Organizational Behavior Continued, Organizational Behavior in Business

Sources of Power

Coercive Reward Legitimate Expert Referent

2) customizaitoN;

finding your own personal way of performing the task so it feels as natural as posisbel to you

Sharing power increases your power

(Conventional viewpoint) -power is zero-sum -need to accumulate power Empowering others can increase your power - give them autonomy about means -give them opportunities to acquire expertise -YOU set relevant goals/parameters)

Overconfidecne bias

(itneresitngly, tose whose itnetllectual and itnerpaosnal abitlites are weakes t are most leiyl to overstetiems their foramcen and abitlyi) those mroe optimisc in entrepeurismp thend to be less sucecesfuul, do less plannign. we all tend to have al title of thise.

Part I: People

-Hard on the problem -Soft on people Work to understand others' point of view Allow other to let off steam Listen actively Repeat their position, phrased positively -Partners vs. adversaries

Attribution Theory

-How do we determine the causes of behavior? -To what source do we attribute an outcome? -disposition (the person) -situation (the context)

Part II: Interests

-Identify interests instead of positions -Identify your own interests -Work towards identifying their interests

Bounded rationality

-Imperfect Information -Cognitive Limitations (Attention, Memory, Comprehension, Communication)

whistle-blowers

individuals who report unethical practices by their employer to outsider

Maslow updated: ERG theory

- Existence needs physiological and safety -Relatedness needs social and status desires -Growth needs intrinsic desire for personal development (intrinsic self-esteem and self-actualization)

Procedural Justice

- Fairness of process instead of outcomes - e.g. How performance is evaluated; how grievances are handled - Like equity theory, perceptions are key

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

- Introvert - Extrovert (I - E) - Sensing - Intuitive (S- N) - Thinking- Feeling (T-F) - Judging - Perceiving (J-P)

Myers Briggs Types

- Managing Relationships (E vs. I) - Acquiring Information (S vs. N) - Making Decisions (T vs. F) - Establishing Goals (J vs. P)

Part III: Options

-Invent options for mutual gain -Jointly brainstorm -Separate "inventing" from deciding -Problems are "ours"

Part IV: Criteria for Judging

-Joint Search for Criteria -Fair Standards e.g. market value, blue book -Fair Procedures e.g. taking turns, seeking outside advice

"A" has power over "B" to the extent:

-A has control over something B values (importance) -B cannot obtain it elsewhere (scarcity)

Distributive negotiating

-Assumptions: Fixed pie, zero-sum -Develop bottom line -Negotiate based on positions rather than interest

Decision Making Biases

-Confirmation - Overconfidence (ex: "Reagan doesn't have the presidential look." -- United Artists Executive, 1964 "A severe depression like that of 1920-21 is outside the range of probability." -- Harvard Economic Society, 1929 "They couldn't hit an elephant at this dist--" -- Last Words of General John Sedgwick, Union Army Civil War Officer)

Basic, underlying assumptions

-Deeply held, taken for granted assumptions about behavior in a group -So strongly held that behavior based on any other premise is inconceivable -Extremely difficult to change

Excessive use of power diminishes your power Exaggerate self-worth

-Exploit and denigrade others -Diminished trust -Erodes capacity to influence -Erodes basis of power

Big 5 Model

-Extroversion -Neuroticism -Agreeableness -Conscientiousness -Openness to Experience

power tactics

-Legitimacy: relying on your authority position or sayign a request accords with organiztioanl polices or rules. -Rational persuasion. presentign logical arguemetns and factural evidecne to demosntrate a reuqest is reasonable. -Inspirational appeals: Develoing emotional commitment by appealign to a target's values, needs, hopes adn aspirations. Consutliaot: increasign the target's supprot y invovlign him or her in decidin hwo you will accomplsih your plan. -Exchange: rewardign the grttgarert with benefits or favors in exchagne for follwoig na reuqest. -Personal Appeals: askign for compliance based on freidnship or loyality -ingrataition. usign flattery, prasie, or freindly behavir prior to makign a reuest. -pressure: usign warnign, repeted demadns, and therats -coalitions: enlisitign the aid or supprot of others to persuade the target to agree. rational persuasion, isnperiationa l appeals, and consutliaon tend to be the most effective, especially when the aduience is highyl itnerested in the outcoems of decision process. pressure tends to backfire and is typicalyl the least effective ofh te nine tactics. you can also icnrease your chacne of success by usign two or mroe tactics togeter or sequentialyl as log nas yoru choices are compatiable.

Personality Dimensions Relevant to Organizations

-Locus of control -Machiavellianism -Self-Monitoring

McClelland's need theory

-Need for achievement drive to excel, to achieve -Need for power need to make others behave in a way they would not otherwise -Need for affiliation desire for close and friendly relationships

What influences our perceptions?

-Perceiver characteristics (e.g. attitudes, expectations, mood) -Target characteristics (e.g. ambiguity, self monitoring) Situation characteristics (e.g. salience)

Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs

-Physiological -Safety -Social -Esteem -Self-actualization

Two Forms of Distributive Negotiation

-Soft (Bambi) Avoid Confrontation Maintain Relationships Disclose Make Offers Yield to Pressure Concede Generously -Hard (Rambo) Battle Win Mislead Make Threats Apply Pressure Compromise Reluctantly

Goal setting theory

-Specific and difficult goals -Importance of feedback -Should employees help set their own goals?

A vicious cycle of avoidance.

-afraid of something, each time you encounter it you flee, and each tie, by avoid it, the fear grows stronger, sicne yoru that much further removed form any sorut fo realizstic aprpasial of encorunterign it, which if you were willing to try, might teach you that tis not so scary after all. The paradox is that by avoiding stressful sitautions , you acutalyl end up increasing yoru level of stress over time.

Specific applications of shortcuts in orgnaiztiosn.

1.employment interview. 2. performance expections self-fulling propehcy: a sitiaion in whcih a perosn inaccurately persoces a seocn perosn, and then theresultign expectiosn cause the secodn eprosn to behave i nways consistent with the original perception. 3. performance evalution.

creative behavior

1problem formulation, 2. ifnroamtion gathering . 3. idea geneation 4. idea evaluation

4 Facets of Integrative Negotiation

1) People 2) Interests 3) Options 4) Criteria for judging

4 Questions

1) What are the main difficulties people experience when performing necessary evils? 2) What specific (positive and negative) thoughts and feelings do they experience in the moment? 3) How do they cope with these thoughts and feelings (and still take effective action)? What specific strategies do they use? What seems to determine whether or not these strategies are successful? 4) How can organizations help or hinder the process?

Management Roles (By Henry Mintzberg)

1. Interpersional (figurehead, leader, liason) 2. Informational (Monitor, Disseminator, Spokeperson) 3. Decisional (Entrepeneur, Disturbance handler, Resource allocator, negotiator)

three stae model of creativity

1. causes of creative behavior (creative potential and creative nviemrent) -> 2. creative behavior (problem forumation -> ifnrroamtion gahtering -> idea generaiton -> idea evaluation) 3. creatve otucoems or Innovation, (novelty and usefullness)

Manager's role in combatting sexual harrasment

1. make sure na active policy defiens what constitues sexual harassmetn, informs employees they can be fired for seuxally harassign antoehr employee, and establsihes procedures for makign complaints. 2. Reassure employees they will nto encoruter retalatiosn if they fiel a complaint. 3. Investigate every complaint, and ifnrom the legal and human resoruce departments . 4. Make sure offenders are disciplined or terminated 5. Set up in-house seminars to raise employeee awarness of sexual harassment issues

Expectancy Theory

Individuals will be motivated if they expect an act will be followed by a given outcome Three key links Effort --> Performance Performance --> Reward Rewards --> Personal goals

Audience Analysis

=Visible artifacts -Espoused values, beliefs, and norms -Basic, underlying assumptions

Purpose of Integrative Negotiation:

A Sound Agreement - Wise meets relevant interests sustainable -Efficient -Preserves the relationship

Groupshift

A change between a gorup's deicsion and an idnivudal diecison that a emmeber within the gorup would amek ; the shfit can be toward eitehr cosnervatism or greater risk but is generatlly toward a mroe extreme vieriso nfo the gorup's origianl possition. tends to hapep nwhen gorups are viewed favoriable and htere is a clear isdea for hte gorup. what can magners do to minimzie gorupshihtink. they can montiro gorupsize. they should nto glet the gorup get large r tha nabotu 10. mmagners shoudl also encaoruage ogrup leaders ot play an imerpatial roel .eladersh sould acitivtley eek intu form al emmerbs adnd aovid expresisong their own aopaitons, epsicall in the earl stateges of deliabtion. in adiditon they shoudl seleect oen person to play devils adviocate. this wil lallow thte group to be less likely to stifle dissenting views and mroe lieyl to gian an obejctive evlatuion.

The Dark Triad

A conselation of neative perosnaltiy traits consisting of Machiavellianism (pragmatic, maitnaisn emtoional distance, and beielvies that ends cna ustify means), narcissim (tendency to be arroant, have a gradisoe sense of self-imprtoance, reuqire excessive admiration, and have a sense of entitlement), and psychopathy.(the tendency for a lack of cncenr for tothers and a lack of guitl or remorse when their actiosn cause harm.

Formal Group

A designated work group deefined by an organizations strucutre.

Causality

A hypothesis, by definition, implies a relationship. That is, it implies a presumed cause and effect. This direction of cause and effect is called causality. changes in the independent variable are assumed to cause changes in the dependent variable.

Groupthink

A phenomenon in which the norm for consensus overrides the realistic appraisal of alterantive courses of action. gorup pressures for confority deter the gorup form critically aprpaosihign unsual, inortiy or unpoopual views. 1. group memebrs ratioanlize any resistane to the asusmptiosn tyeyv've made. 2. memerbs apply direct presusres on those hwo momentarily epxress dutbts abotu any of hte gorups sharesd view,s or hwo quesito nteh valtiy of arugmetns supprotign the altenrative favored by the majroity. 3. memerbs who have doutbs or differiign poitns of veiw seek to aovide eiating form waht apepars to be gorup consenes by keeping sieeltn abotu migivisng and even minimzing thto themselvesh te imrpoane of theri doutbs. 4. there is an illusion of unamnimtiy. of someoen doeusbt peak ttis sumedh e ro she is in ful lacord. absentios nebcauses a "yes" vote. closel allgend iwth solomon ashches expeiremtn on cards

Punctuated-Equilibrium Model

A set of phases that temporary groups go throuhg that invovles transitions between inertia and activitity. Their own unique secquestions of actiosn a(ro inaction): 1. Their first meetign sets thteh gorup's direction 2. the first phase of gorup activity is one of inertia 3. ta transittaitons akes pace when the gorup has used up half its alloted time. 4. this transition initatiates major changes. 5. a second phaseo of inertia follows the transitions . 6. the gorups last meeting is charactereized by markedly accelerated activity. the first meeting sets the gorups direcito nand then a frameowrk of behaviorai la patterns and asusmtpios nthrough whic hte gorup wil lapraoch its proejct emerges, somtiems in the first few seconsds fo the gorup's existance. ocne set, the gorusp directo nsi soldified and is unlikely to be reexamiend throughotu the first half of its life. this is paeriod of interita- thro gurp tends ot statned still or becoem locked int oa fixed cousre fo acito neven if its gains new insights htat hcalelgne intiational patterns and asustmtpiosn. one of hte msot itnerestign discoveries in work team studies has th eat gorups epxiernced theri transtion rpecisely halfwau y betwen the first meeting and hteo fficial deadline. the minpoitn apeparoch to work liek an alarm clack, hieghting memerbs awarnes and that their time is limted nad they need ot get moving. this trnatiosn ends pahse 1 and is characted by a concented bust of hcanges, droppign of odl pattenr,s and adoptio nfo new psections. the transitosn sets a recevied diecito nfor pahse 2, a new euliabiram or perido fo iential in which the gorup exectues palsn created tudrgn the trnaistion eprido. the gorups last meting is hcaracted by a final burst of activity to finish the owrk. . i nsummery, the punchtaed equalibrium model charates gorusp as exhibtiign logn epridoso f inetital interspeced with brief revoltuioanry changes trangered primarily by memebr's awarness of tiem and deadliens. does nto apply to al lgorups but is suited ot hte finite qualtiy of temeproary task gorups wrkign udner time deadlien.

Role Conflict

A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations. at the extreme, two or more role expectiatiosn are mutally contradcitory. ex: role and family conflcits. should you move nad relaocate for your role in job or stay or your your role in the famiyl. multiple identities and roles, sometiems come into conlict when there are mergers.

Hypothesis

A tentative explanation of the realtionship between two or more variables.

