PAR final

what are the four noble truths

1. All of existence is suffering (duhka) 2. The cause of dukha is desire (tanha) 3. To end suffering, eliminate desire 4. To end desire, follow the Eightfold Path

Which of the following refers to the buddha worshipped by those who hope to be reborn in his Pure Land -- a paradise in which one's lifespan is extended indefinitely and one is surrounded by loved ones?

Amitabha

Which of the following is NOT one of the Four Noble Truths

Some people suffer in their lives

What does it mean to call the younger generation in Japan a "chopstickless culture"? What do chopsticks symbolize?

The phrase "chopstickless culture" refers to the younger generation's preference for Western fast food, eaten with one's hands, rather than using chopsticks, which encourage communal dining around a common meal, family unity and sharing, as well as a healthy diet. By contrast, "chopstickless" eating is portrayed as individualized, fast-pased, and unhealthy.

What type of community did Mahavira establish?

a fourfold community of monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen

From the establishment of Shinto as the state religion in the 18th century up until the dissolution of State Shinto at the end of World War II, the emperor was understood to be which of the following?

a kami

What does the term "darsan" ("darshan") refer to

all of the above: being in the presence of a teacher being in the presence of a god being in direct contact

The Khalsa was established by Guru Nanak

false

n the United States since 9/11, what has been a formidable challenge for Sikhs

having their identity mistaken

The "Middle Way" describes a path of moderation between what?

self indulgence and self denial

What is the purpose of a koan in the Zen tradition?

to frustrate the logical process of the mind

Which of the following is NOT a major theme of Philosophical Taoism

usefulness

What are the five objects of desire and attachment, according to the Buddhist tradition?

1) things (material objects/wealth); 2) sensations; 3) ideas/opinions/thoughts; 4) traditions/habits/lifestyles; and self/ego/I. The Buddhist tradition claims that if one can deliberately and progressively lessen one's desires and attachments to these things/qualities, one will find that suffering lessens as well.

What are the Five Precepts (panca-sila) of ethical practice in the Buddhist tradition?

1. I resolve to avoid harming sentient beings 2. I resolve to avoid taking that which is not freely given 3. I resolve to avoid sexual misconduct 4. I resolve to avoid harmful speech 5. I resolve to avoid intoxicants

What are the four notions of guruship?

1. The eternal guru (the Eternal One / Akal Purakh) 2. The personal guru (Nanak and other teachers) 3. Guru-Granth (the Adi Granth) 4. Guru-Panth (the Sikh community)

What are the four purusarthas (aims, wants, or preoccupations) that are legitimate as long as they are pursued morally?

1. kama - pleasant physical sensations 2. artha - acquisitiveness, the desire for material wealth 3. dharma - service, moral responsibility 4. moksa - liberation, the impulse to overcome embodiment

What is the relationship between nam ("divine Name") and shabad ("divine Word") and guru ("divine Teacher")? In other words, how do they together bring about divine revelation?

Akal Purakh (the Eternal One) reveals himself through the guru by uttering the shabad to those who are able to hear it, and once heard, it awakens the listener to the reality of the divine Name immanent in all that lies around and within him/her

Which of the following refers to the sun goddess, who is associated with Japan, which in Japanese is referred to as the "Land of the Rising Sun"?

Amaterasu

Explain the Jain concept of anekantavata (literally, "not one-sided"). Does it mean that Jainism espouses relativism

Anekantavata means that all human truths are context-bound, and intolerance is the product of confusing partiality with truth. Jains are not relativists, insofar as they affirm the existence and attainability of Truth, but they believe that for those who have not yet reached enlightenment, no one can claim more than partial understanding

n what ways did Taoists oppose or criticize the values and goals of Confucians

Correct Laozi's ideal society was one without formal education, government institutions, or record-keeping -- one in which people were content with simple huts and plain clothes. Zhuangzi espoused the hermetic or reclusive lifestyle as opposed to one of government service or Confucian norms. Taoists also criticized Confucians for only emphasizing the harmonizing of human relationships, instead of harmonizing the self with the entire universe, especially the natural world. Taoists also promoted the value of spontaneity, patterning one's life on nature's self-unfolding (instead of ritual); in fact, Zhuangzi advocated abandoning li (ritual) altogether

What are two characteristics that one finds when sacred and profane spaces are distinguished?

First, boundaries are emphasized with physical or symbolic markers, and second, ritual acts of purification are required to prevent pollution of sacred spaces. For example, entrance into Shinto shrines are marked with torii gates (such as those shown here), and visitors are required to wash their hands and rinse out their mouths at the entrance to the shrine.

In what sense can Japan be understood as a "divine land"?

In the sense that its rivers, mountains, springs, and harvests are sacred (kami), Japan can be understood as a divine land. In the Shinto tradition, kami are immanent, present, and resident -- they are inextricably connected with Japan, not only in the mythical past, but in the present insofar as the past is perennially re-created with Amaterasu's daily greeting of the sun.

What are the thematic elements of haiku?

It has a meditative function, inviting the reader to contemplate each line; it emphasizes the ephemeral or fleeting in nature; it evokes mood but is anti-subjective; it suggests feeling but is anti-romanticist, and it emphasizes unity with concrete things.

What is the abiding principle of the "way of tea" (chanoyu), the art of flower arranging (ikebana), and other Zen-inspired practices?

It is doing simple things with deep concentration. Zen masters refer to it as the "mastery of the obvious" - carying out simple tasks consciously, attentively, with awareness.

What were some of the reasons that Japanese people were drawn to new religions in the postwar period?

It provides a sense of belonging and of higher purpose, it offers a solution to modern problems of social alienation, loneliness, urbanization and breakdown of family, it entails a belief in the basic goodness and purity of one's own heart, it emphasizes dependence on benevolent buddhas and kami, it emphasizes the spirit of resilience and perseverence, and it embraces compassion, charity and giving through volunteer efforts in disaster areas or on behalf of the elderly and indigent.

