OSU History 2550 Midterm 1 Terms

The Spanish Armada

"Invincible" group of ships sent by King Philip II of Spain to invade England in 1588; Armada was defeated by smaller, more maneuverable English "sea dogs" in the Channel; marked the beginning of English naval dominance and fall of Spanish dominance.

Battle of Marathon, 490 BC

Turning point battle in Persian wars, first Greek victory. Raises the standards tow which the Greeks hold themselves.

Invasion of Russia, 1812 AD

Uses giant army to invade Russia. However, Russians use scorched Earth tactics to destroy resources that French would need to live off of. Napoleon eventually has a great retreat, but the majority of his forces are destroyed. Considered Napoleon's 2nd great mistake.

Battle of Cannae, 216 BC

major victory by Hannibal and Carthaginian forces over Roman legions by means of a "double envelopment" in which the Roman forces were drawn into trap when the forces of the Carthaginians were able to outflank the Romans on both sides and attack them from the rear. Didn't help the Carthaginians in the end but was a huge hamper on the Romans.

The Military Revolution

mprovements in artillery, fortifications (trace Italienne) lead to constant pressure to find next technological advancement, more men, money spent on building and discovering new resources for winning wars (need for $ leads to more power for the state).

Chevauchée

English strategy vs French: To devastate French economy+ pay for war by looting. "Offensive-defensive" that aims to coax the French to attack Britain in Britain, where they have upper hand.

Byzantine Empire

(330-1453) The eastern half of the Roman Empire, which survived after the fall of the Western Empire at the end of the 5th century C.E. Its capital was Constantinople, survived for a long time through protective walls.

Caturanga-bala

4 Fold formation of Indian armies: used infantry, chariots, elephants, and cavalry. Main infantry weapon= bow (not as much hand to hand).

American Revolution, 1775-1783

A period when 13 colonies gained independence from England. Based on disapproval by colonists of several taxes and other unpopular laws. Protests lead to fighting in 1775, and after two main British armies were captured in 1777 and 1781 and an alliance of the colonists with the French, the Treaty of Paris was signed.

The Persian Wars 490-479 B.C.E.)

ATHENS VS. PERSIA: Athenians are highly outnumbered and can't rely on Spartan help. Athenians are able to double envelop Persians. Leads to Athens being main hellenic power.

Battle of Austerlitz, 1805 AD

After taking Vienna, Napoleon encourages Russians to invade by appearing weak/ abandoning in certain areas. Allies attack the French seemingly weak French flank but Davout's troops come in to strengthen, allows Napoleon to launch his corps at the allied center leading to decisive victory. War ends, Austria is out of France's way.

Thucydides

Athenian historian who wrote on the Peloponnesian War.

Battle of Arginusae, 406 BC:

Athenian naval victory in Peloponnesian war that Athens lost greatly, left men to die. These losses led to another change in leadership.

Sicilian Expedition, 415-413 BC:

Athenian naval/ military op to Sicilian coast. Almost all of the Athenian forces were killed or captured after trying to escape Syracuse. Called the turning point in the war bc left Athens so weak, encouraged rebellion, loss of allied support after this point.

Periclean Strategy

Athenian strategy during Peloponnesian war to avoid large scale battles with superior infantry, annoy spartans with navy, use finances to hide behind walls.

Melian Dialogue (416 BCE)

Athens invades the neutral island of Melos. Gives us the idea of "The strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must."

King Philip's War

British colonists in New England vs. Wampanoag King Philip: leads native alliance vs colonists/ their native allies. Is remembered as the bloodiest american war per capita 8% of men lost, brutal fighting, Americans= militiamen trend.

Battle of Saratoga, 1777 AD

British decide to isolate New England from the rest of the colonies along the Hudson River but plan is poorly coordinated, with each general deciding what he will do on his own (Burgoyne left without help). Americans win decisively at Saratoga, this leads the French to enter the war on the American side.

Cataphract

Byzantine (and eastern) heavy cavalry units that proved powerful.

Battle of Manzikert, 1071 AD

Byzantines vs. Seljuk Turks. Seljuk archers begin to use hit and run tactics, inflict heavy damages. Romanus orders troop withdraw but Seljuks attack and rout. Sets in motion long process of byzantine decline.

Charles Martel

Carolingian monarch of Franks; responsible for defeating Muslims in battle of Tours in 732; ended Muslim threat to western Europe. Was able to raise a professional army by being able to tax the church in his lands.

The First Punic War, 264-241 BC

Carthage and Syracuse were both alarmed by Rome's intervention in their sphere of influence, and the situation quickly escalated into a major conflict.. Rome gains territory, prohibits Carthage from raising an army.