Self-Determination Thoery

A theory f motivatio nthat is concerned with the benefical effots of intrinsic motvation and the harmful efects of extrinsic mtviation (getting paid for a job might make you liek it less)

Two-Factor Theory

A theory that relates intrinsic motifactors to job satisfaction and associates extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction. Also called motivation-hygiene theory. by Frederick Herzberg -intrinsic facts such as avancement recognition, responsibility, and achievment seem realted to ob satifaiton. and exteinsiv factos such as supervisio, apy, cmpany polices nad werekign ocnditiosn cited with job dissatifiont. the opposition of satfaction is no satizstion. and the oppositite of dissatiction is no ndiasitons. therefoemre, mangers who elitmed factos that can creat job dissatiscatio nmay bring abotu peace, but not necessily motivation. they will be palcatign rather than mtovating theri works. as reslt, herberg characteized conditiosn sauch as qualtiy of sueprvision, pay company poelcies, physcial workign relriotnships with ither and jb satficaito nas hygiene factor. (f these ar adequate good hyggenien) and intrintcionc factos as motivativng factores. *if adequate, mtoviation)

McClelland's Theory of Needs

A theory that states achievement, power, and affiliatio nare three improtant needs that help explain motivation.

Cognitive evaluation theory

A version o the self-determination theory which hodls thaat allcoating extrinstic reqards fr behavior that had been previosuly intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivaiton if the rewards are seen as controlling. -even getting a reward at hte end of hte year fro good perforamcne can coutn. shifts the individuals pereito nof wh she works on a task from itnernal to extenal.

Moderating Variable

Abates the effects of hte independent variable on the dependent variable. It might also be though of as the contindency fvariable: if X (independnet vairbale), then Y (dependent viarbale) will occur, bu onl under conditiosn Z (moderating variable).

Model

An abstraction of realtiy. a simplified representation of some real-world phenomenon.

Brainstorming

An idea-genreation process that specifically encoruages any and all altenratives while withldign any criticism of those alternatives. the gorup leader state hte problem i nclear maner so all paritciaptns udnerstand, and then the memebrs rreewheel as many altneraitves as they can i na given legiht of time to encoaruagem emerbo think the iusual no ciriticsi mis alwoed ,e ven of hte msot bizarre sugesitosn a,d nall aidea re recorded for later idsicion nad nalayssi. tehse generate idea bs ut not in a ver efificen tanenr . one reason is "production blcoking" in which many peopel are talking at once whcih imepdes the charing of ideas.

Psychological contract

An unwritten agreement that sets out what mangmenet expects from an employee and vice versa. mangmenet is expected to treat employes justly, provide acceptable working conditions, clearly communciate what is a fair day's work, and give feedback on hw well an employee is doing. empployees are expected ot repsond by demonsrated a good attitude, followign directions ,aadn showign loyalty to the organization. if mangment doesnt keep its part of the bargain, we can expect negative effects on employee perforamcen adn satisfaction. contracts defifer by cotnry. indivualsit but asymmetric, france. self interested contracts but favoring hte more powerfu l party. individualist by symmetric, canada (balanced receirprocity . collectivist but assumetic in china. so contracts are different (contrcats go into iemployees lives).

Variable

Any general characteristics that can be measured and that chagnes in amplitude, intensity, or both.

Dependence

B's relationship to A when A posses something B requires.

Sending and interpreting information

Basic Message Meta Message

Individual Differences

Biographical Characterisitcs (Age,gender, education, SES) Personality (what a person is like) Abilities (what a person can do) (physical, cognitive, emotional, social)

Definition of a TEAM

Bounded membership Stable for some period of time Interdependent for some task purpose Team's output is at least potentially assessable Has some authority to determine its own task and interpersonal process

The Job Characteristics Model

By J. Richard Hackamnd nad Greg Oldham a model that proposal that any job can be described in temrs of give core job dimsiiosn: skill variety, task identity, task signficance, autonomy, and feedback.

Analyze and Redesign a job

Choose job (boring, not motivating) Rate MPS of that job Redesign job Rate new MPS

BACI (Before-After-Control-Imapct) analys)

Compbines before and ater and control imapct ocmpariisons by simultaneously comaprng pre and post measures of perforamcne at control and impacted sites. BACi analysis examines wehter thei mapct site does worse after hte imapct relative to the contorl site. the focus is therefore on who the difference ebtween the cotnro ladn imapcted site change form before ato after thte impact. showed that steps made to improve these dams and provide systems to protect salmon had helped these populations

Weaknesses of Group Decision Making

Conformity pressures, domianted by one or a few memerbs, ambguosu responsibility.

Differences in interpretation of meta-messages

Cultural Differences Gender Differences

Rational Decisions

Define problem Identify decision criteria Allocate weights to criteria Develop alternatives Evaluate alternatives Select best alternative Define problem Identify decision criteria Allocate weights to criteria Develop alternatives Evaluate alternatives Select best alternative

What Creates Dependence?

Dependence icnreases when the roesurce you control is improant, scarce, and nonsubstitutable. Individidaus of gorups that can absorb uncertainty will be perceived as cotnrolling an important resource. Ex: a marketing departmetn is more imrptoatn at a indutrial company (proctor and gamble) ooking to sell while the engingeering department mre improtant at a technology company (mathsushtita) scaracty: where the supply of labor is rlao relative to demadn, woerks can negotiatie compensatio nadn benefits packes far mroe attactive than can htoei n occuptiosn ith an abduancen fo candidates. nonsubstitstabiltiy. the fewer viable susbtite for a reosruce, te he more pwoer onctorl that reosruce provides. at unvieties with strogn pressureso nteteh facutly to publish ,the mroe recognition the facutly memerb receives throug hpublication ,te hmore mobile he or she is, beceause otehr unvierstieis wahttn facutly who are hgihly pblsiehd and visble . although tenrue can calter this relationshoip by restrucing the depramtent head's alternative,s facutly memerbs with few or no publciatiosn ahve hte least mobiltiy and are subject othe greated ifnelcuen from theri suserpers.

Two ways of negotiating

Distributive negotiating (a clash of two bottom lines) Integrative negotiating (working towards developing a creative solution)

Case Study

Drawn from real life situations, case studies present an in-depth analysis of one setting. They are thorough decriptions, rich in details abotu an individual, a group, or an organization. The primary soruce of information in case studies is obtained through observation, coccassionally backed up by interviews and a review of records and documetns. Case studies have their drawbacks. they're open to the perceptioual bias and a subjective interpestiatons of hte observer. the reaser of a casei s captive to waht the observer/ case writer cooses to include and exclude.They als trade off gneeralizbel for depth of informatio n and reichnesso f detail

Obstacles to Group Effectiveness

Escalation of Commitment Self-limiting behavior Groupshift (polarization) Groupthink Ignoring "Minority Influence"

Critical features of the context

Experienced responsibility Perceived justifiability Palpability of distress Assessed degree of harm Deserving or Undeserving?

Self-Limiting Behaviors

Expertise = assuming that others are more competent than oneself, or assuming that the greater experience and expertise of others is cause for you to withhold your contribution Social loafing = the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually Weighting = inappropriately giving weight to a member's contribution based on an irrelevant characteristic of that member

inbreeding coefficient

F, can buse used to measure the degree of isolation of subpoopualtions. a particualr kind of inbreeding coefficent known as FSt, is sespecially useful in this regard. FST provides a measure of genetic differents amogn subpopualtiosn by comparign the heterzygosity within subpopuatliosn (S) to the amoutn ofthat would be expenction in the total popualtion (T) if the subpopuatliso nwere behaving as a signle large population.

Multiple ways to motivate

Fulfilling individual needs (e.g. Maslow, ERG, McClelland) Interpersonal treatment (e.g. equity theory, procedural justice) Job redesign

Strengths of Group Decision Making

More complete information and knowlege, increased diversity of views, acceptance of a solution.

Actual Performance

Potential Performance - Process Losses + Process Gains = Actual Performance

Groupthink is particularly likely to occur when...

Group is highly cohesive Strong leader with known preferences Insulated from outside influences

The Truth & Challenges of Groups

Groups are necessary only way to get some tasks done have the potential to perform better than individuals So how can group members and managers of groups get groups & teams to perform effectively -- to reach their potential?

Minority Influence

Groups tend to ignore, silence, and even shame those whose ideas differ from the majority view.

Decision Making:

How do we make decisions?

Attribution:

How do we make sense of what we see?

Role expectations

How others believe a person should act in a given situation.

Background about Necessary Evils project

Importance of interpersonal sensitivity, compassion, dignity The knowing - doing gap

reference gorups

Important gorups to which idnivudals belong or hoep to belogn and with those whose norms idnivudals are likely to conform. -the implacaito nthen is taht all gorups do not impose equal conformity pressures as on their memebrs

Listening skills - Nonverbal

Incline towards individual Maintain open posture Appropriate distance Eye contact Psychological attention - communicating genuine interest, concern

Factors that Influence Poltical Beahvior

Individual factors : hgih slef montiros, itnernal lcoal of control, high mach perosanltiy, orgnaizitoanl invemetn, perved job altenratives, expeirnceio nfo success + ORgnasitioanl factors -realtioned of reosruces promtoion ooprotutnites -low trust (high trust envieremtns suppress potlical beavior in general and inhibit illegiment actios n in particular) -roel abiguity -unclreasr perforamce evalautio nsystem -zero sum reward pracitces -democratic decision making -high performacne pressures - self-serving senrior mangers -delay between time of action nd its appraocial -> Poltical behavior: low -> High -> Favorable outcoems: -rewards - averted punishemtns

Equity Theory

Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with others and respond to eliminate inequities When perceived inequity: -change inputs (e.g. effort) -change self-perception (I really work much harder than others) -choose new referent (I don't make as much as X, but I make more than Y) -Leave the field entirely

Joint Search for Criteria Fair Standards e.g. market value, blue book Fair Procedures e.g. taking turns, seeking outside advice

Joint Search for Criteria Fair Standards e.g. market value, blue book Fair Procedures e.g. taking turns, seeking outside advice

Listening skills -- Verbal

Judging vs. encouraging comments Using silence effectively Paraphrasing, not parrotting

Outcomes

Key factors taht are ffected by soem other variables

Two Levels of Culture

Levels 1: Manifestations of culture -visible artifacts esposed values, beliefs, and norms Leves 2: Basic, underlying assumptions

motivatign potential skore (MPS) a predictive indiex that sugests the motivaitng protneital in a job

MPS = [(skill variety + task identity + task significance) / 3 ] x autonomy x feedback ro bw high on motivaitn ptoentital jobs must be high on at least one of hte htree factos that lead to epxiernced mengignelenss nad high on bto hautonoym and feedabck . if jobs score hgi hon motivign ptoetnal the jmdoe lpreoductm otviaiton, pformacne nad satfiiotn will imrpvoe, whiel absecne nad utover will be reudced.

Necessary Evils Project

Managers (N = 47) Performing layoffs Delivering performance appraisal Punishing, reprimanding Police officers (N = 22) Evicting people from their home Repossessing property Doctors (N = 25) Delivering bad news Performing painful procedures Tough love therapists (N = 22) Breaking people down emotionally

Management Functions (By Heri Fayol)

Planning, organizing, leading, controlling

A few take-aways

Multiple levels of culture Important to look across levels Multiple cultures in same organization Individuals can "see" same culture quite differently

Caveats

NOT -inadequacies -unchanging -innate -predestination You manifest all dimensions

What motivates people?

Need theories (multiple) Expectancy theory Equity theory Procedural justice theory Goal setting theory

Aggregate Quantitative Reviews

Often invloving meta-analysis: a quatitvie form of ltierature review that enables researches to look at validity fundigns from a comprehensive set of individuale sutdies, and then apply a formual to them to determine if they cosnidetnly produced simialr resutls. IF resutls prvoe toe be consident, ti allows researcers to conlcude rore confidently that validity is genralizable. meta-analysis is a means for ocverimgi nthe potentialyl impresciese interpesatiosn fo qualtive reivews and to synthesize vairaitosn in quantitive studie.

Criteria of Group Effectiveness

Output meets or surpasses the standards of relevant audiences The capability of members to work together in the future is enhanced. The well-being and development of individual members is fostered.

Assumptions of rational model

Problem clarity Known options Clear preferences Constant preferences No time or cost constraints

Key differences to take into account

Professional experience Gender Task proficiency Personality How much guilt and empathy we typically feel Organizational framing and task design

Theory X and Theory Y

Proposed by Douglas McGregor. concluded that the managers' views of the nature of human beigns are basedo on certain assumptions that mold the managers behavior toward the employees.

