P36 Earth and Physical Science Teas 5

actinide series

...

group 2

Z Element No. of electrons/shell Electron configuration[n 2] 4 beryllium 2, 2 [He] 2s2 12 magnesium 2, 8, 2 [Ne] 3s2 20 calcium 2, 8, 8, 2 [Ar] 4s2 38 strontium 2, 8, 18, 8, 2 [Kr] 5s2 56 barium 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 2 [Xe] 6s2 88 radium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 2 [Rn] 7s2

group 13

The boron group are the chemical elements in group 13 of the periodic table, comprising boron (B), aluminium (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In), thallium (Tl), and ununtrium (Uut). The elements in the boron group are characterized by having three electrons in their outer energy levels (valence layers).[1] These elements have also been referred to as icosagens[2] and triels. Boron is classified as a metalloid while the rest, with the possible exception of ununtrium, are considered other metals. Ununtrium has not yet been confirmed to be an other metal and, due to relativistic effects, might not turn out to be one. Boron occurs sparsely, probably because bombardment by the subatomic particles produced from natural radioactivity disrupts its nuclei. Aluminium occurs widely on earth, and indeed is the third most abundant element in the Earth's crust (8.3%).[3] Gallium is found in the earth with an abundance of 13 ppm. Indium is the 61st most abundant element in the earth's crust, and thallium is found in moderate amounts throughout the planet. Ununtrium is never found in nature and therefore is termed a synthetic element. Several group 13 elements have biological roles in the ecosystem. Boron is a trace element in humans and is essential for some plants. Lack of boron can lead to stunted plant growth, while an excess can also cause harm by inhibiting growth. Aluminium has neither a biological role nor significant toxicity and is considered safe. Indium and gallium can stimulate metabolism; gallium is credited with the ability to bind itself to iron proteins. Thallium is highly toxic, interfering with the function of numerous vital enzymes, and has seen use as a pesticide.[4]

alkaline earth metals

a group of chemical elements in the periodic table with very similar properties. They are all shiny, silvery-white, somewhat reactive metals at standard temperature and pressure[1] and readily lose their two outermost electrons to form cations with charge 2+ and an oxidation state, or oxidation number of +2.[2] In the modern IUPAC nomenclature, the alkaline earth metals comprise the group 2 elements.[n 1] The alkaline earth metals are beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), and radium (Ra).[4] This group lies in the s-block of the periodic table as all alkaline earth metals have their outermost electron in an s-orbital.[1][5][6] All the discovered alkaline earth metals occur in nature.[7] Experiments have been conducted to attempt the synthesis of element 120, which is likely to be the next member of the group, but they have all met with failure. However, element 120 may not be an alkaline earth metal due to relativistic effects, which are predicted to have a large influence on the chemical properties of superheavy elements.[8] Z Element No. of electrons/shell Electron configuration[n 2] 4 beryllium 2, 2 [He] 2s2 12 magnesium 2, 8, 2 [Ne] 3s2 20 calcium 2, 8, 8, 2 [Ar] 4s2 38 strontium 2, 8, 18, 8, 2 [Kr] 5s2 56 barium 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 2 [Xe] 6s2 88 radium 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 2 [Rn] 7s2

Group 5

a group of elements in periodic table. Group 5 contains vanadium (V), niobium (Nb), tantalum (Ta) and dubnium (Db). This group lies in the d-block of the periodic table. The group itself has not acquired a trivial name; it belongs to the broader grouping of the transition metals. The lighter three Group 5 elements occur naturally and share similar properties; all three are hard refractory metals under standard conditions. The fourth element, dubnium, has been synthesized in laboratories, but it has not been found occurring in nature, with half-life of the most stable isotope, dubnium-268, being only 29 hours, and other isotopes even more radioactive. To date, no experiments in a supercollider have been conducted to synthesize the next member of the group, either unpentpentium (Upp) or unpentseptium (Ups). As unpentpentium and unpentseptium are both late period 8 elements it is unlikely that these elements will be synthesized in the near future. Z Element No. of electrons/shell 23 vanadium 2, 8, 11, 2 41 niobium 2, 8, 18, 12, 1 73 tantalum 2, 8, 18, 32, 11, 2 105 dubnium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 11, 2

