organizational behavior test 2
**Process Barriers:
1. sender barrier: no message was sent 2. encoding barrier: the message is not expressed correctly 3. medium barrier: the communication channel is blocked 4. decoding barrier: the recipient does not understand the message 5. receive barrier: no message gets received 6. feedback barrier: the recipient doesn't respond enough
How accurate is the grapevine?
75% accurate
***obliging/accommodating style
Accommodating or giving in to the wishes of others Unassertive but highly cooperative position to take Person attempts to satisfy the concerns of the other person(s), while neglecting their own needs or goals RESULT: Substantive conflict is resolved, but emotive conflict remains WINNER? LOSE-WIN (you lose, they win) the "I lose, you win" perspective. This style is characterized as being unassertive and cooperative, neglecting self to satisfy others; believing that being accepted by others is more important than achieving personal goals; not wanting to cause trouble, and being self-sacrificing and generous. This style is good when relationships are maintained, but it may be counterproductive if the accommodator has a better idea or solution. This style works best when the relationship is the most important consideration, the issue is important to the other party but not to you, and time is limited. If this approach is used repeatedly, it may breed contempt on the part of the accommodators and they may get taken advantage of.
Contingency Model for Selecting Communication Media
According to this model, effective communication occurs when the richness of the medium, or its information-carrying capacity of data, is matched appropriately with the complexity of the problem or situation. If the richness of the medium is either too high or too low for the complexity of the problem, ineffective communication results, falling either into the overload zone or the oversimplification zone.
Stimulating Functional Conflict: Dialectic Decision Method
Action proposed Assumptions identified Counterproposal generated on different assumptions Debate takes place Decision is made and monitored
Stimulating Functional Conflict: Devil's Advocacy Approach
Action proposed Devil's advocate criticizes it Both sides presented to decision makers Decision is made and monitored
Desired Conflict Outcomes
Agreement: strive for equitable and fair agreements that last Stronger Relationships: build bridges of goodwill and trust for the future Learning: greater self-awareness and creative problem solving
Tips for Employees Having a Personality Conflict
All employees need to be familiar with and follow company policies for diversity, anti-discrimination, and sexual harassment Communicate directly with the other person to resolve the perceived conflict Avoid dragging co-workers into the conflict If dysfunctional conflict persists, seek help from direct supervisors or human resource specialists
Tips for Third-Party Observers of a Personality Conflict
All employees need to be familiar with and follow company policies for diversity, anti-discrimination, and sexual harassment Do not take sides in someone else's personality conflict Suggest the parties work things out themselves in a constructive and positive way If dysfunctional conflict persists, refer the problem to parties' direct supervisors
Tips for Managers Whose Employees are Having a Personality Conflict
All employees need to be familiar with and follow company policies for diversity, anti-discrimination, and sexual harassment Investigate and document conflict If appropriate, take corrective action If necessary, attempt informal dispute resolution Refer difficult conflict to human resource specialists or hired counselors for formal resolution attempts and other interventions
Active Listening
An appreciative listener listens in a relaxed manner. An empathetic listener interprets messages by focusing on emotions and body language of the speaker. A comprehensive listener makes sense of a message by organizing specific thoughts and then integrating this information by focusing on relationships among ideas. A discerning listener attempts to understand the main message and determine important points. An evaluative listener listens analytically and formulates arguments and challenges what is being said.
****CONSULTATION TACTICS
Asking for advice, then gaining their contributions and effort Inquire how their expertise may be instrumental to solving some problem... Asking them to take a look at the problem to see if they can offer some advice for solving it... Once they're in, they're in!
***WHAT IS AUTHORITY?
Authority is the RIGHT to influence someone's behavior or decisions
***FIVE MODES OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION
Avoiding Obligating Dominating Compromising Integrating
***The compromising style
Bargaining or trading off Meeting halfway.... An intermediate approach in which partial satisfaction is sought for both through a "middle-ground" position that reflects mutual sacrifice Neither party gets what they want or need... RESULT: Emotive and Substantive conflict are temporarily resolved... WINNER? Draw-Draw (lose-lose) the "I win some, you win some" perspective. This style is characterized by using intermediate assertiveness and cooperativeness and achieving a mutually acceptable solution that partially satisfies both by splitting the difference and exchanging concessions. This style is useful because it can usually be accomplished quickly while maintaining relationships. The down side is that the results may be sub-optimal and can lead to playing games such as asking for twice as much initially so that the compromise will be closer to what they wanted to begin with.