Espoused values, beliefs, and norms

Provide the day-to-day operating principles guiding member behavior -This is what is important to us (values) -This is how we behave around here (norms) Can be articulated or unarticulated

Discipliens that contribute to OB

Psychology, Social psycholgoy, sociolgoy, anthropology

Decision Making

Rational Model vs Bounded Rationality Model

works groups are not unogeaniezed mobs; they ahve properties that shape memebrs beahviro and help expiain and preducit idnividual behaviro iwthin the gorup as wlel as the perforamcne of hte gorup itself. sopme of these poproerites are

Roles, norms, status, size, cohesinevess, and diveristy

THE JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL

See Slide on Job Design *Might not be on quiz?

Improving Group Processes

Separate idea generation from idea evaluation during evaluation, candidly confront Make sure everyone speaks talkers should ask non-talkers Divide into smaller groups then reconvene Note minority opinion

Paradoxical Reality of Power

Sharing power increases your power Excessive use of power diminishes your power

Judgment Heuristics

Shortcuts or rules of thumb that we use to process information -availability -representativeness -anchoring & adjustment

Field Experiment

Similar to the laboratory experiment except it is conducted in a real organization. The natural setting is more realistic than the laboratory setting, and this enhances validity but hinders control. In addition, unless control groups are maintained, there can be a loss of control if extraneous forces intervene- for example, an there is an employee strike. Greaterest concern is orgnaizaitoanl selection bias. not all orgnaizitosn are ogin to allwo otusid eresearchers to come in and study their employees and orpaitons. this is espeically rrue fof orgnaitiosn that have eseirous problems. therefor,e sicne msot published studies in OB are doen by ooutside reseachers, the selection bias might work toward the publciation of studies conducted almsot exclsuviely at succesful and well-managed organizations.

Ethical dilemmas and ethical choices

Situations in which individuals are required to define right and wrong conduct.

Effectve vs Succesful Mangemerial activitieis

Succesful managers allocate more time for networking, but those that are effective spend more time in communication

Different avoidance tactics

Tactic #1: Full-On Avoidance Tactics #2: Do the task, but Only partway - and Not So Well Tactic #3 ProcrastinateTactic #4: Pass the Buck

Management Skills

Technical skills, human skills, conceptual skills.

Conformity

The adjustment of one's behavior to alight with the nroms of the group. sugegested the cofnformitey confirms form a desire to form acucurate perceptiosn fo relairy basedo n gorup cocnsensus, to devleopm enainful csocial relationships with others, and to maitnain a favorabel self-cocnept. Solomon Asch's studies o confirmtiy showed that unsuspecting subjects would follwo the gorup norm in deciding which card had only one line leinght (vs varying). the unsuspecting subejct often followed the nroms of the gorup who said hte wrogn answer. findings are less strong today and are more storng in connecltivist coutlures.

Theory Y

The assumptin that employees liek work, are creative, and can exercise self direction.

Theory X

The assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, dislike responsibiltiy, and must be coerced to perform.

Power

The capacity to get another person or group to do something they might not otherwise have done.

The Authenticity Challenge:

The challenge that "this isn't me at all" ad the distress tha result from that feeling.

Availability heuristic

We judge frequency, probability or likely cause of an event by the degree to which instances or occurrences of the event are readily "available" in memory

Groupthink II

The drive to achieve concurrence and agreement among all group members overrides realistic appraisal of alternative courses of actions.

Two classes of thoughts and feelings

The experience of causing and witnessing pain and suffering Guilt Empathy The experience of performing a challenging task Performance anxiety Cognitive "load"

Adjourning stage

The final stage in gorup development for temporary groups, characterized by concern with wrappign up activitites rather than task performance. -for perofmant gorups, perofmring is the last stange in devleopment. thteh adjorunign group is for temerpary commtitees teams, tas kf forces, and simialr groups. some gorups are upbeat, baskign in the gorups accomplsihemtns. otehrs may depressed over the lsos of camaraderies nad friendshisp gained during hte work gorups life. the stages can be fluid, soem gorups reach certain stages quciker than otehrs and while most perofrm better over time some perform worse, esuch as those with less sense of peruprsoe.

Forming Stage

The first stage in gorup development, characterized by much uncertanity. uncertanity about gorups purpsoe, strucutren ad laeders. members "test the waters" to determine what types ofo behaviros are acceptiable. this stage is complete when mebers have begun to think of themselves a part of agorup.

Five-Stage Group-Development Model

The five distict stages groups go through: Forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.

Performing Stage

The fourth stage in group development, durign which the group is fully functional. Group energy has moved from getting to knwo nd underrsatnad each other to performign the task at hand. Move from gettign to know each other to performing the task at hand.

The General Dependence Postulate

The greater B's dependence on A, he more power A has over B. WHen you possess anythgin others require that you alone cotnrol, you make them dependant on you, and therfore you gain power over them. IF somethign si plentiful, possessing it will nto icnrease yur pwer. But as the old sayign goas, "in the land of the blind, the one-eye man is king!" conversely, the more you can expand your own options, the less pwoer you place in teh hadns of others. THis explaisn why most orgnaiztiosn develop multiple suppleis rather than give their beusiness to only one. it also epxlains why so many aspire to finacnial indepdnence. indepdnence reduces the pwoer others can wield to limit our access to opportunities and resources.

Personality

The pattern of relatively enduring ways in which a person feels, thinks, and behaves. -A product of heredity, environment, and situation

Independent Variable

The presumed cause of some chagne in the dependent varaiable. participating.

Impression Management (IM)

The process by whcih individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them. -the hgiher self-monitor is more leiky lto engage in IM. Impression Mangment (IM) Techniques -onformity -Fvors -Excuses -Apologies -Self-Promotion -Enhancement -Flattery -Exemplifation keep in midn that when people ignage in IM, the yare sendign a falsse message that mgiht be true udnero the cirtcumstances. exsucises for isntance, may be offered iwth sincered. So the impression mangement must be cautiosu nto to be perceived as insicnere or manipulative. ex: dont namdeop too much. in sum, peoeple dont liek to feel totehrs are munipualting them through imrpession amgnet so cu htactics oshoudl be mployeed with caustion. theese are mprotant for interview success, with self promtoion and improtant compoentn. ingration also works well i ntenreives, applciatnets who compleiemt teh itnveirwer, agree with his or her options and empashieze areas of it do tbtter than those that dont. In terms of peroframcne ratign. ignration is posotively relatied to performance ratigns, meanign thsoe who itngate wit htheir suerpfvisors get higher pofrmacne evaltiions. hwoever self promtion appears ot bavkrroe. mgiht nto know y are blowgig nslmoek i nan itnerview but will now if you are as a supeprvisor. in places like isral, which is more potlcialy unsabtle, employees seem to demosntate greater tolerance for intense otlcial processesi nthe owrkpalce, beeprfhapes because they are useto potlcial rpocesses o nteh worpalce, , or are use to pwoer strogles and have mroe epxience opig nwith them. htus areas liek middle east and latin amreica may be mroe acceptign to such potlicals in the orkplace. us leaders and other stucu hc contrueis favoreid gentler presuation mroe , through consutlatio nadn isnparaitional appeal than did thier chiense counterparts.

Work motivation

The psychological forces that determine the direction of a person's behavior in an organization, a person's level of effort, and a person's level of persistence.

Approach-Avoidance framework

The rameowrk by which idnvidals react to stimuli, wherby aprpaoch motivaiton is attaction to postive stimuli and avoidance mtoivation is our aveersion to negative stimuli. The way an individual performs depends on whcih of these mtivaitosn domiantes. (ex, a competive cutlrue can both apraoch or avoidance motivations depending, and two seperate beahviro such as suprot vs aggressiosn create differnet resposnes0)

Storming

The second stage in group development, chracterized by intragroup conflict. memebrs accpet the existence of the gorup but reist the coutnstraitns imposedb y o nindiviudality. there is a confliect over who will contorl the group. when thsi stage is compelte, there wil lbe a relatively clear hierachy of eladership within the group.

Groupshift (Polarization)

The tendency for groups to move toward a more extreme position than the average of all individual members' positions.

Social loafing

The tendency for individausl to expend less effort when working colelctively than when workign idnvudally. Max rignlamn did a test of rope pullign in gorusp and idnivudally. i ngrousp of three each pulled less weight comapred to idnivudally. total group perforamcne icnreases with gorup sie, but the addition of new memerbs has dimishign returns on diivudal procuiy. so more ma be better i ntaht total rpocity of gorup of four is genre than that of three, but the indivudal prodcuity of ehacmeebr dclines. free friding, exploiting at the expesne of team memebrs. also believing others are lazy and nto doign fair share hy shodyuld you and also dispersion of repsonsibiltiy. webcuase the gorusp resutl cannot be attibetued ot a single perosn, the relatoions betwen an dinvidaul intu and the gorups outptu is clodued. mangagers us e colelctive owrk tstiautios nto engance morale and teamework, btu msut als oeb abel to identiy indivudal effort.s otehrwise, they msut eiwhgt the ptoetnial osees in proctivty form usig ngorups agisn thte possibel gains in workign staticaicton. social ledfign appears ot have a western bias. its consident with idnviudal cutlures. less so in idnvduasl in chian and isral (boeth colectivist oscieis0 the chenese and israles showne no proepsity to engage in social laogfing and catualyl peformed better in agorup than aloen

Correlation Coefficient

The term correlation coefficient is used to indicate the strength of a causaltiy relationship, and is expressed as a number between -1.00 (a perfect negative relationship) and +1.00 (a perfect positive correlation).

Communication

The transferring and understanding of meaning

Safeguards against abuse of power

Think in terms of long term relationships Avoid reliance on formal authority Foster a system of checks or constraints on your power Use your power and influence to accomplish ends that are not entirely self-serving

Group

Two or more indiviudals intracting and interdependent, who have come together to ahcieve particular objectives.

Interacting Groups

Typical gorups in whcih memebrs interact with each other face to face. -tend to censor thesmselves napressur eindivudal memerbs toward conformity of opinion. brainstormign and nominal group technique can reduce probelms inehernet in the traditiaon linetective group.

Ways to communicate meta-messages

Verbal signals: Tone (e.g. positive/negative) Intonation/Emphasis Non-verbal signals: Facial gestures Body gestures

Visible Artifacts

Visible manifestations of organization's culture Examples: Dress code, physical layout, symbols, logos, stories, jokes Easy to observe, difficult to decipher

Representative(ness) heuristic

We assess likelihood of an event's occurrence by the similarity of that occurrence to our stereotypes of similar occurrences. often based on past experiences.

Fundamental attribution error

Westerners tend to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others

Groups & Teams

What is Effectiveness? Obstacles to Effectiveness Suggestions for improvement

Anchoring and adjusting

When making decisions or estimating amounts, we start from an initial value and adjust insufficiently

Groups & Teams

Why do we need groups & teams? What are the disadvantages, flaws, & weaknesses of groups and teams?

Perception:

Why do we perceive what we do?

Percentage of workers' time

Writing ____ % Reading ____ % Talking ____ % Listening ____

Self-concordance

the degree to which people's reasosn for pursuing goals are consistent with their itnerests and core values. (pursuing jobs for extrinsic reasons tends to lead less to satsfaction than following your intrinsic motvaitons)

Why are individual differences important?

Your interaction with and perception of others. Other's interaction with and perceptions of you.

metapopulation

a collection of spatally isolated subpopulations of the same species that itneract at some level. the exetinciton risk for a metapoulation dpendso n the balance between the lsos of subpopualtiosns due to lcoal extencito nadn the gain of subppopualtiosn todue to colonzation of a a vacant habtit. for any ensemble of subpopulations, an equalibrium exists where the loss and gain rates are equal. this equilbrium depdns othe rate fo disperal among habitat patches (because dispeal governs colonziaton) and the paer-pathc rate of exteicntion. event when ta collectio nof patches reaches and equilibirium of cocuprancy,(meanign that form eayar to year roguhyl the same fractio nfo patches is occupied) turover can continue. as oen patch losesi ts subpopulation, atantoerh may gain a subpopualtion, and htus emtpy atpches continualyl shfit from palce fot placne, dpeendign on the vagareis of exitions. species that exist as metapopautlsi oanre a ta ris kf oextnicon if factors such as habtiat loss or itnerfecne with depseal reduce cloznaito rantes so eseverly they cannot balcne chance local exticons. df/dt = C - E df/dt is the rate of chagne in the fractio nof pathces occupied. when patch occupacny is deliving , df/dt is neagtive, and when aptch occupancy is icnreasing, pathc occuany is postive. when df/ dt = 0, the fraciton occupeid is ocnstant and any tiem a ptch becoems empty, o naverage ,a different epty patch is colonized. C colonziaton E exticiton. northern spotted owsl cpopulatoios n protected using this model. demosntrated that areas that were unccupied but close t ootehrs, neededto be protected as well, as they were areas for colonziation, so thsi helped hte species.C

Rational decision making model

a decsion makign model that describes how individuals should behave in order to maximize some outcome. six steps: 1. define the problem 2. identify the decision crieteira 3. allocate wieghts to the criereia 4 develop the alternatives 5 evaluate the alternatives 6. select the best alternative.