group 4

a group of elements in the periodic table. It contains the elements titanium (Ti), zirconium (Zr), hafnium (Hf) and rutherfordium (Rf). This group lies in the d-block of the periodic table. The group itself has not acquired a trivial name; it belongs to the broader grouping of the transition metals. The three Group 4 elements that occur naturally are titanium (Ti), zirconium (Zr) and hafnium (Hf). The first three members of the group share similar properties; all three are hard refractory metals under standard conditions. However, the fourth element rutherfordium (Rf), has been synthesized in the laboratory; none of its isotopes have been found occurring in nature. All isotopes of rutherfordium are radioactive. So far, no experiments in a supercollider have been conducted to synthesize the next member of the group, unpenthexium (Uph), and it is unlikely that they will be synthesized in the near future. Z Element No. of electrons/shell 22 titanium 2, 8, 10, 2 40 zirconium 2, 8, 18, 10, 2 72 hafnium 2, 8, 18, 32, 10, 2 104 rutherfordium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 10, 2

group 3 elements

a group of elements in the periodic table. This group, like other d-block groups, should contain four elements, but it is not agreed what elements belong in the group. Scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y) are always included, but the other two spaces are usually occupied by lanthanum (La) and actinium (Ac), or by lutetium (Lu) and lawrencium (Lr); less frequently, it is considered the group should be expanded to 32 elements (with all the lanthanides and actinides included) or contracted to contain only scandium and yttrium. The group itself has not acquired a trivial name; however, scandium, yttrium and the lanthanides are sometimes called rare earth metals. Three group 3 elements occur naturally, scandium, yttrium, and either lanthanum or lutetium. Lanthanum continues the trend started by two lighter members in general chemical behavior, while lutetium behaves more similarly to yttrium. This is in accordance with the trend for period 6 transition metals to behave more similarly to their upper periodic table neighbors. This trend is seen from hafnium, which is almost identical chemically to zirconium, to mercury, which is quite distant chemically from cadmium, but still shares with it almost equal atomic size and other similar properties. They all are silvery-white metals under standard conditions. The fourth element, either actinium or lawrencium, has only radioactive isotopes. see notes on desktop

group

(also known as a family) is a column of elements in the periodic table of the chemical elements. There are 18 numbered groups in the periodic table, but the f-block columns (between groups 2 and 3) are not numbered. The elements in a group have similar physical or chemical characteristic of the outermost electron shells of their atoms (i.e., the same core charge), as most chemical properties are dominated by the orbital location of the outermost electron.

hydrogen

Atomic Number: 1 Hydrogen is the first element in the periodic table, meaning it has an atomic number of 1 or 1 proton in each hydrogen atom. Atomic Weight: 1.00794 This makes hydrogen the lightest element. Hydrogen is the most abundant element. About 75% of the element mass of the universe is hydrogen. The most common isotope of hydrogen is protium, which has 1 proton and 0 neutrons. Hydrogen gas is extremely flammable. It is used as a fuel by the space shuttle main engine and was associated with the famous explosion of the Hindenburg airship.Hydrogen compounds commonly are called hydrides. Hydrogen may be produced by reacting metals with acids (e.g., zinc with hydrochloric acid). The physical form of hydrogen at room temperature and pressure is a colorless and odorless gas. Hydrogen has many uses, though most hydrogen is used for processing fossil fuels and in the production of ammonia. In compounds, hydrogen can take a negative charge (H-) or a positive charge (H+).