BATNA
Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement can be improved by creating more alternatives or more customers, etc
These options are considered more political; high risk of dysfunctional conflict
Carry the message verbatim but protect the sender's name Soften the message to protect the sender Add your spin to the message to protect the sender Do nothing. The participants will triangle in someone else Do nothing and spread the gossip. You will triangle in others
***The integrating/collaborating style
Collaborating, Teamwork An assertive, cooperative mode, which attempts to satisfy the concerns of both parties This involves focusing on the interests, rather than positions of both parties RESULT: Both emotive and substantive conflict are resolved WINNER? WIN-WIN SOLUTION!!! the "you win, I win" perspective. This style is characterized by being assertive and cooperative, satisfying both parties' concerns, finding underlying issues, reaching creative solutions, and colluding. This problem-solving style tries to find the solution that will meet everyone's needs. Those with this style are willing to change to meet a mutually beneficial solution that is based on open and honest communication. This style is good because it seeks optimal solutions; however, it can take time, patience, and lots of discussion to get to it. This is the best approach when maintaining relationships is important, time is available, group goals are valued more than personal goals, and when an important issue is involved where finding the best solution is critical.
Outcomes of Influence Attempts
Commitment - a strong positive response The person will agree and carry out the request because they truly believes it is the right or best thing to do Compliance - completion of request The person will agree only because there is something positive in it for him/her or something negative will happen if they don't Resistance - a strong negative response Request will be disregarded, influence attempt is unsuccessful
***RESEARCH SAYS
Compliance with resentment were most commonly found when: leaders use upward appeals, pressure tactics and coalition tactics Compliance without resentment was most commonly found when: leaders use legitimating tactics, exchange tactics, ingratiation, and personal appeals Commitment was most commonly found when: leaders use rational persuasion, consultation, and inspirational appeals.
Level of perceived intergroup conflict tends to increase when:
Conflict within the group is high There are negative interactions between groups Influential third-party gossip about other group is negative
For each influence tactic identify the most likely outcome. Consultation Rational Persuasion Inspirational appeals Ingratiation Pressure Coalition
Consultation - Commitment Rational persuasion - Commitment Inspirational appeals - Commitment Ingratiation - Compliance - research has shown that this is does improve bosses' impressions of their subordinates as long as it is perceived to be sincere Pressure - Resistance, compliance; This is considered a "hard" tactic and is more often perceived as unfair. Studies have shown that unfair tactics are more likely to lead to resistance. Coalition - compliance or resistance; if you feel ganged up on you may comply or resist depending on the situation.
****LEGITIMATING TACTICS
Convince others they should do it given the nature of their job... Refer to their job description Remind them who the boss is... Indicate that the boss has approved this... Remind them of their 'role' at the company
****PRESSURE TACTICS
Demand insistently that something be done Constantly remind them to do it Manipulate them or scare them into doing it Imply threats of poor review or bad recommendations for future raises, etc., if they don't do as you ask...
****Distributive negotiation:
Distributive negotiation occurs when the parties are take a win-lose perspective based on the premise that whatever you gain, I lose, and vice versa. This occurs when there is only one issue at stake. For example, you use this approach when bargaining with a vendor on the street.
nonassertive communication style
Encouraging others to take advantage of us; inhibited; self-denying
Formal Communication Channels
Examples of vertical communications are a manager giving job instructions, procedures and practices, or feedback to employees. An upward communication example is an employee responding to an opinion survey. Horizontal examples include employees sharing information of best practices and coordinating work activities or cross-functional projects. External communications is often a result of a public relations function in communicating with, for example, customers or shareholders.