Organizational Behavior

a field of study that investigates the imacts that individuals, gorups, and strucutre have o nbehaivor within rognaizaitons, for the purpsoe of applyng such knowlege toward improvign an organization's effectiveness.

Coervice power

a power base that is dependent on fear of the negative resutls from failign to comply. at the organizaitonal level, H ahs coerive power over b if A can dispmess , speepend, or demote B , asusmbing B values his or her job. IF A can asign assign B activitites B finds unpeasant, or treat B in a matnnr B finds embarresing ,A possesses coercive power over B. Coercive pwoer can also come form withohldign key finroamtion. People i nan organzition wh o ahve data or knwolege others need can make otehr dependent on them.

Nominal Group Technique

a gorup decisionm akign method in whcih individual memebrs meet face to face to pool their judgmenets i na systematic but independent fashions. -restictiosn diecsuiosn or itnermperosnal commucnaito ndurign hte ideiciosn makgi nrpocess. gorup memerbs are all phsically present, aas in a tradioanl comtiee meeting, btu they oepratie idnpeendently. pecifically ap roblem s presneted nad then the gorup takes the followign steps: 1. before nay discussion takesp alce, each memebr iendepntly writes down ideas on the problem. 2. after this silent period, each memebr rpesentso ne idea to the gorup. no discsusio ntakesp alce until all ideas have been presented and recorded. 3. the gorup discsuses the ideas for clarit and evaltuates the. 4 each gorup memebre sitlently and idnepndently ran-roders the ideas. the idea with the hgiest aggirgate rankign detmeriens the final diecison. allwos gorups to meet foramlyl bout doesn to restrict indpendent thinking, as does an itneactio ngorup. research gneeralyl shos nomian lgrous potuoerpfrm brainstorimign gorups.

informal group

a gorup that is neither formally structured nor organizationalyl dtermeidn; ssuch a gorup aprpeas in response to the need of social contact.

Intuition

a gut feelign not necessaril rsuproted by research

Value system

a hierachy basedo n a rankign of an idniua;s ' valeus n terms of hteir intensity.

Field Survey

a lengthy questionnaire was created to assess the use of ethics, policies, formal ethics structure, formalized activities such as ethics training and executive involvment in ethic program amogn billion dollar crproations.

a manipulative experimetn based on a factorial design

a manipulative epxeiremtn that simultatnesouyl examiend the role of both bottom up and top down threats to corals. , combining two varibels i n this epxieremetn the researchers crossed fiferetn nutrient treamtens (backgorudn elvels of nturietns r or added nturenttients ) with different herbivore trematns (backgorudn elvels of herbivores or exlusion of herbivores 0to look at foru combinatiosn fo trments; bakgorudn nturietns nad backgorudn herbivores; backogrdund nturients nad exclsuded herbivors; added nturients and backgorudn herbvviroes nad added nutrients nad excluded herbivors. v this type of experiemintal deisng is extrmeyl poerful btu also relavrely used to adressed aneivmerntal quesitosn. because large scale mauntipelsi n the oepan ocean of eitehr nutirent levels or herbivors popuatliso nwouldbe dissifuclt and epxencisv,e the respicalted epiermetnal usnites were mslal. crea and ted 4 experimetnal treatments the nes on corals is nto all bad, first although many reefs have suffered fro bleachign evnet,s ceterian refs appear to be resilent. resleitne reefs are often charcteizedb y cogod ciraitona of minimal sedimatnet inpetns of cland. be identifyig these reustlent refe,s concservaitosn can focus on preventign pllutio and ofvershing in palces wher ethe chanceso f logn term cosnervation success are greatest. second rya of hoempe is that refs can be restored. using scurign rocks iwth concrete slabs and rwiered mesh. to create sapce for regorwht. overfilling, plltuion, costal developemtn , anc cliamte change.

Myers - Briggs Type Indictator (MBTI) a personality test that ttaps four characteristics adn classfieis people into 1 of 16 personality types

a personality test that ttaps four characteristics adn classfieis people into 1 of 16 personality types. 100 questions. Extraverted vs introverted : extracverted invidiausl are outgoing, social, and asserive. introverts are quiet and shy Sensing versus inteutuive . sensign teps are practial and prfer routine nad order. They focus on details. Intuitves rely on unconcious processes and look at the "big pciture." Thinking vs feelign. Thingign types use reasons and logic to handle problems. feelign types reuly on tehri eprsona lvlaues nad emtoiosn Judginng vs perceiving. judging types want control and prfer order na stucutre. peceiving teps are flixble anr spontaneous.

self-monitoring

a personality trait that measures andidniduals abiltiy to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factor. . they are mroe leikely to become leaders nad tend to be mroe mobile in their careers, receive mroe promtoison a,d nad maroe mroely to occupy cnetral psotiosni nrognaitosn. also receive fedback better.

Big five model

a personaltiy assement model that taps five basic dimensions. e: extraversion a personaltiy descirbign someoen who is socialable, gregarius, and assertive. agreeableness: a persoanbltiy deoment that dectimes someoen who is good natureud, cooeprative and tristing. conscientiusness . a peroantliy deiment tha deicbes womeon who is responsible, dpendable, pesitent, and orgnaized. emotioanal stabiltiy. a perosanltiy dimeisnio ntha t achercetises someoen as calm, self-condident, scure (psotive) versus nerovus, depreseed and isnecutre (negative0. oppennes to experience. a perosnaltiy dmeinstion tha tcharcertized someoen in temrs of imagination, secinetivy and curiousity. every attribute causes extra opportuntiites

stress

an unpleasant psyhcolgical process that occurs in response to environmental pressures

Ocean acidification

a predomientn grlobal threat to coral reefs. comes from greenhouse gas emissiosn (which is also bad because it causes ocean warming). C02, one of the key greenhsue cgases causign ciamte hcange, is also causing a reduciton i nthe pH of hte coena .CO2 relacts iwth water to form carbonci acid, and this in turn reudces the amoutn of calcium carbonate vaialable to crals for their ody.ies. the ultiatme imapcts of ocean acidficiation are sitll nto clear, in part because thesethsi theat has ony nyl rcenttly receied attention. but the fects are antipciated to be msot dtatmci in the oclder plar rieogns. better undserstookd is the link ebtween ocean warmign and a phenomonon known as coral rbelaiching .Brelachign occurs hen corals explel their colorfol algal symbootns often reultign i nalrege swats of whtie corals. symbiotic algea progde oxygen and ntrients to the corlas. i nturn the corla s rovide hte algea with xo2, shelter and metabolic rpoducts taht erlizie theri growht. thethis mutltualistm expalisn why coral gorws sp merar tp tje water s sirace/ ; corls depdn on algea to surive. and algea need sunlgiht go r phtoosynstheiss. althoguh wrrmign waters and coral bleaching are groabl thrats ,the imapt of coean warming dpends on the degree to whih corals are strssed by other mroe lcoal facts such as ppollutn (esp neturient overlaod) , overharevest of fish adn deisease.

Perception

a process by which idnividual organize and interprest sensory impresiso in order to give meaning to their environment

Bounded rationality

a process of making decisions be cosntuctign simplified mdoels tha extract the essentia lfeautres from roblems withotu capturign all their compelxity. (ex; college decision making you cant know all the details, you must satsice, seek soltiso ntha t are satsfiactor y and sufficent) typicalyl we fidn soltiosn that are good enought to sovlign our problems, adn get us to an aceptiable level of perforamcne and end our search. reureis lest work.

Dependent Variable

a response that is affected by an indepdent variable. In terms of hte hypothesis, it is hte variabel that ht researcher is itnerested in explaining.

restoration ecology

a scientifci field that appleis the pricnipels of ecology to the practice of restoration.

Prevention focus

a self-regulation stratgey that invovled stiving for goals by fulgillign duties nad oblgitons. (avoid cdontiosn that pul lthem away frro mdesired goals).

role

a set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupyign a given positon in a social unit.

pseudoreplication

a situation in which the various study sites or subjects do not rperesent truly independent samples

status

a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. even the smallest gorup will develop roels, rights, and rituals to deifferentiate its memerbs. sstatus is a sigficant mtivtor and has majro behavioural consequences whn idnviudals percive a dipsariy between what their status is and what otehrs perceive it to be.

Utilitarianism

a syste in which decisions are made to provide the greatest god for the best number of people.

anchoring bias:

a tendency to fixate on intital ifnoramtion, from whcih one then faisl to adequatly ajudget for subsequent information.

Situation-strength theory

a theory indicatign that the way personality tantltes into behavior dpendson the strnegth of the sitation. the strength is heightened in organizionts from 4 key elemetns (clarity, consistency, constraints, consequences) . these all lead the situatioan lstrength to be high, whci hcan ifndlune ones persoanbiltiy more than heredity.

Person-job fit

a theory taht identifies 6 personaltiy types and prposes taht the fit between erpsonaltiy type and occupational envierment detemriens satisfaction and turnover. developed by john hollar 160 quesitosn , hexagon, mathcing mroe to point in hexagon. ieky a better fit. Realstic investigative social, convetiona entrepreisign, artistic

behaviorism

a theory that argues that behaior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinkign manner

Trait Activation Theory

a theory that predicts tha some sitations, events, or inteations "activate a trait" more than others. ex; a commission based copensaiton plan would liekyl activate idnvidual diferencesi n extractiosn because extractiersion is mroe reward-senstive, than , say oppenees. but in jobs that allwos for expression fo individua lcreativity, dnvidiau ldifferneces in opennes may better preduct creative behavior than idnivdual differneceis nextaveriso nwould .

Expectancy theory

a theory that says taht teh strength of tendency to act i na certain way dependso nthe strength of an expetion that the act wi lbe follwoed by a given toucoem and on the attactivness fo that outcome to the individual. 1. effort-performance relationship. the probabiltiy perced by the ivnidual that exertign a given amoutn fo effort will lead ot perofrmance. 2. performance-reward relationship. the degree to whcih the dnvidiaul beleives performign at a particular level will elad ot hte attainmetn of a desired otucoem. 3. rewards-personal goals relationship. the degree to which orgnaizitoanl rewards satisfy an idnvidual's eeprsonal goals or needs nad hte attractivness of htose ptoential rewards for the individual.

reinforcement theory

a theory that says that behavior is a fucntio nof its conseuences.

Equity theory

a theory that says that individuals compare their job inputs and outcoems with thse of others and then respond to elimtie any inequities. based on equity theory, employee who pericevei nequity will make one of six chocies: 1. change inputs (exert less effort if underpaid or more if overpiad0 2. chaigne otucoems (individuals aid on piece rate baseis can rincrease their pay bey producign a hgiher quantity of untis of lwoer qualtiy) 3. distor perceptions of self ( i used tto think i worked at a doerate pace, but now i realize i work a lto harder than everone else) 4. distort perceitosn fo otehrs ("mike's job isnt as desirable as i thought) 5. choose a different referent (i may nto make as much as my brotehr in law, btu im doign a lat better than my dad did when he was my age). 6. leave the field (quit the job).

Goal-Settign theory

a theory that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead ot higher performacne.

status characteristics theory

a theory that states taht differences in status characteristics create status hierarchies iwthin groups. accorudign to this stehroy, status tends to derive from one of three soruces: 1. The power a person wields over others. Because the likely contorl the gorup's reosruces, people who contorl the ouocmes tend to be eprceived as hgih status. 2. A peersons' abiltiy to contribute to a group's goals. People whose contributiosn are cirtical to the gorup's success tend to have hgih status. (ex: a leading pleayer in a team) 3. An individual's personal characteristics . Soeoen whose perosnal characteritsitcs are postively valued by the gorup (good lnce, money, or a friendly personality) typcially has hgiher status tahn smeoen with fewer valued attibuted.

Managment by Objectives

a way of implementing goal setting. a program that encompasses especific goals participatively set, for an explicit time period, wit hfeedback on goal progress. bthe organiztiosn overall obejctives are trasnslatedi tno specific objective for each levels, and it works form the bottom up and top down. resutl is ierarchy that linsk objectives at one level to those at the next. and for the indivudal employees, mbo rpovides pspecific persona lperformacne obectives. 4 ingrediateare commont to MBO programs : goal specificity, participation in decision making (including the settting of goals or objectives), an explicit time period, and performance feedback.