group 18

The noble gases make a group of chemical elements with similar properties: under standard conditions, they are all odorless, colorless, monatomic gases with very low chemical reactivity. The six noble gases that occur naturally are helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and the radioactive radon (Rn). For the first six periods of the periodic table, the noble gases are exactly the members of group 18 of the periodic table. It is possible that due to relativistic effects, the group 14 element flerovium exhibits some noble-gas-like properties,[1] instead of the group 18 element ununoctium.[2] Noble gases are typically highly unreactive except when under particular extreme conditions. The inertness of noble gases makes them very suitable in applications where reactions are not wanted. For example: argon is used in lightbulbs to prevent the hot tungsten filament from oxidizing; also, helium is breathed by deep-sea divers to prevent oxygen and nitrogen toxicity. The properties of the noble gases can be well explained by modern theories of atomic structure: their outer shell of valence electrons is considered to be "full", giving them little tendency to participate in chemical reactions, and it has been possible to prepare only a few hundred noble gas compounds. The melting and boiling points for a given noble gas are close together, differing by less than 10 °C (18 °F); that is, they are liquids over only a small temperature range. Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon are obtained from air in an air separation unit using the methods of liquefaction of gases and fractional distillation. Helium is sourced from natural gas fields which have high concentrations of helium in the natural gas, using cryogenic gas separation techniques, and radon is usually isolated from the radioactive decay of dissolved radium compounds. Noble gases have several important applications in industries such as lighting, welding, and space exploration. A helium-oxygen breathing gas is often used by deep-sea divers at depths of seawater over 55 m (180 ft) to keep the diver from experiencing oxygen toxemia, the lethal effect of high-pressure oxygen, and nitrogen narcosis, the distracting narcotic effect of the nitrogen in air beyond this partial-pressure threshold. After the risks caused by the flammability of hydrogen became apparent, it was replaced with helium in blimps and balloons.

group 6

, numbered by IUPAC style, is a group of elements in periodic table. Its members are chromium (Cr), molybdenum (Mo), tungsten (W), and seaborgium (Sg). These are all transition metals. The period 8 elements of group 6 are likely to be either unpenthexium (Uph) or unpentoctium (Upo). This may not be possible; drip instability may imply that the periodic table ends at unbihexium. Neither unpenthexium nor unpentoctium have been synthesized, and it is unlikely that this will happen in the near future. Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior: Z Element No. of electrons/shell 24 chromium 2, 8, 13, 1 42 molybdenum 2, 8, 18, 13, 1 74 tungsten 2, 8, 18, 32, 12, 2 106 seaborgium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 12, 2

group 15

A pnictogen[1] /ˈnɪktədʒɨn/ is one of the chemical elements in group 15 of the periodic table. This group is also known as the nitrogen family. It consists of the elements nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), bismuth (Bi) and the synthetic element ununpentium (Uup) (unconfirmed). In modern IUPAC notation, it is called Group 15. In CAS and the old IUPAC systems it was called Group VA and Group VB, respectively (pronounced "group five A" and "group five B", "V" for the Roman numeral 5).[2] In the field of semiconductor physics, it is still usually called Group V.[3] The "five" ("V") in the historical names comes from the "pentavalency" of nitrogen, reflected by the stoichiometry of compounds such as N2O5. Chemical[edit] Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in electron configuration, especially in the outermost shells, resulting in trends in chemical behavior: Z Element No. of electrons/shell 7 nitrogen 2, 5 15 phosphorus 2, 8, 5 33 arsenic 2, 8, 18, 5 51 antimony 2, 8, 18, 18, 5 83 bismuth 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 5 This group has the defining characteristic that all the component elements have 5 electrons in their outermost shell, that is 2 electrons in the s subshell and 3 unpaired electrons in the p subshell. They are therefore 3 electrons short of filling their outermost electron shell in their non-ionized state. The most important elements of this group are nitrogen (N), which in its diatomic form is the principal component of air, and phosphorus (P), which, like nitrogen, is essential to all known forms of life.