"Hard" Influence Tactics
Exchange:: Promising some benefits in exchange for complying with a request. Coalition Building: Persuading by seeking the assistance of others or by noting the support of others. Legitimating: Pointing out one's authority to make a request or verifying that it is consistent with prevailing organizational policies and practices. Pressure: Seeking compliance by using demands, threats, or intimidation.
True or False: Managers should try to control or stop the grapevine because of it's negative impact on the organization.
False, manager should try to influence and monitor the grapevine to reduce untrue rumors from spreading.
***The dominating style
Forcing or overpowering someone else in order to get your way Assertive, uncooperative mode Person tries to achieve their own goals at the expense of the other by using argument, authority, threat, or even physical force RESULT: Substantive conflict resolved, emotive conflict remains WINNER? WIN - LOSE (you win, they lose) can be described as the "I win, you lose" perspective. Those with this style are characterized as being assertive and uncooperative and striving to have their own needs met at the other's expense. This style is good if the aggressor is right and has a better solution than a group would come up with. It's bad when it results in poorer human relations and causes resentment among others.
****COALITION TACTICS
Ganging up on someone Gather support from several people and then as a group try to influence someone "We all think ...." Creates peer pressure and sometimes 'bullies' others into doing something "This idea already has the support of ______, ______, _______, and _______."
A Perceptual Model of Communication
In this model that describes the exchange of information and understanding, senders and receivers can be individuals, groups, or organizations. The communication flow beings with the sender encoding a message using verbal and non-verbal cues so that the message may be understood by the receiver. The medium is the mechanism by which the message is sent, such as a face-to-face conversation or an e-mail message. Decoding involves the receiver translating the communication into a meaningful message. Feedback serves as a comprehension check for the sender to confirm that the message was understood by the receiver. Noise represents any type of interference that can keep the message from being understood as the sender intended it to be understood.
Causes of Conflicts
Incompatible personalities or value systems Role ambiguity/ overload Interdependent tasks Competition for limited resources
***CONCLUSIONS
Influence only takes place when you are asking followers to do something that they weren't normally going to do There are several different possible outcomes from a leader's influence attempts Leader must decide what outcomes are being sought! Commitment/Motivation = rational persuasion, consultation, and inspirational appeals Compliance = legitimating, ingratiation, personal appeals, exchanges Resentment = upward appeals, pressure, coalitions
***Before entering a negotiation with a client over the price of his company's service, Ben thinks about the client's interests and his company's interests. He then brainstorms several options that would satisfy both needs. The approach Ben is taking represents:
Integrative negotiation
****INFLUENCE TACTICS
Legitimating Exchange Pressure Coalitions Personal Appeals Ingratiation Consultation Inspirational Appeals Rational Persuasion Upward Appeals
Questionable/Unethical Tactics in Negotiation
Lies Exaggerated praise Deception Weakening the opponent Strengthening one's own position Nondisclosure Information exploitation Change of mind Distraction Maximization
****PERSONAL APPEALS
Make it sound like a personal favor "Will you do me this favor, and..." Appeal to the friendship that you have developed with someone to get them to do what you want them to do If they like you, they'll be hard pressed to turn you down
****INGRATIATING TACTICS
Making someone feel good about themselves requesting something Commenting on how good they are at these sorts of things... "Brown-nosing" "Kissing-up" {Flattery will get you everywhere}
Management by Walking Around
Managers literally walk around an talk to people across lines of authority
Mediation
Neutral third party guides parties to make a mutually acceptable solution
****OUTCOMES OF INFLUENCE ATTEMPTS
Non-compliance Compliance (w/resentment): upward appeals, pressure tactics and coalition tactics Compliance: legitimating tactics, exchange tactics, ingratiation, and personal appeals Commitment: rational persuasion, consultation, and inspirational appeals.
Alfonso tends to be an agreeable person with a high need for affiliation. When he encounters conflict situations at work which conflict management style is he most and least likely to use, respectively.
Obliging; Dominating
****EXCHANGE TACTICS
Offer to give a reward for doing something Imply that the next review will be favorable if... Offer to do something else in return for their help Make a deal!