Hierarcy of Needs Theory

abraham maslow's hierarchy of five needs - physiological, safety, social, esteem, ad self-actualization - in which, as each need is substaintially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. 1. Physiological 2. Safety 3. Social. 4. Esteem. 5. Self-actualization

behavioral ehtics

analyign how people actually beahve when confronted with ehtical dilemas. . the irresearch tells us that while thical standards exsist colelcitvely and individually, idnividuasl nto not alwausys follwo theical standard promulaged by their orgnaitions ,a nd we sometiems vioatle toru own standards. our ethical beahivro varies wdiely from one sition to hte enxt. ex; broken windorws hteory, similignyl superficul thnigns can effect our ddiecisons.

Equilibrium theory of island biogeography

according to this theory the number of species within a habitat patch is determined by a balance between local colonizatiosn of new species not already present (which add species fro each habitat island) and local extincitosn of species (which subtract species from each habitat island). starting on theleft seid of the group with an island, or patc, harboring few species 9small S0, mcu opprotuntiy ests for new species to colonize. at the same time, exiction is unliekyl becuase so few speices are presnet. thus, when S is releatively small, the colonizatio nrate is typicalyl greater than the extincito nrate, and the number of species prsent tends to icnrease. no shifting attentio nto the fiar right of hte gorap, one sees the opportuntiy patter. with a large numerb of speicesp resent o nteh island or apth, the opprotutniy for ocloizaitong b new speices is much lwoer because most of the spcies tha oculd bpossibly colonie are present. bu with mroe species roe extinitosn are possibel. thus, when S is relatively larg,e colonizaitosn are tpiccally fewer than lcoal exticntios nand the numebr of speciesp resent on the isaln or pathc tends to delcien hte poitn were the colonizaiton and extenicon lines corss oen antoerh indiscates the equalibirum numerb of species , or S*. this is the numebr of species expected to occur on the isaldn when the addition of speics from colonizaito nis equal to the lsos of species to extcintion. the equilibrium theoru geis ibe steo fyrteher t o say that the rates of exictio nand colonziaiton dependo n the size of the isaldn or habtiat patch and its relative isolation. the logic is simple Larger areas can supprot large popualtiosn fo each speices, so execiton is less liel on large isaldns othan o nsmalll oens (compare the two eixtinciton cursves). simarilarly , islands that are far form soruces of colonizing individuals will have lwoer olonizatio nrates than islands taht are close ot those soruces. Tequalibrium theor y of island biogepgrahy prodicts taht spices diversisty iwll increase with isladn size and decerase with island isolation

Norms

accpeabel standards of beahvior within a gorup taht are shared b y group memerbs. performance norms: provisidng expelcit cues abu hwo hard memebrs hsoudl work, what the elvel of otuput should be, hwo to get the job donw, what level of teardneiss is approrperity, etc . apperacne nrosm: dress ode,s unspked rols baotu when to look busy, social arrangeent nroms: with whom to eat lucnh, wther to form frnships on and off the job reosruce aloaiton nrosm : assignemtn of difficult jobs ,ditrictions of relosruces like pay or equepmetn.

politcal behavior

activitties that are not reuqires as port of a persona's formal roel i nthe orgnaiztion but that infelucen ,or attemtp to ifnelcuen , the distribtuio nfo advantages and disadvantes within the organization. e: witholign ey info, ladkign condidatioan lifnroamtio nto the meadia, joinign a coaltiion, speadign rumors. exchgngign favors iwth others for mutual ebenfit, lobbyign on behvalf of or agaisnt a eaprticualr idnividua l or decision altnerative.

postive orgnaizaitonal scholarship

an area of OB research that concerns how orgnaizitosn develop human strength, foster vitaltiy and resilience, and unlock potential

Ecological trap

an area that attracts individuals even though they eperience decerased fitness there . (corridaors could be this)

attribution theory

an attempt to determien whether an idnvidual's behavior is internally or externally caused. suggests this is what whe attemtp to detmien. and detemriantio ndepends largely o nthree facotrs; distinctivness, consisens, considstiteny. intentally causes beahviros are those an osbervedr beleices ot be udner hte perosnal beahviro control of antoehr indivudal. externally casued behaviors is what we iamge the situaitons forced hte idnividual to do.. high distinctiness (external), high consesus (extental), high considetncy ( internal)

Escalation of commitment

an increased commitmetn to a previous decision in sptie of negative inforamtion.. mroe liekyl to occur when indivudals view thesmelves as repsosibel for hte otucoem and fear of perosna lfailrue even baises the wa we search for and evaltuation information.

Role perception

an individual's view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation.

Organizational justice

an overall percepton of what is fair i nthe workpalce, composed of distributive, procedural, ifnroamtional and interpseroan lsutice.

Intuitve decison making

an unconcious process created otu of distilled epxierence. . intutitve deciiosn makig noccurs otuside oconcious thoughy; releis on holistic assicoaties or links between disparte pecies of information, is fast, and is affectively harged, meanign it engages iwht emtoison.

Sexual harassmetn

any unwanted activitey of sexual nature thatn affects an idnvidua;s employmetn and creates hsotirle work envierment. us supreme course helped to clarify theis deintiion by addin a key test for detemring wthehrer seuxla harassmetn has occured- when comments or behaviro in a n envnermetn ' would reasonably be pecieved ,adn are perceived , as hostirle or absuive." organizitosn ahve gnerally made progress toward limitng overt forms of seual harrament, inclduign unwanted phsycail tcocuhed, recurrign reuqests for dates when it is made clear the perosn isnt itners,t nad coerice threats tat ha persio nwill lose hsi or her job for rfeusing seuxal porposition. problems are lekyl to surface aroudn mroe subtle forms of seuxal harassment - unwatned loosk or commetns, off-color jokes, suexal artifactsl iek pinups osted i nthe owrkpalakce or minterpreations of whterh ethe lien between beign freidnly ends and harassmetn begins

processes

are the actions that ivnidiauals , gorups, and orgnaitiosn engage in as a reustl of inptus that lead ot certai notucoems.

Manipulative experienments

are the primary tool that scientists use to detemrien cause and effect relationships. nyst control for confoudnign variables, must be repeatable, and must be assigned o individuals sites, ro populatiosn at random

areas which need active restoration

areas with either very low spontaneous sucession (due to high regeneration) or very high spontaneous succession (due to ivnasive speceis)

reference state

articulatign at the outset of a proejct a speciifci state to aim for as one impelemtns ar estoration pgoram. it is seesential to clearly articulate the focus / objectives at the outset of a project because they will shape the methods used and the crtieria by whcih success or failrue is assed.

Formal power

based on an idnivduals position in an organzitions. it can come form the abiltiy to coerce or reqrd, or from formal authrotiy.

Values

basic converiotns tha a speciif mode of conduct or endstate of exisence is perosnaly lor scoaily lprefereabel to an oppsotie or ocnverse mode of codiuct or end state of existence.

The GLOBE Frameowrk for assessing cultures

begun in 1993, the Global Leadership and Organizaitonal Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) research program is an ongoign cross-cutlrual investagiion fo leaderhsip and ncational cutlreu. which identiied 9 dimeison ion whcih cutlrue differ. . maien differnet between this and ofstede dimesiosn is that floeb grameowrk added suismiosn such as human orinetion (the degree t o whci ha societ rewards indivual for beign altrustic and kidn( and reofemrnce orientiton (the degree to whcih a sociey encoruages a nd wrward gorup memerbs for pormance imrpvment and excellence)

Motivation

behavior, effort, persistence -Behavior What does a person choose to do? -Effort How hard does a person work to perform a chosen behavior? -Persistence When faced with obstacles, how hard does a person keep trying to perform the behavior?

Contemtoproarhy work cohorts

boomers (entered workforce 1965-1980), xers (1980-2000) worklife balance relationships, millenials (2000 on) fiancnia lsuccess and relationships sef realaiant but team oriented.

outbreedign depression

breeding across populatiosn can reduce the fitness of resultign offspring.

Research

cocnerned with the systematic gatherign of information. its purpose is to help us in our search for the truth. ongoing research adds to our body of OB knowledge by supporting some theories, contradictign others, and suggesting new theories to replace thosethat fail to gain support.

personal power

comes from an individua;'s unieuq characteristics. two baes, expertise and respect/admiration of others. research suggests pretty clearly that the personal sorurces of pwoer are most effective. bot h expert and referant pwoer are psoitvely related to employee's stasiftion with supervision, their orgnaiztioanl commitement, and their peforamcne, wheras reward and legitimate pwoer seem to be unrelated to these otucoems. one soruce of formal pwoer- coervice pwoer- actualyl cna backfire i nthat it is negatively realted to eployee satsfiatio nand commtimetn.

reward power

compliance acchieved based on the abiltiy to distribtue rewards that otheresveiw as valuable. the rewards can beeither fianncial or nonfianncial.

causes of creative bahavior

creative poetntial and creative envierment (those that lead to movitaiton0

citizenship behavior

discretionary behavir that cotnributes to the psycholgical and socia lenvemrnet of hte workplace

Does everyone want power?

david meclleand suggsests that everyone oents pwoer and money, thogu hthe yy dotn admit it. reseach shows that peopel with pwoer and sates command mroe respoect for mtoehrs, have higher sefl-sesteem (no surprose there) , adn enjoy better health than thsoe of less stature. counterpoint. not everyoen wnats tit, an d for soem it is looked upon negaitveyl. msot idniudal feel uncofmroatel i npwoer positions (too much authority).

Power =

dependency. The greater the dependency, the greater the power (Emerson, 1962)

Theory

describes a set of systematically interralted concepts or hypheses that puprots to explai nand predict phenomena. In OB, theories are also frequently referred to as models.

terminal values

desiabel iendstates of existnce; the goals oen would liek to achieve during his or her lifetime

an obversational study using a regression aprpaoch

determiend hte effects of hte persent of parrot fish, and no take zones. when fishign depeletes herbivorous species tha graze on algea, popualtions of coral die . this supprots the creation of marine protected areas.

Groupshift or Gorup polarization

discussiosn tend to lad memerbs toward a more exptrmee view of hte psotion thaey alreay hed. conservatives becoem mroe caustius, and mroe agressive types take on more risk. the gorup iscussion tends to exaggerate the intiatial posstion of the gorup.

personality traits

endurign characteristics that decibe an idnviidals beahvior.

rehabilitation

entails capturign indivudals form the wilde, adminsitrateering some osort of treamtent that ay incldue clearnign or medical intercvention, and then releasedign teh terated indivudals back itno the wild.

person-organizaiton fit

essentially argues that peopel are attacted to and selcted by organizitosn that mathc their vaues and they leave orgnaizatiosn taht are not compatible with their personalities. usign the big give temrology, for eisntnce, we coudl expect people high o nextracveriso nfit will with agresive nad team orgiened cutlures.

attitudes

evaluations employeees make abotu objets, people , or events.

factors that inlfeucne perception

factors in the perceiver (attitudes, motves, itnerests, expeirences, expetions) . factors in the sitaution (time, work settign, social setting). factors in the target (novelty, mtoio, soudns, size, bacgkrudn proximity, similairity).

International values

geert holfested in the late 197s0s studies ibm emloyees and gave five value dimiensiosn that vary in natonal ctutlrues. 1.power distance 2individualsim vs collectiism. 3. macultintiy versus feminitity. 4. uncertainty avodiance 5. logn-term versus shrot-term organization

managign public oppostion to a rpesdator reintrocution: wovlesi n te hg e greate reyellowstoen area

grey wolf delciing yellwotsotne area, intocued canadaiton wolves tio the population, and alter again iand in central ideho. moved from engaged to experimienmetnal nonessential status controversy over them because htey ckileld livestock. allowed ot be kileld if pestering and eventualyl hiutned in idaho and montana. also ngos siuch as defenders of wildlfivee compenstative afrmers hwo lsoe livestock to wolves addressign the concernso f diverse ssstakehodlers and findign compromise solatuiosn is esstnia lto hte succesof any consevatio nintiative.

Effectiveness and Efficiency

groups ahve more accurate diecison, individuals are faster, gorusps tend to be mroe effective in creativity, greter acceptance of fian l decisns. gorups are typically slower, expcet in gases where it equries vireveiwign great deals of information.

1) conviction:

having a deep sense of purspsoe in what your doig nand wh

persoanlity determinants

heredity vs environment. both but research tends to support improtance of herredity over the evnierent..

role expectations

how others beleive a person should act in a given situation.

nurse plants

icnrease the surivval of newly genermianted seedligns, foten because they emliorate an otherwise harsh phsycial envierment.