group 14

The carbon group is a periodic table group consisting of carbon (C), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Pb), and flerovium (Fl). In modern IUPAC notation, it is called Group 14. In the field of semiconductor physics, it is still universally called Group IV. The group was once also known as the tetrels (from Greek tetra, four), stemming from the Roman numeral IV in the group names, or (not coincidentally) from the fact that these elements have four valence electrons (see below). The group is sometimes also referred to as tetragens or crystallogens. Chemical[edit] Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in electron configuration, especially in the outermost shells, resulting in trends in chemical behavior: Z Element No. of electrons/shell 6 Carbon 2, 4 14 Silicon 2, 8, 4 32 Germanium 2, 8, 18, 4 50 Tin 2, 8, 18, 18, 4 82 Lead 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 4 114 Flerovium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 4 (predicted)

group 16

The chalcogens (/ˈkælkədʒɨnz/) are the chemical elements in group 16 of the periodic table. This group is also known as the oxygen family. It consists of the elements oxygen (O), sulfur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te), and the radioactive element polonium (Po). The synthetic element livermorium (Lv) is predicted to be a chalcogen as well.[1] Often, oxygen is treated separately from the other chalcogens, sometimes even excluded from the scope of the term "chalcogen" altogether, due to its very different chemical behavior from sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and polonium. The word "chalcogen" is derived from a combination of the Greek word khalkόs (χαλκός) principally meaning copper (the term was also used for bronze/brass, any metal in the poetic sense, ore or coin),[2] and the Latinised Greek word genēs, meaning born or produced.[3][4] Sulfur has been known since antiquity, and oxygen was recognized as an element in the 18th century. Selenium, tellurium and polonium were discovered in the 19th century, and livermorium in 2000. All of the chalcogens have six valence electrons, leaving them two electrons short of a full outer shell. Their most common oxidation states are −2, +2, +4, and +6. They have relatively low atomic radii, especially the lighter ones.[5] Element Melting point (Celsius) Boiling point (Celsius) Reference Oxygen −219 −183 [5] Sulfur 120 445 [5] Selenium 221 685 [5] Tellurium 450 988 [5]

group 17

The halogens or halogen elements (/ˈhælɵdʒɨn/) are a group in the periodic table consisting of five chemically related elements: fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At). The artificially created element 117 (ununseptium) may also be a halogen. In the modern IUPAC nomenclature, this group is known as group 17. The group of halogens is the only periodic table group that contains elements in all three familiar states of matter at standard temperature and pressure. All of the halogens form acids when bonded to hydrogen. Most halogens are typically produced from minerals or salts. The middle halogens, that is, chlorine, bromine and iodine, are often used as disinfectants. The halogens are also all toxic. Fluoride anions are found in ivory, bones, teeth, blood, eggs, urine, and hair of organisms. Fluoride anions in very small amounts are essential for humans. There are 0.5 milligrams per liter of fluorine in human blood. Human bones contain 0.2 to 1.2% fluorine. Human tissue contains approximately 50 parts per billion of fluorine. A typical 70-kilogram human contains 3 to 6 grams of fluorine.[1] Chloride anions are essential to a large number of species, humans included. The concentration of chlorine in the dry weight of cereals is 10 to 20 parts per million, while in potatoes the concentration of chloride is 0.5%. Plant growth is adversely affected by chloride levels in the soil falling below 2 parts per million. Human blood contains an average of 0.3% chlorine. Human bone contains typically contains 900 parts per million of chlorine. Human tissue contains approximately 0.2 to 0.5% chlorine. There is a total of 95 grams of chlorine in a typical 70-kilogram human.[1] Some bromine in the form of the bromide anion is present in all organisms. A biological role for bromine in humans has not been proven, but some organisms contain organobromine compounds. Humans typically consume 1 to 20 milligrams of bromine per day. There are typically 5 parts per million of bromine in human blood, 7 parts per million of bromine in human bones, and 7 parts per million of bromine in human tissue. A typical 70-kilogram human contains 260 milligrams of bromine.[1] Humans typically consume less than 100 micrograms of iodine per day. Iodine deficiency can cause intellectual disability. Organoiodine compounds occur in humans in some of the glands, especially the thyroid gland, as well as the stomach, epidermis, and immune system. Foods containing iodine include cod, oysters, shrimp, herring, lobsters, sunflower seeds, seaweed, and mushrooms. However, iodine is not known to have a biological role in plants. There are typically 0.06 milligrams per liter of iodine in human blood, 300 parts per billion of iodine in human bones, and 50 to 700 parts per billion of iodine in human tissue. There are 10 to 20 milligrams of iodine in a typical 70-kilogram human.[1] Astatine has no biological role.[1]