Conflict
One party perceives its interests are being opposed or negatively affected back by another party
Arbitration
Parties agree to accept the decision of the neutral arbitrator
Personalized Power
Personalized power is when someone has the need to be selfish and use power for their own self-centered needs not for the good of the group or organization.
***WHAT IS POWER?
Power is the ABILITY to influence other(s) behavior or decisions
***ZONES OF RESISTANCE
Preference zone indifferent zone legitimate zone resistance influence zone resistance non influence zone
Assertive Communication style
Pushing hard without attacking; permits others to influence outcome: expressive and self-enhancing without intruding on others
***BASES OF SOCIAL POWER
REWARD POWER COERCIVE POWER LEGITIMATE POWER REFERENT POWER EXPERT POWER
Soft" Influence Tactics
Rational persuasion: Using logical arguments and facts to persuade another that a desired result will occur. Inspirational Appeal: Arousing enthusiasm by appealing to one's values and beliefs Consultation: Asking for participation in decision making or planning a change Ingratiation: Getting someone to do what you want by putting that person in a good mood or getting him or her to like you. Personal appeal: Appealing to feelings of loyalty and friendship before making a request
These options are considered less political; low risk of dysfunctional conflict
Reroute complaints by coaching the sender to find ways to constructively bring up the matter with the receiver. Do not carry messages for the sender Facilitate a meeting with the sender and receiver to coach them to speak directly and constructively with each other Transmit verbatim messages with the sender's name included and coach the receiver on constructive ways to discuss the message with the sender
****HOW SHOULD WE USE OUR POWER?
Research shows that developing all of these bases of power provides more flexibility for leaders when trying to influence diverse groups Leaders who are only strong in a couple of areas may need to develop some of the other bases Expert and referent power seem to be the best bases - long term
***Encounter Stressors
Role Conflicts; Issue Conflicts; Action Conflicts Solution: collaboration/team building; emotional intelligence
URGENCY ADDICTION
Self-destructive behavior Wait, Late, Panic, Adrenaline...... ADDICTION? Creates predictable, reliable sensations Becomes primary focus and absorbs attention Temporarily eradicates pain and other negative sensations Provides an artificial sense of self-worth, power, control, security, intimacy and accomplishment Exacerbates the problems and feelings Worsens functioning; destroys relationships
agressive communication style
Taking advantage of others; expressive and self-enhancing at others' expense
****INSPIRATIONAL APPEALS
Tapping into the emotions of others to get them to do something Creating strong energy and excitement for a job that needs to be done Move the emotion to get someone to take on a project or perform a task
***WHAT IS INFLUENCE?
The ACTUAL influence (or effect) on someone's behavior or decisions
Social Power
The ability to get things done with human, informational, and material resources Power is not power OVER others Power is the ability to GET THINGS DONE
****COERCIVE POWER
The ability to influence another person because he/she believes that you can inflict some type of negative consequence on him/her, such as docking pay, demotion, unwanted transfer, firing, etc. GAINING COERCIVE POWER Make others aware of the major decisions that you control that effect them (transfers, demotions, lay-offs) Demonstrate your willingness to follow through with threats Consequences must be real LOSING COERCIVE POWER You may lose your coercive power if you: Show your human side Don't punish non-compliance Lose the control that would allow you to be coercive
****REWARD POWER
The ability to influence another person because he/she believes that you can provide him/her with tangible rewards, such as a bonus, promotion, raise, or other incentives GAINING REWARD POWER: Make followers aware of resources that are under your control Make others aware of decisions that can effect them - that you have a 'say' in the matter Follow through and provide rewards after influence has taken place LOSING REWARD POWER You may lose your reward power if you: Don't give the incentives Lose control of resources Fail to make others aware Can't provide the rewards Don't provide the rewards
****LEGITIMATE POWER
The ability to influence another person because he/she believes that you have the 'right' to request things of them (based on roles, job descriptions, hierarchical authority) GAINING LEGITIMATE POWER Make others are of your and their job descriptions and responsibilities Make others aware of the chain of command in the organization (organizational chart) LOSING LEGITIMATE POWER You may lose your legitimate power if: You get demoted You get laterally moved Your worker gets moved or promoted You are overruled by higher-ups