Hannibal

Carthaginian military commander who, in the Second Punic War, attempted a surprise attack on Rome, crossing the Alps with a large group of soldiers, horses, and elephants. Had a great victory at Cannae.

Thirty Years' War, 1618-1648 AD

Causes: French feel insecure with growing powers, Spanish cut through France to Spanish netherlands (undermines french), Succession crises, denmark and sweden fight, Bohemian revolt (protestant people vs catholic leaders).French join against the Catholics bc they feared the Hapsburg Spaniards having too much power.

Kautilya/Arthasastra

Changragupta Maurya's closest advisor/ the book he wrote on how to run an ideal empire with state-centric view the encouraged spying, assassinations, intelligence, deception.

Levée en masse

Conscription system where all able-bodied men ages 18-25 had to provide military service. Made it so that Napoleon's armies were representative of the French population, were some of the largest that the continent had seen, but individual soldiers generally weren't as talented, made ordre mixte most efficient means of war.

Fall of Constantinople, 1453 AD

Constantinople's walls had stood, protecting the city for a millenium, were destroyed in 53 days with new Ottoman cannon. End of Byzantine power, start of Turkish power.

Quintus Fabius Maximus Cunctator

Consul, sent by the Romans to fight against Hannibal. He was an elected Dictator of Rome by the Senate to deal with the crisis of the Second Punic War. Used Fabian Strategy to avoid direct conflict with Carthage, hassle their line of supply.

La Noche Triste, 1521 AD

Cortés, his conquistadors, and his allies are forced out of Tenochtitlan after killing Montezuma. Spaniards try to take as much treasure as possible as they retreat the island, are killed in herds.

Battle of Guagamela (331 BC)

Decisive Macedonian victory despite being outnumbered vs. Persia, considered one of Alexander's greatest battles, end of Persian empire.

Peace of Westphalia, 1648 AD

Ends thirty years' war. Establishes the standard of the modern western state, religion/ dynastic feuds are being pushed out as principal leading force. Important: separates church (pope's influence) from state, non-state actors' power declines, citizens have one main allegiance (to their state). Changes to euro power structure: France now dominant, Habsburgs now weaker, portuguese and the dutch have independent states.

Maurice of Orange/ Nassau

Examined Roman military texts/ practices to identify trends, useful tactics. Created a drill manual for musket-wielding troops, became standard followed by much of Europe. Evolved linear tactics/ volley fire (allows for more constant rate of fire amongst a line). Encouraged modern standard for discipline in all troops.

Battle of Rocroi, 1643 AD

French Victory vs. Spanish in 30 YW. Other turning point of invincibility of the tercios. Starts trend of less power for Habsburg Spain and more for France.

The French Revolution, 1789-1799

French economy is in shambles due to supporting the Americans, French government begins to tax all property so 3rd estate forms National Assembly. Commoners revolt against nobility at Bastille, monarchy becomes republic. War declared on Austria and Prussia which leads to Levée en masse. Reign of Terror kills many at the Guillotine, Thermidorian Reaction is just as bad as the reign of terror. Directory is formed but corrupt. Napoleon is able to have a coup in 1799.

Warring States Period, 403-221 BC

HUGE battles with large numbers of casualties, ed to fewer/ larger states, military reform: need bureaucracy to buy food, equipment, pay soldiers, etc./ armies are sent to protect borders, leading to bureaucrats having the most power within the state's decision making/ legalism (ensure order through law) takes over instead of military leadership.

Napoleon Bonaparte/ Napoleonic Warfare

Had experience as an artillery officer in a variety of campaigns. Became emperor in 1804. Used ordre mixte (combo of columns/ linear formations), used skirmishers, Gribeauval system (same calibre artillery shot), horse drawn artillery, reverse slope defense, modern military organization (battalions, regiments, etc.). Took advantages of nationalism, changes in warfare led to many decisive victories early on.

Battle of Metaurus, 207 BC

Hasdrubal is defeated, leaves Hannibal without enough reinforcements/ siege equipment which ends their threat to Rome.

Sun Tzu/ Art of War

Influential 6th century BC. Military treatise that talked extensively about equipment, tactics, strategy, but also about legality, philosophy, morals etc. Emphasized winning wars w/ little bloodshed (subtly, discreetly).

trace Italienne

Italian developed fortress that uses Earth as fortification + angles that overlap sectors of fire (more efficient) (aka "interlocking sectors of fire").

Alexander The Great

Macedonian king, general, and one of the best strategists in history. Undefeated in battle but had ideas that were too grand for the empire, eventually died of alcoholism. Tore through Persia, eventually made it to Afghanistan, stopped at India.

"The Sinews of Power"

Modern book about England's meteoric military rise from 1688-1783 based on extended powers of taxation from the central government. Changes to the state allowed Britain to grow extremely powerful militarily and economically.