lanthanide series

The lanthanide /ˈlænθənaɪd/ or lanthanoid /ˈlænθənɔɪd/ series of chemical elements[1] comprises the fifteen metallic chemical elementswith atomic numbers 57 through 71, from lanthanum through lutetium.[2][3][4] These fifteen lanthanide elements, along with the chemically similar elements scandium and yttrium, are often collectively known as the rare earth elements. The informal chemical symbol Ln is used in general discussions of lanthanide chemistry to refer to any lanthanide. All but one of the lanthanides are f-block elements, corresponding to the filling of the 4f electron shell; lutetium, a d-block element, is also generally considered to be a lanthanide due to its chemical similarities with the other fourteen. All lanthanide elements form trivalent cations, Ln3+, whose chemistry is largely determined by the ionic radius, which decreases steadily from lanthanum to lutetium.

group 12

by modern IUPAC numbering,[1] is a group of chemical elements in the periodic table. It includes zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd) andmercury (Hg).[2][3][4] The further inclusion of copernicium (Cn) in group 12 is supported by recent experiments on individual copernicium atoms.[5] Group 12 is also known as the volatile metals,[citation needed] although this can also more generally refer to any metal (which need not be in group 12) that has high volatility, such as polonium[6] or flerovium.[7] Formerly this group was named IIB (pronounced as "group two B", as the "II" is a Roman numeral) by CAS and old IUPAC system. The three group 12 elements that occur naturally are zinc, cadmium and mercury. They are all widely used in electric and electronic applications, as well as in various alloys. The first two members of the group share similar properties as they are solid metals under standard conditions. Mercury is the only metal that is a liquid at room temperature. While zinc is very important in the biochemistry of living organisms, cadmium and mercury are both highly toxic. As copernicium does not occur in nature, it has to be synthesized in the laboratory. Like other groups of the periodic table, the members of group 12 show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost shells, which result in trends in their chemical behavior: Z Element No. of electrons/shell 30 zinc 2, 8, 18, 2 48 cadmium 2, 8, 18, 18, 2 80 mercury 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 2 112 copernicium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 2 (predicted)

alkali metals

in the periodic table consisting of the chemical elements lithium (Li), sodium (Na),[note 1] potassium (K),[note 2] rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs),[note 3] and francium (Fr).[4] This group lies in the s-block of the periodic table[5] as all alkali metals have their outermost electron in an s-orbital.[6][7][8] The alkali metals provide the best example of group trends in properties in the periodic table,[6] with elements exhibiting well-characterized homologous behaviour.[6] The alkali metals have very similar properties: they are all shiny, soft, highly reactive metals at standard temperature and pressure[6] and readily lose their outermost electron to form cations with charge +1.[9]:28 They can all be cut easily with a knife due to their softness, exposing a shiny surface that tarnishes rapidly in air due to oxidation.[6] Because of their high reactivity, they must be stored under oil to prevent reaction with air,[10] and are found naturally only in salts and never as the free element.[10] In the modern IUPAC nomenclature, the alkali metals comprise the group 1 elements,[note 4] excluding hydrogen (H), which is nominally a group 1 element[4][12] but not normally considered to be an alkali metal[13][14] as it rarely exhibits behaviour comparable to that of the alkali metals.[15] All the alkali metals react with water, with the heavier alkali metals reacting more vigorously than the lighter ones.[6][16]