****EXPERT POWER
The ability to influence others because of your unique experience, knowledge, or access to information For power to exist, leader must also establish trust (that you'll use your expertise ethically) with others GAINING EXPERT POWER Develop unique skills and abilities Do the 'hard' tasks...LEARN! Make others aware of your goals and intentions Develop trust amongst peers LOSING EXPERT POWER You may lose your expert power if: Technologies change Others develop your expertise You are not trustworthy (lose it) Things go badly as a result of your 'expertise'
****REFERENT POWER
The ability to influence others because they emulate you or your group (organization) They seek acceptance and approval from you and/or your group GAINING REFERENT POWER Make others aware of your prestigious professional and educational background Look your best and be confident Develop widespread appeal and popularity in the organization Position your organization to develop and maintain a prestigious reputation in the industry LOSING REFERENT POWER You may lose your referent power if: You are all style and no substance The organization struggles Your organization loses its strong reputation
Randolph's Empowerment Model
The empowerment plan involves sharing information by sharing company performance information and helping people understand the business. In addition, the plan requires creating autonomy through structure and letting teams become the hierarchy. Organizations can create autonomy by creating a clear vision and clarifying the little pictures, creating new decision-making rules that support empowerment, and clarifying goals and roles collaboratively. Organizations can let teams become the hierarchy by providing direction and training for new skills, providing encouragement and support for change, and gradually having managers let go of control.
An Integrative Negotiation
The integrative approach involves a five-step process presented on this and on the next slide. Before the negotiation, parties should separately complete the following steps: Step one is clarifying the interests as being either yours, theirs, or common interests. Before the negotiation, you should understand what your actual interests are. For example, assume you are representing your company and negotiating a deal with a client that involves how much they will pay for your goods or services. That means that money, for example may not really be your interest. Your interests relate to what that money will do for you, such as make your company more profitable or satisfy employees by being able to reward them with bonuses. The next step is to identify options. Again, before the negotiation, you may have ideas about elements of value that will meet your interests. For example, working with this client may represent breaking into a new market, or working with a larger company than you've ever worked with before. Having that client's name on your client list may be valuable to you because of the reputation that will be conveyed to future clients. Assuming they are happy with your service, you may ask them to be interviewed and quotes used in marketing materials. Or working on this particular project will be a developmental opportunity for your staff so this is valuable to you because you want them to be challenged and grow professionally for future work. Step three is to design alternative deal packages where you mix and match elements of value. At this point you can put together multiple deals that could be compared in terms of their value to both parties. Maybe you give a discount if they'll let you use less experienced staff, or they pay more for an entirely experienced team. Steps four and five identify what's involved in selecting and perfecting the deal.
EMOTIVE CONFLICT
This is the conflict that features feelings of resentment or dissatisfaction from the process used to reach the decision
SUBSTANTIVE CONFLICT
This is the conflict that prevents a decision from being made
****UPWARD APPEALS
This is when you go to a supervisor to try to influence a peer colleague - If unsuccessful at influencing a colleague or boss, some will work their way up the latter to get their way.... "Can I talk to your supervisor?" "I'm going to need to talk to the Director about this...." "My big sister won't let me have a cookie, so I'll ask Mom..."
***The avoiding style
This mode involves not confronting the person with whom conflict exists When using this mode, we don't want to "rock the boat" Unassertive Persons neglect the issues at hand by side stepping the issues or postponing the conflict by not dealing with it RESULT: Substantive and Emotive Conflict Remain.. the "I lose and you lose" perspective. This style is characterized by being uncooperative and unassertive, not being concerned with self or others, not addressing the conflict, withdrawing, side stepping, and postponing. This style is good when it maintains a relationship that would be hurt if the issue were resolved. However, the issue doesn't get resolved; and if this is used too often, the problem will get worse because the problem is unlikely to go away on its own.
****INFLUENCE
To be influenced you must be doing something that you would not have otherwise done. To lead with influence implies that you are getting others to perform tasks or pursue goals that they would not have otherwise pursued.
True or false: Organizational moles use the grapevine to their personal advantage.
True
True or false: The grapevine moves a lot faster than formal communication channels.