Infelucens on decision makign:

idnividual difference and orgnaizaitonal constraitns individual differecnes: personality, gender, mental abiltiy, cultural differences, organziaitonal contraints: perforamcne evaluation reward suste, formal regualtions ssystem imposed time constraitns hidstoricla preedents each chas advantages and decdisadvantages. depends on many stakeholders nad hte type of orgnaiziton.

captive breeding

if a pscies tapears to be o nteh brign of extictnion, consevrevationstis often eseek to cpature some or all of the surivvign indivudals na remvoe them to a dcitltiy to create idnivudals or relase back itn othe wild. when staritng iwth a few idnivudals, breedersm sut bapay carefu lattentio nto genetic diversity nrbeeding. more adutls nad mroe balacned hte sex ratio of theose adutls btroguth itnto captive pbreedign programs, the better off the captice popuatlio nwill be gneetically.

nested

if the collection of speices found in a geieven small area overlaps extensively with those in other small areas, and larger areas contains the same species plus mroe , then the pattern of diversity is said to be highly nested. in this case it is leiky ltaht a singl large area will provide the best onseervatio ninvestment because it has nestedi n it the same peseice oas the small apera plus soem specieal speies tha are onyl in the biggest habtiat pathes. on the other hand, of the spcies inhabbting the small areas do nto overlap much, then it s possible that a coolelcito nfof smal larea wil lharbor roe total species than oen large parcel fo the sam area.

justice

impose and enforuce ruels rfrialy and imprarialyl to ensure justice or an euqitable distribtiion fo benefits and costs.

referent power

influence based on identification with a person who has desirable resoruces or personal traits. people want to please that person. referat pwoer develops out of admitation of antoerh and a desire to be like that person. helsp epxlain why celerbities are paid milliosn o dolalrs to endorese products in ocmmerials. some people hwho are not in formal leadership positons nonetheless have referent pwoer and exert ifnelcuen ovr others becauseo f their charismatic dynamis, ikabiltiy , and emotional effects on us.

Expert power

influence based on special skills or knowledge. as josbs becoem mroe specialzied, we become icnreasingly depenednt on experts to acheive goals.

General differences betwen grroup deicision-making techniques

intercatign gorup is good for acheiving commitment to a solaution, brainstormign develops gorup cohesiveness, and the nomainal group tehcniqueis an eienxpensive menas for gnerating a large numebr of ideas.

Three questiosn when evaluating research

is it valid? (is it measurign what it claism to be measuring) It is reliable? (reliability refers to consistency of measurement) Is it generalizable? (are the results of the research study generalizable to groups of individuals other than those who participated in the original study)

Ethcis fo behaviong potlically

is it worht hre rosik? iwho is it intened to beenfit? does the ptlcial acitvity conform tto standards of euity and jsutice? ufnrotuantely, pwoerful people cna becoem very god at epxlaing self serivng ahvhroirso i ntermso forngaitiosn ebst itnerests

Need for affiliation (nAff)

is th desire for freidnly and close interpersonal relationships.

Need for achievement (nAch)

is the drive to excel, to achvie in relationship to a set of stanrdards. high acheivers perform best hwen they percieve theri probabily of succes at 0.5 - that is, a 50-50 hance. they disliek gamblign wiht high odds because they got no achviement asatifactio from success that comes by prue chane. simiarl,y they disliek low lodds (high proabbyl of succes) because then there is not chalenge ot hteir skills. they liek to set goals that reuqire stretchign themseves a little. ehrn jobd have a high degree of personaal responsibility and feedback and an itnermediate degree of risk, high acheivers are strongly motivated. not necessarilt good angers, gothsoe iwth high need for pwoer nad affiliation may be more effective managers.

Need or power (nPow)

is the need to make others beahve in way tha they would not ahve otherwise.

The reality of poltics

it is necessary in rognaizations, beacause theree are limtied reosurces and different interests/ values. Furhtmroe gaisn by one idnividau l or gorup are often perceived as coign at hte expense of others within the orgnaiziton (whether hy are or nto). tehse forces create real compttiation among memerbs ofthe orgnaizaiton's limted rouesces. maybe the most improtactor facotr leadign to poltics within orgnaizitosn is the realization that most of the "facturs" used to allcoate the limteid rosruces are open to itnerpresation. msot decisiosn have to be made i ncliamte of ambiguity, - where facts are rarely fuyll objective and thus are pten to itnerpetation people within rognaiztiosn will use whatever infleucen they can to tain the facts to supprot their goals and itenrest. that of coruse, creates actiivres we callpoltitckign. in adiditon, poltics is i nthe eye in the behavor, things that might be given a "poltical" label might also be given an "efective management" label. "kissing up" vs "developing workign relationsips"

Systematic study

lookign at relationships, attemtpign to attibtue causes and efect,s and drawin g conclusiosn based on scientific evidence.

person perception

makign judgemetns about others.

"production blocking"

many peopel are talking at once whcih imepdes the sharing of ideas.

lower-order needs

needs that are satisfied externally, such as physiolgocial and safety needs

higher-order needs

needs that are satisfied internally, such as social, esteem, and self-actualization needs.

creative outcomes (innovation)

novelty nad usefullneess (relevant to stakeholders0

control-impact studies

studies that compare data from impacted sites, where the suspected threat is present, to data from reference or control sites, from which the suspected threat is aabset

local threats to corals

ocerfishign and pollution

Common shortcuts in judgign others

often allow us to make accurate perceitpsn rpaidly and provide vladi data for makign precitons. hwover ,they can and sdo simetiems reuslt i nsignificant distortions. selective perception: the tendency to selectively interepet what oen sees o nthe basis of one's itnersts, bacgkroudn, epxiernce, and attiudes. (spead reading). halo effect: the tendency to draw a general impression about an idnvidual o nthe basis of a single characterisitc. ex our gneral views contimiante our speicifc ones. if you see someoen postivielyl you wil lassicoaite indivudal thigns bot thiem more posibtitlyi. Contrast effects: evaltion of a peros's achaciters that is eaffected by comaprisosn with oteh peopel rcently encouageted who rank heigher or lwoer on the same characteristics. stereotypicg: judgign someoen o nteh basis of ones perceptions of the gorup to whcih that person belongs. also claled heutistics

Drawign a ptolical map

one obvious implciatio nof a map is to forumatle a plan for more infleucen over and a closer relatiosnhip, with tesesp eople. Green = a clsoe connection gold = a losoe contion Red = no connectio nat all. each idnivudal ahs their own networks, . i nthis case thoguh, assume tehse areso mcuh pwoer networks as in yoru cas,e but ifnelucen ntetworks preresenitng the knwoelge o fhte peopel who idnflence them. posting on someoen else blgo (if they are part of alger netowrk) can help yu gmake an imrepssion i nthe netowrk)

No "romance" policeis

organiztianl beahvro reseach stued consexual behviro at work, one study of mroe than 1,000 reprosndents for htat40 percent were epxosedto eeseuxal bahavor in soem ofr m i nthe past year. cotunrer to the idea that all seuxal beahvro at work is negaitve, some female aand many male repsondents reproted enjoyign teh experience. hwoever, expore to eseuxla beahviro at work was negatively realteted to eprforamcne adn psycholgical wlel-beign. people may reprot enjoyit, but ti mgith be hurtign their prodcutity and wlelpebign anyway.

How do people respond to organizaitonal politics

orgnaizational potlics may theraten emploeyes by leadign to -decreased job satisfaciton -icnreased anxiety and stress -increased tunover -reduced perofrmance

core self-evalution (CSE)

people who have psotive core self-evaluation see themsevles as effective, capable, and in contorl of their enviemrent. thsoe with naegative core self-ecltios ntend to disliek themselves, questio ntheri capacibitlyies and view htesevles as powreeless over their envierment. epeple with core self-evalatiosn eprforma better than tohers because they ste mroe ambitious goals ,are mroe commtied oth teir goals, and persist lgoner tin attemtpign to reahc htem. overconfident is also often bad

infroup favoritism

perspective in whcih we see members of our ingroup as better than other people, and people no in our group as all the same.

How power effects people

power leads peopel to place their own itnerests ahead of others. interesginyl, reseach suggests that power not ony lleads peopel to focus o ntehri self-tienrest because they can, it also lierbates peopel to foucs inwar,d nad thus coem to place greater weight o ntheri goals and itnerests. pwoer also appeasrs o lead individuals to objectivy otehrs (to see them as toosl to otbain therir insturmetnal goals) to vlaue relatiosn with peopel with less pwoer, and to see relationships as mroe periperhial. that's nto all. pwoerful peoepl react, sespeicalyl netively, to any therats to theri comeptience. peopel awho are more anxieous tend to be less courrpted by pwoer. second, the corrosive effect of pwoer can be contained by organizitaonal systems. third, we have the pwoer to blutn the negative efects of power, ex: simpy lexperessing griatute towards pwoerufl otehrs made them less liekyl to agress against us. fianlyl, thoe with little pwoer grab and absue waht little they ahve . tehre aappears to be someturth to thisn that peopel msot liekly to abduse pwoer are those wh oare low in status and gain pwoer. power also energences and lead to appraoch motivaiton (that is, mroe matoviated to acheive goals) it also can encahcne peopel mtoivaito nto hel ptoehs, at leas for certain epole. one study foudn ,for ex, that values toward helpign others onyl translated itno actual work beahvor when peoelle felt a sense of pwoer. it is not so mcuh taht pwer corrutps sa ti reveals. supportign this lien of reasonign, anotehr study revelaed that pwoer led to self-itnerested beahvior only for htose with lweak moreal idnetities (that is, teteh degree wto whcih mroals are ocre ot one's iedntiy0 for thsoe iwth storng mroal dientites, pweor acutally enahcens theri mroal awarnes.s

Proactive personality

ppeopel who identify opprotuntites, show initiatve, take acton ,adn persevere until meaninful chagne aoccurs.

Distributive justice

preceived faireness of the amoutn and allcoaito nfo rewards amogn individuals

instrumetnal values

preferabel mdeso f bevhiror or means of acheivign oen's terminal vlaues.

Microsatellite loci

provide an excelletn tool for detecitn recent evolution ebcause they cosnsit fof highly variabel genetic sequences. not only do these seuneces mutate readitly , the y also do nto encord e protetisn anre are thus nto constaitneb y natural selction. usng these researchers found an Fst value for bari'ds tapirs of .114 indicating moderate levels of gneetic isoaltion, suggesitng these tapirs have underogne recent genetic isoaltio nand supprots the natio ntaht resstibalichign the concnectiong of these popualtiosn ,viea etiehr a corridor or translaticaito nwoudl lieky ltbeenfit the species.

sensitivity analyses

provides a way to identify where twithn an organism's life cycle a conservation itnervention is leikyl to achieve the greatest impacto n populatio nrevcovery. determiend that salmon populatiosn were effeted by other factros, hydropwoer, harvests, and hatchery operatiosn , rather than dams as their decline was predicted to continue even if all dams were removed. thsus demogrpahic matrices can hle idenify which life stages hod the msot promise for improving popualtion grwoth and, covnersely, which do not .

defensive behaviros

reactive and prtective beahvirs to avoid action, blame, or change. avoiding actioN: -overconfromign -buck passing -laign dumb -stretching -stalling Avoiding blame -buffing -playing safe -justifying -scapegoating -misrepereseting Avoding CHange -prevention -self-rptotection

Demographic matrices

real power is unleashed by anlyssi fo the relative effeirctivenessof alternative mangement methods. change soem of the numebrs to detemrien outocme.

Promotion focus

research has found that peopel differ i nteh way they regualte their thogusts and behaviros during goal prusuit. generall people fall into one of two catergoies though they could belogn to both . Those with a promotion focus strive or advancement and accomplishmetn and approach conditions that move them closer toward desired goals.

Laboratory Experiment

researcher creates a artifical envierment and munipulates and indpendent vairable udner controlled coniditions. Finalyl, sicne all otehr thigns are held euqal, the researcher is abel to condlcue taht andy chagne in the dependent variable is due to manipatulion or change imposed on the independent variable.

How/why peopel repsond to orgnaiziaotnal porltics ocnditing

researhcer hase also ntoed severale interesing qualifiers for how employees repsond to orgiantional potlics. . first, the potlcis perofrmacne rpealtions appears to be modeated by an idnvial udnering of hte hows and whys o ogrnaitonal potlics " an idnvidual who has a clear underasnding of wh is repsonisbel for makgi ndecisiosn and why were to be seclted ot be decision makers woudl ahve better udnersaing of hwo and hwy thigns hayp they way tehy do than someoen who does not underant the decision makign rpcoess in the orgnzaiton.. when both potlics and udnersnaign are hgih eprofrmance is leiky to icnreaseb ecuaseh te idnvidual will see potlcial actstiosn as an opprotutniy .this is ocnsitne twith what you mgith epxiecnt amogn indival with wlel hoensd potlical skills. btu whe udnersantign is low, indivals are mroe leiyk to see poetlics as a threat and it can have a neageive effeci o njob eprofrmacne. second peotlical beahviro at work moderates he fectso f ehtical leadershi. woem nprefer ethical and apoltcal, men prefer ethical and potlcial. third, when employees see potlics as a threat, the yoften repsodn with defensive behaviors

efefctiveness

the degree to which an orgnaiziton meets the needso fi ts clientaele or custoemrs.