Battle of Waterloo, 1815 AD

Napoleon returns from Elba in 1815, plans to launch preemptive strike vs. allies before they could assemble (takes on Prussians). British Duke of Wellington sits in and prepares to Defend at road to Waterloo. As napoleon's forces are already struggling with British, Prussians come into seal the deal. Leads to the end of Napoleon's success, is exiled to St. Helena where he dies in 1821.

Ulm Campaign, 1805 AD

Napoleon vs. Austrian and Russian coalition. After Trafalgar Napoleon's opportunity to invade England is gone, leads Russia/ Austria to join forces against France. Aimed to divide/ defeat the individual armies before they could meet up with each other. Defeats an Austrian army and takes Vienna, campaign ends successfully with Austerlitz.

Battle of Salamis, 480 BC

Naval battle during 2nd Persian invasion of Greece. Athenians successfully rammed/ out maneuvered Persian ships.

Battle of Agincourt

New English king also invades France: Henry V takes Calais, begins to march further into France. Henry V has mostly archer forces, positions them in the woods surrounding the battlefield to keep the French from being able to flank his infantry. Many French nobles die.

Battle of Hastings, 1066 AD

Normandy invades Saxon England w/ 1000 longboats. King Harold/ army already exhausted from battling vikings. William attacks Harold near Hastings, norman housecarls repel cavalry + infantry. Harold is killed= Saxons are defeated, William (Norman) becomes king of England.

The Mongols

People from Central Asia when united ended up creating the largest single land empire in history, from China to Europe via nomadic cavalry archers and psychological war.

Fall of the (Western) Roman Empire

Politics are strained by internal struggles, assassinations, civil wars. Mercenaries begin to form majority of military (civic militarism declines). Roman imperial administration is hard pressed on multiple fronts by barbarian invasions, tribal migrations. Roman economy is fragile, people were consuming more (strain from multiple forces)

Frederick the Great

Prussian leader, lacked England's $$ and France's manpower, but still rose to power. Changes: all Prussian men were committed to military service, fought short/ decisive wars w/o many casualties, became standard for drilling/ running other armies. Battle of Lethen (1757) considered greatest military victory but was costly economically and devastated Prussia.

Carl von Clausewitz

Prussian military theorist. Called the godfather of Military theorist. Wrote "On War". Ideas: friction, fog of war, role of passion/ chance/ reason in war, war as politics. Highly influential on future leaders.

Greek phalanx

Rectangular formation of Greek Hoplites (heavy infantryman armed w/ hoplon shield, armor, spear, and sword) composed of 8-16 men deep, relied on discipline, trust amongst men.

Battle of Tours, 732 AD

Repulse of the Moors in France by Martel, following which they retreated to Spain and never penetrated into Europe so far again.

ship of the line

Sail powered, uses cannon, line ahead formation (English become most successful with this).

Spanish tercio

Spanish special brigade, most talented professional soldiers. Infantry division under Habsburg Spain divided into companies of 300 men. Featured musketeers, pikemen, swordsmen.

The Second Punic War, 218-201 BC

Started as problem over Iberia but roots lay with Carthage's treatment after the first war. Romans dispatched their armies to Spain and Sicily to confront Hannibal and his forces. Carthaginian strategy: control Spain, march on Italy, undermine Rome's allies.

Battle of Breitenfeld, 1631 AD

Swedish (under Adolphus) defeat Spanish tercio. 1st major victory for the protestant forces in 30YW.

Gustavus Adolphus

Swedish military leader who had to make changes in order to be competitive despite sweden's size/ lack of wealth. Changes to military/ state: Invented Swedish brigade (like a tercio), used linear tactics, combined volley fire musketeers with pikemen, implemented new tactics focused on field artillery, used shock cavalry w/ muskets and sabers.

Roman Legion

The Armies of Rome. Rome's Military was its great strength. They build the Roads and kept the borders of the Empire safe. Loyal to their Generals.

Western way of war

Theory that the West has developed a military culture that has been dominant compared to the rest of the world because of pursuit of superior technology, discipline, continuity/ building on the past, challenge-response dynamic (more war= get better at war), dominant (reliant) military tradition.

Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE)

War fought between Athens and Sparta (with Sparta's allies) due to balance of power w/ too much for Athens. Spartan strategy to make it a war of attrition, Athenians want war of exhaustion. Spartans eventually win by changing strategy, Athens loses allies.

Hundred Years' War, 1337-1453 AD

War of dynastic succession in which English and French fight long war. English use Chevaucée system and have success. French are able to change their strategy which allows them to have success. Changes to war: feudalism is proven as inefficient, missile weapons are dominant, total war, more power for the central state= better war.