True
***Anticipatory Stressors
Unpleasant Expectations; Fear Solution: goal setting, small wins
****RATIONAL PERSUASION
Use facts and logic to convince others that they should do something Provide cause and effect scenarios to get others to do it Relate the task you are asking them to do to the goals and mission of the organization "This project will position us as the technology leader in the industry"
Personal Barriers to Effective Communication
Variable skills in communicating effectively Variations in how information is processed and interpreted Variations in personal trust Stereotypes and prejudices Big egos Poor listening skills Natural tendency to evaluate other's messages Inability to listen with understanding Nonverbal communication
***Situational Stressors
Work Conditions; Rapid Change Solution: work redesign
***Time Stressors
Work Overload Lack of Control Solution: effective and efficient time management, delegating
Recommended actions for minimizing intergroup conflict:
Work to eliminate specific negative interactions between groups Conduct team building to reduce intragroup conflict and prepare employees for cross-functional teamwork Encourage personal friendships and good working relationships across groups and departments Foster positive attitudes toward members of other groups Avoid or neutralize negative gossip across groups or departments
CONCLUSIONS:
You must manage both the emotional and the substantive conflict to resolve/avoid problems Remember that only the integrating mode will produce a "WIN-WIN" resolution. Someone will always lose when using any of the other modes of conflict resolution
Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)
avoiding costly lawsuits by resolving conflicts informally or through mediation or arbitration
Mutuality of interest
balancing individual and organizational interests through win-win cooperation. We are all born with the inherent instinct towards self-preservation; but in an organizational setting, it is important that employees do what is best for the organization to ensure its livelihood.
***weak BATNA
desparate and less bargaining power
Semantic barriers
encoding and decoding errors—involve transmitting and receiving words and symbols—fueled by the use of jargon and unnecessary words
Negotiation
give-and-take process between conflicting interdependent parties
Delegation
granting decision-making authority to people at lower levels
empowerment
involves considering power as not a zero-sum game but instead something that is unlimited and can be shared by all. Empowerment is a win-win proposition and should not be viewed as threatening, but rather as a means of helping managers and employees to develop new skills and reach career goals.
****Integrative negotiation:
is characterized by people not taking stands or positions but instead focusing on their and the other party's underlying interests. It requires that both parties keep an open mind about how to meet each other's interests rather than assuming that in order for my interests to be met, then yours must not be.
Nonverbal Communication
messages sent outside of written or spoken word Experts estimate 65 to 90% of every conversation is nonverbal
***strong BATNA
more bargaining power stronger advantage
Personal initiative
occurs when individuals go beyond formal job requirements and become active self-starters. Personal initiative is important in establishing trust with a manager and ensuring that he or she will think of you for developmental assignments to be delegated. Following these tips can help you move toward personal initiative: Go beyond the job. Follow through on new ideas. Don't be defeated by criticism; rather learn from it. Look ahead and around for opportunities.
Functional Conflict
serves organization's interests Typically issue-focused Stimulates creativity
Socialized Power
socialized power is used for the good of the organization and is often self-sacrificing.
Intensity of Conflict
some level of conflict is good for organizations, but too little or too much detracts from achieving organizational objectives.
Physical barriers
the distance between employees can interfere with effective communication
communication
the exchange of info between sender and receiver and the inference of meaning between the individuals involved
Participative Management
the process whereby employees play a direct role in: Setting goals Making decisions Solving problems Making changes in the organization Participative management is predicted to increase motivation because it helps employees fulfill three basic needs: autonomy, meaningfulness of work, and interpersonal contact. Satisfaction of these needs enhances feelings of acceptance, commitment, security, challenge, and satisfaction. In turn, these positive feelings can lead to increased innovation and performance. The effectiveness of participative management depends on the design of the work, the level of trust between management and employees, and the employees' readiness to participate. Participative management can promote perceptions of procedural justice, organizational commitment, and job involvement.
Dysfunctional Conflict
threatens organization's interests Typically person-focused Breeds hostility Stifles communication
Grapevine
unofficial communication system of informal organization and encompasses all types of communication media -Moles -Liaisons