Integrated cosnervation and development projects (ICDPs)

seek to simultatneously protect nature nad meet the basic needs of humans. ex. oone thatns that use ecostorusing, game hunignt, and nontimer forest ptoects to generate icnoem for lcoal peopele lving in prtected areas. most people will nto suprot conservaiton until their basic needs are met. ex: the amasia peopel fo kenya and tanzania's seretngetes are traditioanl pastoralsits wh oare hgihly dpeendent o ntheir lviestock heards for fodo and amrtieas.ls. hard ot get support from poorer nations . a stud of developemtn protjects by the wordbacnk found more highlghy safetiffory accompsiemtn of devleopmetn goals when it was ddevleopemtn and biodviersty, ad showed highlgihy insucntictory osmetiems when devleopmetn onyl. the additio nfo biodviersity goal to an economci devleopemtnt proejct did nto reusdce that proejtcs' likelhihood of maeetign its developmetn obectives, inclduign gender equity, poverty allection ,adn pricate sector devleopment. hwoev,er ack fof a bidovieristy goal signfiicaly reudce d a devleopemtn proejcts likelihodo of haivnga postivie neivmernetla impact.

ways t o provent socal loafing

set gorup goals, icnrease integorup cometiton, gange in eper evaltiaton, eslect memerbs who ahve high motviaiton, and if possoible ,abse gorup reparward in aprt on each memerb's unique contributions

When do people develop a social identity?

several characteristics make a social identity improtant to a person. Similarirty. *if you are similar to the valeus + charactertiscis of the organzaitons) higher levels of gorup idnetification -Distinctivesness : people are more lkel to notice identiteis that show hwo they are different form otehr gorups. -Status: Because people use identiteis to define thesmelves and icnrease self-esteem, it makes sense that they are most itnerested in linkeidng thmselves to high-status gorups -Uncertaunty reduciton Membership in a gorup also helps some people udnerstand who they are and how they fit into the world.

Sexual harassment: uneual pwoer in the workplace

sexul harassment is wrong and can also be costly to employers. in additiaonl to legal dangers to suexal hagemesnet, obvisuyl ti can have agnegative impact on the work envmernet too. it affects job attidues and lead thsoe who feel ahrassed to withrdraw form the orgnaiztion. i nfact, eprcetin of seuxal ahrassmetn are mroe lieky to lead to wihtrdarawl thatn worplace bullyign eladto withrdrawel. it even apepars that seuxal aahrrassmetn has ehalth cosnecnes. woem nexplosed to seuxal harasment repsoted pyschogical distnress 2 years after ht harassmetn occured

Size

size of a group affecs the gorusp overall behaviro. thee effect dpednso n variables being looked at. the efefect depnds on what dependent varioubels we look at. gorups with a dozen or more members are good for gainign diverse input. if the goal is fact findin, larger gorups hsoudl be mroe efective. smaller gorusp of abotu seven memerbs are better at doign something productiv e with that input.

regression approaches

soemtimes it is nto possibelt to identify deistict gorus ps or sites htaht ahve or have nto been affected by a suspected threat. the threat may be rpesetn at most or all of the sites, btu to varyign elvels or degrees. or the magnitude of the suspected thrat may vary form year to year. in such cases, ti may be possibel tp perform a regression aanlsyss to examie nthe relatiosnhip ebtwee n soem measure of popuatlin eperfroenace 9ex: pop size, trend, surivval, ro fecundity) and soem variabel that quantifeis the intensity or degree of threat. smolt to molt study. of ssnake river steelhead trought and chinook salmon foud nthat hte imapcto f ahtetecnry releases on chnook surival remaiend sginfitvicant even afeter factoring out an y possible el nino sotuhern osscialtion effect.s data for multiple ears (1977-1997) existed fr the entire snake river basin. steelhead were relaesed from hatcheris during every one of these syears, btu the number relased varies fom less than 4 million to eppximately 10 million. levin and williams regressedthe smotl to adutl surival of the srss chinook salmong agains the number of aahtery steelhead related when the salmon were smolts. they foudn a negative relationship ebconsistent with the yptohesis that ahtercy steehea may surpress the surival of srss chinook slamon. also controelled the enso effect, whcih has an effect on smotl to adult surival.

Prefeered Power Tactics by Influence Direction

some influence tactics effectivess depeds on the direction of influence. Prefered Power tacts by Infleucen Direction Upward Infleucne: Rational persuation Downward Influence: -Rational persuasion -inspiration appeals -pressure -consutlaiton -ingration -exchagne -legitimacy Lateral Influence -Rtatioanl persuaion -consultion -ingration -exchange -legitimacy -personal appeals -coalitions

Status and..

status and norms: status has some itnerestign effects on the pwoer of nrosm adn pressures to conform . high status infidivudal are mfoten given mroe freedom to deviate form nroams thatn are otehrs gorup members status and group itneraction: hgi hstatus peopel tend ot be more assertive gorup memerbs. the pspeak out mroe oftne, cirtizen mroe, state mroe comemrns and interreupt oterhs more offten. but stus differents actually ihibti diversity of ideas nad creativity in gorups. Status inequity: it is improtatn gor gorup memerbs to beleive the status hierarchity is euqitable . eprceied inequity created diequilibiraum, whci hinspried variosu typeos f ocrrectiveb ehavior. herieachcial gorups can lead to resent ment amogn those at hte lwoer end of hte stustus continuum. large differenteces in status within gorusp are also sassociated iwth pooreer indivudal perofmence, wloer health ,adn higher ietnention to leave hte gorup. status and stignmatizaiton althoguht its clear that our own status affects the way peopel eprfceive you, the stuts of peopel with whome yo uare affilaited can also affecto theres viewes of you. studies have shown taht peopel wh oare stigmatized can : infect others with their stgima. affiliating yourself with high status people also has a positve efefct

interpersonal justice

the degree to which emloyees are treated with dignity and respect

informational justice

the degree to which employees are rrpovided trufhgul explanatiosn for decisions

3) clarity;

the ability to gian perspective n the chalelgnes you face and hwo you mgith be aovidng the situation. *oftne through self-relection through other eyes, speaking in third person)

Poltical skill

the abiltiy to infleucen otehrs in such a way as to enchace ones' objectives. more effevive users of all the inelucen tactics. also apperas mroe efecive whte teh sttakers are hgih -such as when the idnvidual is accountable for improtant orgnaiztioanl otucomes. also able to exert theri ifnelcuen withotu toehrs detenctign it. are sot able to sues these skills in envmernets marke by lwo levesl of prcedual and potlcial jsutice. .when an orgnaizito nis run with open and fairly appleid ruels, free of favoriatsim or baises, potlical skill is acutalyl naegativelyl realted to job performance ratings. peole who fit the cutlrue f the orgnaition tend to obtain more finrelcne.

creativity

the abiltiy to produce novel nad useful ideas

remediation

the active removal of pllutants form the evneirment soial remadaito noften invloves elabroate aproaches such as pumpeitng wter oair itno the gorudn to force pollutatnts to sthe survcac,e wherethey can be colelcted soemtiems soil must be tracked to a toxic waste facitliy where ti can be treated with harsh chemcials in acontianed manner.

power

the capacity that H has to influence the behavior of B so that B acts i naccordance with A's wishes. Differes from eladership because it does nto require goal compatibiltiy, merely dpendence. leaderhsip on teh other hadn, requires some congruence between the goals o the leader and htose being led. a secodn ifference realties to hte directio nof infleucen. leaderhsip focuseso nt eh downward infelucen ofon followers. it minimizes the improtance of lateral and updward ifnelcuens aptterns. power does not. in stil lantoehr difference, leaderhsip research, for the most part, emphasizes style . ex how supportive should a leader be, and how mcuh decisio n makign should be shared with followers? in contrast the research on pwoer focues on tactics for gainign compliance. it goes beyod nteh idnividual as the exeriser of power beause gors as well as individuals can use pwoer to contorl other idnviduals or groups

Workforce diversity

the cocnept that organizaitosn are becomign more heterogenous in terms of gender, age, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and inclusion of other diverse groups.

task perforamnce

the combination of effectiness and eficency at doign yoru core job tasks.

productivity

the combination of the effectivness and efficiency of an organization.

Skill variety

the degree to whcih a job requries a variety of different skills.

organizaitonal surival

the degree to whcih an orgnaiziton is able to exist nad gorw over a the logn term

efficenciy

the degree to whcih an orgniziaotn can achievei ts ends at a low cost.

Feedback

the degree to whcih carrying out the owrk activities required by a job resutls in the individual obtainign direct nad clear information abotu the effectiveness of his or her perforamce

Cohesiveness

the degree to whcih gorup memebrs are attacted to each other and are mtoivated to stay in the group. cohesivness affects orup producitivity. studies ocnsidentialy show that hte relatiosnhip betwene cohenesiess and produity dependso nthe gorups norms watys to imrpvoe gorup cohenesivess incldue: 1 make the gorup smalelr 2, encoruage agremetn with gorup goals 3, icnrease the ime memerbs spend teogether 34 , icnrase the gorups status and the perceived dififuclty of attainign memerbs 5, stimuatle comeptiton with other gorups 6) giv rewards t o the gorup rather than to idnvidual memerbs 7, physically isolate the gorup

Task signficance

the degree to which a job has a substantial imapct on the lives or work of other people

autonomy

the degree to which a job provides substantia lfreedom and discretion to the individual in schedulign the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carryign it out.

task identity

the degree to which a job requires a ocmpletion of a whoel and identifiable piece of work

edge effects

the differences in both the enviroentman land biotic conditions between the edges and hte interiors of habitat patches. a forest abutting na ope nmeadow would have edge with icnreased sunlight, wind, and reducied humity, and thus would be mroe vulnerabel to fie and its species owuldbe different than the interior. more generalist speices on forest edges , wheras spcies that require mroe shelted and humit forest habtiat are resticted ot the interoir. brids have more mrotaltiy near edges. edge effects can extent from just a few meters to more than 100 ters iinto a hbatit patch. soem of theis vvaition cab e expaleind by the sharpnesso f hte cotnast. the sizeo f hte itnetiror habtiat may be cosnieradbal msallre than the area of hte intier epathc. and besides total area, the shape of thabtiat pathci s imialorant. logn, linear strips are especially prone to edge effect.s for a given area, a roudn apthc has the lad amogn ot f aedge nad hte highest amoutn of intetoior hatbtat iin constat, a patch ocvering hte same are but with a a hgihlight ocnvuoleted edge has lfar lessi tnetior habitat. conservattionsits often buy eastmetns on land near habtiat edges t icnrease viabiltiy

self-actualization

the drive to become what a person is capable of becoming.

Bridging Islands of Widerness in the United Kingdom Boosts the Eurasian Red Squirre's Genetic Diversity

the eurasian reswuirel ppoplautio nahd icnrased herterzogisty when the habitat cirroodrior of the kiedler forest liked two other forests

big data

the extensiveu se of staistical compilation and analysis

group cohesion

the extent to whcih emmerbs of gorup support and validate oen antoerh while at work

diversity

the extent to whcih memerbs of agroup are similar to, or different from, one another. diversity apperars to icnrease gorup confielct, especialyl in the early stages of a gorup, which offten lwoer gorup morale and rasises droperoture rates. one study comapred gorusp that were culturall dierverse (composed of peopel from different coutnreis and homogenous (composed of peope lfro mteh csame conctueted0. on a suwildneress surive experiecnes, th gorups perofrmed equally well, tu the memrbs form the more idvers grups werleess satisfied iwth their grps, were less oceisve nad hadm roe confleict. differentces are not as bad whern there is aeffective tema oreiend huma resosurce practices curitally and demogrpahcialyl diverse gorusp may preofrme beter ofver time- if hey can get over thei individual conflecitns. one realos nis because surface level diversity, cues one itno the repsensen of diveirsity ,ahwich can be depers, and can let mepeope lbe mroe open minded.

3. The Competence Challenge:

the feeling that "I'm not good at this behavior, and its obvious to others," along with corresponding feelings of embarrassment and, perhaps, shame.

5. The morality challenge:

the feeling that the behavior isn't something I "should be doing" and the anxiety and guilt that can result from that sense.

Job engagement

the investment of an employee's physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance. there are foar more engaged employees in hgihgly succesful than i naverage orgnaizitosn ,and gorups with more engagesd employees have hgiher levesl fof productivity ,fewer safet incidents, and lower turnover.

evidecne based magnement (EBM)

the mabsign of mangeerial deiciso nto nthe best avialable sicentific evidence

translocation

the movign of indivudals, often to sites they never before occupied. trasnlocaito nis aprproapte when the origianl hbatite has undergoen such extensive converison or is so udner siged that a species has little hope of succes sthere.