group 8

is a group of chemical element in the periodic table. It consists of iron (Fe), ruthenium (Ru), osmium (Os) and hassium (Hs). They are all transition metals. Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in electron configuration, especially in the outermost shells, resulting in trends in chemical behavior. "Group 8" is the modern IUPAC name for this group; the old style name was group VIIIB in the CAS, US system or group VIIIA in the old IUPAC, European system. Group 8 should not be confused with the old-style group name of VIIIA by CAS/US naming. That group is now called group 18. Group 8 Z Element No. of electrons/shell 26 iron 2, 8, 14, 2 44 ruthenium 2, 8, 18, 15, 1 76 osmium 2, 8, 18, 32, 14, 2 108 hassium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 14, 2 Hassium has not been isolated in pure form, and its properties have not been conclusively observed; only iron, ruthenium, and osmium have had their properties experimentally confirmed. All three elements are typical silvery-white transition metals, hard, and have high melting and boiling points.

group 9

numbered by IUPAC nomenclature, is a group of chemical element in the periodic table. Members are cobalt (Co), rhodium (Rh), iridium (Ir) and meitnerium (Mt). These are all transition metals in the d-block. All known isotopes of meitnerium are radioactive with short half-lives, and it is not known to occur in nature; only minute quantities have been synthesized in laboratories. Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in electron configuration, especially in the outermost shells, resulting in trends in chemical behavior; however, rhodium deviates from the pattern.

group 7

numbered by IUPAC nomenclature, is a group of elements in the periodic table. They are manganese (Mn), technetium (Tc), rhenium (Re), and bohrium (Bh). All known elements of group 7 are transition metals. Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in their electron configurations, especially the outermost shells resulting in trends in chemical behavior. Z Element No. of electrons/shell 25 manganese 2, 8, 13, 2 43 technetium 2, 8, 18, 13, 2 75 rhenium 2, 8, 18, 32, 13, 2 107 bohrium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 13, 2 Bohrium has not been isolated in pure form, and its properties have not been conclusively observed; only manganese, technetium, and rhenium have had their properties experimentally confirmed. All three elements are typical silvery-white transition metals, hard, and have high melting and boiling points.

group 11

numbered by IUPAC style, is a group of chemical element in the periodic table, consisting of copper (Cu), silver (Ag), and gold (Au). Roentgenium (Rg) belongs to this group of elements based on its theoretical electronic configuration, but it is a short-lived transactinide with a half-life of 26 seconds that has been observed only in laboratory conditions. Although at various times societies have used other metals in coinage including aluminium, lead, nickel, stainless steel, tin, and zinc, the name coinage metals is used to highlight the special physio-chemical properties that make this series of metals uniquely well suited for monetary purposes. These properties include ease of identification, resistance to tarnish, extreme difficulty in counterfeiting, durability, fungibility and a reliable store of value unmatched by any other metals known. Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in electron configuration, especially in the outermost shells, resulting in trends in chemical behavior, although roentgenium is probably an exception: Z Element No. of electrons/shell 29 copper 2, 8, 18, 1 47 silver 2, 8, 18, 18, 1 79 gold 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 1 111 roentgenium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 17, 2 All Group 11 elements are relatively inert, corrosion-resistant metals. Copper and gold are colored. These elements have low electrical resistivity so they are used for wiring. Copper is the cheapest and most widely used. Bond wires for integrated circuits are usually gold. Silver and silver plated copper wiring are found in some special applications.

group 10

numbered by current IUPAC style, is a group of chemical elements in the periodic table, which consists of nickel (Ni), palladium(Pd), platinum(Pt), and darmstadtium(Ds). All are d-block transition metals. All known isotopes of Ds are radioactive with short half-lives, and are not known to occur in nature; only minute quantities have been synthesized in laboratories. Like other groups, the members of this group show patterns in electron configuration, especially in the outermost shells, although for this group they are particularly weak, with palladium being an exceptional case. The relativistic stabilization of the 7s orbital is the explanation to the predicted electron configuration of darmstadtium, which, unusually for this group, conforms to that predicted by the Aufbau principle. Z Element No. of electrons per shell 28 nickel 2, 8, 17, 1 46 palladium 2, 8, 18, 18 78 platinum 2, 8, 18, 32, 17, 1 110 darmstadtium 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 16, 2[1]