combines with the cation M+ of the base to form the salt MA. This reaction is called a neutralization reaction. In acid-base reactions with bicarbonate (HCO3-) or carbonate (CO32-) bases, carbonic acid (H2CO3) is formed, which decomposes to form H2O and CO2.

What are the principal features of an acid-base reaction?

In a Bronsted-Lowry acid-base reaction, a proton is transferred from the acid (HA) to the base (B:). In this reaction, the acid loses a proton to form its conjugate base (A: -) and the base gains a proton to form its conjugate acid (HB+).

How are the cyclic forms of monosaccharides drawn?

In aldohexoses the OH group on C5 reacts with the aldehyde carbonyl to give two isomer. The isomer has the OH group on the new chirality center drawn down for a D sugar and the β isomer has the OH group drawn up.

What shorthand methods are used to draw organic molecules?

In condensed structures, atoms are drawn in but the two electron bonds are generally omitted. Lone pairs are omitted as well. Parentheses are used around like groups bonded together or to the same atom.

What is the difference between endothermic and an exothermic reaction? (Heat reaction)

In endothermic reaction, energy is absorbed. Heat reaction (Enthalpy) change is positive(+), and the products are higher in energy than the reactants. In Exothermic reaction, energy is released. Heat reaction (Enthalpy) change is negative (-), and the reactants are higher in energy that the products.

Conjugate meaning in Bronsted-Lowry

In the Bronsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases, the term conjugate refers to an acid and base that differ from each other by a proton. When an acid and base react, the acid forms its conjugate base while the base forms it conjugate acid: acid + base ⇆ conjugate base + conjugate acid For an acid HA, the equation is written: HA + B ⇆ A- + HB+ The reaction arrow points both left and right because the reaction at equilibrium occurs in both the forward direction to form products and the reverse direction to convert products back into reactants. The acid loses a proton to become its conjugate base A- as the base B accepts a proton to become its conjugate acid HB+

How is temperature regulated in the body?

Increasing temperature increases the rates of reactions in the body. When temperature increases, reactions proceed at a faster rate, an individual reaches faster, and the heart pumps harder. When temperature decreases, reactions slow down and less heat is generated in exothermic reactions.

How does temperature, concentration, and catalysts affect the rate of a reaction?

Increasing the temperature and concentration increases the reaction. A catalyst speeds up the rate of a reaction without affecting the energies of the reactants and products.

What are the characteristics of a suspension?

heterogeneous mixture that contains larger particles (>1 μm) suspended in a liquid.

What are the 9 essential amino acids? HILLMPTTV

histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, valine