Faultlines

the perceived divisiosn that split gorups into two or mroe subgroups based on individual dferences such as sex, race, age, work experience, and education. faultiens are usually bad, leading subgorups to learn mroe slowly, make mroe risky decision ,are less creative ad enxepriencehgiher levels of conflict. are faultines eveyr a good thing? one study suggested that faultliens based on differences in skill, kwnoelge and expertise could be beenficial when the gorus were in organizaioanl cutlrues that strognly emprhaized results. why? a results- driven cutlreu focusesoepoepsl attentio no nwhat improtant to the comapyn rather than o nprocblesm arisign frmo subcogrups. overall, althoguh research on fautliens disuggests that diversity in gorups is a ptoential double-edged sword, recent owrk idnivcates they can be strageticalyl mploedyed to imrpvoe perofmenace.

procedural justice

the perceved fariness of hte process used to detemrien the distirbution of rewards

Job rotation

the periodic shifting of an employee from one task to antoerh. (this helps combat over reoutinizaiton, and icnreases flexibiltiy and aovids layfofs, someotiems used in assmpl liens nad but also for new mangers to help them get a pcture of the hwole bsuienss as well) reusdice brodeoem icnreases movitio nadn helsp employees better udnerstan hwo theri workd cotnritibs to th howl . btu als ocreates distcitiosn and need tim to aduct.

ecologationcal restoration

the practice of assistign the recovery of an ecosytem that has been degraded, damged, or destroyed.

Negotiation

the process of making joint decisions when the participants have different preferences

motivation

the processes that account for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal.

ex situ conservation

the protectio nof a spcies otuside of their natural habtiats, in palces sucha as zoos, aquaria, botanical gardns ,and arboreta.

legitimate power

the pwoer a person reeives as a resutl of his or her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization. ut ubckydes nenbers' acceptance of hte authroir yf a possion. we associate pwoer so cleosley with the ocncept of hieracry that just drawign loogner lonensin an orgnaiztion chart leads peopel to inger the leaders are epsecialyl pwoerful, and when a pwoer fu lexective is descirbed, peopel tned ot put the perso nat a hgiehr posion when drawing an orgnaizaito nchart.

Group functioning

the qunatiy and qualtiy of a work group's output.

faunal relaxation

the reduction in dieversity folowing a reduction in habtiat area or the creation of a habtiat isladn within formerly contiguous habtiat . happenign in national parks.

reintroduction

the reestablsihemetn of a platn or animal popualtion that has become exteirpated, or local exitnct, can soemtimes brign a spceis back from the brign of exitnction. reinstroducito nfoten invovles the reslearse of idniviual produced in capticity or colelcted from other natural popuatlions.

2. The Likeability Challenge:

the sense that doing this will "make people not like me," and the worr that results from that perception.

habitat fragmentation

the sprea d of farmlands, raods ,adn urban seltltements icnreasignly contraisl the ptoential to establsih new protected areas. human land uses tend to be stacteted throguthotu landscapes, resulting in habitat fragmentation.

4. The Resentment Challenge:

the strong sense that I "shouldn't have to be doing this behavior" in the first place, and the frustration and anger that result from that feeling.

landscape ecology

the study of how the spaital aptternign of landscapes effects behavior, populations, and diversity of organisms, as well as the functionign of ecosystems.

personality

the sum of total ways in whihc an idnividual reacts to and itneracts with otehrs.

availabiltiy bias

the tendenct or people to base their judgmentso n infroamtion that is readil available. ex; media gives mroe attetnion to air accidents, we tend to o versate htreisk f flyign and understandte the risk of driving.

Self-serving bias

the tendency for individuals to attibute their own success to itnernal factors and put the blame for failures on external factors. thissi bais varies across cutlrues.

Randomness error

the tendency of individuals to belvie that they can predcit hte tucoem fo random events. (particualy when we turn imerganry patterns itn osueprsistitions, ex; tiger woods oftne wears a redd shrit whe he wins , therefore one should wear a red shirt to win more games).

dialecticism

the tendency to be mroe comfortbael with contricution (yi nand yang), change (nothign is permfent) , and holism (everyoen ehas good and bad. asians are better at this and tend t have elss ingorp bias but stereotype more, . because the yare mroe colelctivist thatn us wroekrs, the place a gerater imrposncace on social gorusp and thus arrange their perceiton more in terms of gorup memebrshis > ex: ifnrmationan tehcnolgoy peopel are nerdt; jerry owrksi n info tehcnolgoy, therefore he is nredy. this is idfferent than the percetipn that oneso wn gorup is superioer whcih amerians tend to have.

Hindsight bias

the tendency to beleive falsely, after an otucoem of an event is acutally known, that one would have accurately predicted that otucome. when we ahve feedback o nteh otucoem , we seem good at conlcudign it was obvious .

Fundamental Attribution error

the tendency to nderstiamte hte ifnleucen ffo external facotrs and to overetimate the ifnleucen fo itnetnal factors when makign judgemetns abotu the behaviors of others.

risk aversion

the tendency to prefer a sure gain of a moderate amoutn over a riskerier otucome, even if the riskeier motucoem mgiht ahave a hgiehr expected payroff. those at risk of termiantions, or thsoe with power that can be taken away appear to be espeically risk averse., eprhasp because they dotn wnat ot lose on gamble everyhtign they worked for, evne if it isnt in comapneis best itners.t risk aversion ahs impronat impciatons . to offest the risks inherent in a commisosn based wage, comapneis pay commissioend mployees considerably mroe than they do thsoeo n straight salreis, risk averse employees wil lsitck with the establsied sway fo dogi nteir jobs rahter than takign achance on innvaitonve methods. stickig nwith a stragegy that has worekd int eh apst minimized risk, btu ti wil lead to stagnation

confiramtion bias:

the tendency to seek out ifnraimatio nthat reaffirsm past chocies and to discoutn inforamtio nthat contradicts past judgments.

Norming staage

the third stage in gorup development carhracted by clsoe relationships and cohesinesss. camaraderied and gorp idnetity. gorup has assimilated a common set of expectiosn anfo what defiens correct meber ebhavior. cgorup sructure solidifes.

job enrichemtn

the vertical epxansio nfo jobs, whci hcirneases the degree to which workrk cotnrols the plannign, exection and evaltion of the work. hey can conbien tasks, form natural work units (meaninful whoel from tasks, establish client relationships, expand job vertically (repsonsibiltiies usualyl recrvd ofr mangemetn), opennig feedback

social learnign theory

the view that we can learn through both observation and direct experiecnce. four processes determien their influence on the idnviudal. 1. attentional processes 2. retention processes 3. motor reproduction processes 4. reinforcement processes

Zimbardo's Prison Experiment

two dozen emotionally stable students performed the experiment, one gorup assineged as gaurds and one as priesponers. guards absuive, saw the other as otugrup, and stereotyed the "typical" presioner personality type. acte in absuvei and authoritavie, the prisoners became passive and took whatever the goaruds dished out. . began to beelive and act inflereier oand powerless, as the guards constantly reminded them. had to end the epxiermient after 6 days.. liek the reust of us. the pearticiaptns ahd learned steretyped conceptitosn fo guard and prisoner roles form the mass media and their wwon personal epxiences i npwoer and powerleessness relationships gaiend at hoem (aparent-child_) andi n shcool (tehacer -student and in other situatiosn ththsi backgorudn allwoed them easlier and rpaidly to assume roels very different fro mtheri inherent persoanltieis and , with no priroer peransoltiy pathoritlgoy or trainign i nthe parts they werp laying ,executre extrme forms of behaviror osstinet with those roles. peopel acted differently in a rlatity veriso nof the expeirnet, because htey were concious of how the ywere being viwed.

Dispersal Corridors

typically linera strips of habtiat that link alrger habatiats. these are oen of the most pospualr was to increase onncetivity between habitats.

Confounding Variables

variables besides the suspected threats that mgith lead a researcher to draw incorrect conclusiosn abotu cause and effect.

input

variables that lead to proceses

deviant worplace behavior

voluntary beahvior that violates signficiant organizaitonal nrms and, in so doing ,theratens the wel-beign of the orgnaizaiton or its emebrs. aslo called antisocial behavior or workplace incivility. these can be in areas of productio n(leaving early, itnernatioanly owrkign slowly , asting reosrue,s proporety (sabotage, lyign about whorus workign ,stealig nfor mthe orgnaiton 0, poltical ( showign faovirisim ,gosusipign and spradkign rumros, blacign co-wroekrs0, perosnal aggression (sexual harassment, verbal absuse, sealign from cowoerks0) lack of sleep can lead to deviant workpalce behviro . evidecne demosntated deviant workkpacle beahvior is leiy l to flourish which its upsprotedb y gorup nrosm.. what this menas for mangers is that when deviatn wrkpacle nrsm survac,e employee coocpraiton and comtiemtn amdo tiaiotn aleikyl to suffer. chair rehiaont of occurs in gorups with h giherl ivels of dyspcfina lahbehaviro. colecltively negative modos. and poor dociditon i nafoorts and lower levles of gorup erofrance, espeically whenr htere is a lto of nornvebal negaive ocmucnaito namogn mebers, .

Powerful Leaders Keep Their (FR)Enemies Close

we tend to keep enemies closer to that we can keep an eye on the compoettition they provide

hawthorne studies

western electict hawthorn works in chaicgo tenst in 1924 and 1932. gorup responded to tests beign done (changeign light pattenrs) by aperofrmign faster as tlights when brigheter and darkers. and teh nwere also pefrofmirng bettewer when they were simply seperated fro ma the gorup and told they were beign epxiemented on , felt htey were elite in some way . in a third study, in a bank wirign osbervaiton room, there was a sopheriszted wage insventive plan. employees did nto indivuadally mizmize their otuptu as a reustl, but their oput became contorledd by a gorup norm that detmeriend ap ropeer days work. iterviews detemeind the gorup was oeprating wiell belwo its capabitliy and level output to proect itslef. ,memerbs were afriad that if htey signifiaclyl itnerected their output the unit incentuve rate owuld be cut, te he epcetd daily output bwould be icnreased, nad more. so the gorup estabsliehd its itdea of a fair put- entierh too much nor tool ittle. memerbs helepd each other snure hteir preortes wer nearll evel. osrstacized htose whoseb hviro was agiasnt hte gorups interest.

bioremediation

when certanin species of platns na bacteria that accumualte hevy metals or otehr toxissn are used to help restore soil health. bacteraia are even being genetiacally engineered to break down toxic compnds tno less toxic byproducts.

politics

when employees i nrognaizitosn convert their poer itno action, we decibe them as beign neeged i nppotlcies. organizaitoanl polcies is the typeo fo potlices that ocueso nt he sue of pwoer to acffect diecison makign in an orgnaiziton or on self-serving and orgnaiziatonal unseanctioend behaviors.

relational job design

while redignign jobs iso nthe basis of job chacteristi hteory is leikyl to work mroe intrinsically toving to poeple, mreo contemporary researhcis focuign on who to make josb mroe rposocially motivaitng to people.

The SLOSS Debate

would it be possibel to maintain mroe species in areserve consistiong of a spignel large area or in one cinsistign of several small areas summing to the same total area.

Differences i natactics and differneces in ccoutnreis

youre mroe leiky to be effective if you begin with softer tactic s taht rely o nperosnal pwoer. if these fail, you can move to "harder" tactics whcih emphasize formal pwoer and incur greater costs and risks. Interesgintly, a single soft tactic is mroe fective thatn a asignlye arhd tactic, and combing two sof t tacts or a sfost tactic and rational presuasion is mroe efective than any signle tactic or comintatio nfo hard tacts. the efectivess dpednso nthe audeicen. people espeically liey to comply with soft pwoer tacts tend to be more relfct and isnrinstly icalyl moviated : have high self esteem nad greater deirsre for ocntorl. thsoe liekyl to comploy with hard pwoer tactiscs are mroe acito nrogienttned extirnciscally moitved and mroe focusedo ngettign alog nwit hothers than on gettign their iown way. pe those in idnvidiualstic coutnreis tend to see power in eprsonalized terms and as legiimate means of eadvancing their perosnal ends, whears thsoei ncolectiveistic coutnreis see pwoer i nsocial terms and as a legitimate means of helpign otehrs. as tudy comparing mangersi nt he SU and china foudn that us magners prefer raitonal apepal whaas chanese magners preffered caotalistio ntactics. these diferences tend to be cosnistent with the laues in the two contries. also westenr individualsitc coutlres tend to engage in mreo self engiemten beahviros such as self protioatio nthan inivdiuasl in mroe cecitvist easiter cultures.