Why was the 1947 partition of India and Pakistan particularly hard for Sikhs?

It split the Punjab region into two, and most of the 2.5 million Sikhs living on the Pakistani side fled as refugees.

What is the relationship between jiva (soul), pudgala (pure matter), and karma?

Jiva (soul) is an eternal substance with consciousness, while pudgala is a type of ajiva (substance without consciousness). Pudgala is a concrete substance with attributes of touch, taste, smell, and color; in its most subtle form, it is the basis of all matter and energy. All activities of mind and body are considered pudgala. Pudgala is not opposed to jiva, though pudgala tends to attach to forms of matter and jiva. The fact that jiva and ajiva (including pudgala) are thoroughly enmeshed is what prevents the soul from achieving bliss. Every activity of mind and body causes vibrations that create sticky, binding karma to the jiva (soul). The karma can be either auspicious or good (punya) or inauspicious and bad (paap). By limiting the inflow of karma and cleansing the soul of karmic particles, Jains seek to eliminate the cause of the soul's suffering.

What do Jains celebrate during the festival of Divali?

Mahavira's liberation

What do Jains value most highly? (In other words, what is the central value of the Jain tradition?)

Non-violence, which is expressed in the words "non-violence is the supreme path." Jain commitment to non-violence entails renunciation -- ideally totally stopping activities of mind, speech, and body so as to avoid harming others and oneself. They argue that we are surrounded by countless life forms that possess an eternal soul (jiva), and we cannot perform any action without harming them, and thereby harming ourselves because our negative karma sticks to our souls and prevents us from knowing our true selves.

This festival is considered the most important festival in the Jain tradition, and it celebrates householders and renunciants "abiding together" during the summer rainy season, when renunciants are forbidden to travel to avoid causing unnecessary violence to sentient beings brought to life by the rains

Paryushana / Daslakshana

Which of the following is the most celebrated festival of the Chinese lunar calendar

Spring Festival, or New Year's Festival

Buddhists do not believe in a "self" or atman -- a permanent, unchanging center of the ego. How do they then explain one's sense of having a personal identity? (In other words, what constitutes personal identity, according to the Buddhist tradition?)

The Buddha describes five skandhas or aggregates of personal identity: the body, perceptions, emotions, karmic dispositions ("unconscious motivations") and consciousness. The mutual interaction of these components gives the (false) sense of having a permanent self, when in fact, they change over the course of time

Which of the following explains why some Chinese are reluctant to define Confucianism as a religion

The Chinese term for religion implies a school of instruction or institution

The Bhagavad Gita is a chapter of a much longer Hindu epic entitled what

The Mahabharata

What are the differences between Digambaras and Svetambaras?

The Svetambara ("white clad") were a northern group that began wearing a white robe, that permitted women to join their group and offered them full initiation. The Digambara ("sky-clad", or naked) were a southern group who upheld Mahavira's principle of nudity, disqualified women from taking vows of renunciation, and argued that rebirth in a male body was a prerequisite for full renunciation. The groups also differed in their opinion of whether the Jina's omniscience allowed him to transcend bodily functions: the Digambaras argued he had no need for sleep or food, and that he communicated by emitting a divine, supernatural sound, while the Svetambaras believed he ate, slept, and communicated in the regular way (i.e. through speech)

What are the five evil impulses rooted in self-centeredness (haumai)?

The five evil impulses are: lust, anger, covetousness, attachment to worldly things, and pride. They cause a person to be so attached to worldly pleasures that they forget the divine Name

What are the four stages of life in Hindu tradition

The four stages of life are: the student phase (of learning), the householder phase (of creating a family), the forest-dweller or retiree phase (of study and contemplation, traditionally in a forest), and the wandering ascetic or renunciation phase (of making pilgrimages and engaging in spiritual self-cultivation

List some of the parallel characewteristics between Brahman and God

These include incorporeality (transcending a single form), ineffability (being inexpressible in words), unity, eternity (transcending all cosmic cycles), immutability (being perfect and indestructible), omnipotence, omniscience, and goodness

Why is practice so important in the Jain tradition, and what are some examples of such practices (for renunciants, and for laypeople)?

Unlike Buddhists and Hindus, who focus on changing one's consciousness to attain liberation, Jains believe that problems leading to suffering are not only mental but also physical. Good intentions are not enough, one must also engage in practice, such as ascetic discipline, dietary restrictions, fasting, samayika (state of equanimity), pratikramana (repentance of sins), sallekhana (fast to death), etc. The main difference between the practice of householders and renunciants is that the latter profess a series of vows (mahavratas). Householders attempt to limit their negative karma through fasting, limiting their possessions, etc.

Which of the following is a material symbol of Shinto?

a mirror

Which of the following is NOT one of the traditional "six possessions" of a Buddhist monk or nun?

a pair of shoes

What does the term gurdwara refer to?

a sikh place of worship

Which of the following does NOT describe an anthropological approach to the study of religion

accounting for differences between religious traditions by identifying one as right and the other as wrong

Which of the following is NOT identified with yin

aggression

What are the five "great vows" (mahavratas) of Jain ascetics?

ahimsa (non-harm) satya (truthfulness) asteya (not stealing) brahmacharya (celibacy) aparigraha (non-possession/non-attachment)

Why is it problematic to search for the historical Buddha as scholars of Religious Studies have searched for the historical Jesus?

all of the above: because the textual sources about the Buddha appeared 400-500 years after his death because there is no possibility of externally corroborating Buddhist sources about the Buddha the factuality of particular events in the Buddha's life is less important than their symbolic or mythological significance

Which of the following explains why some Western scholars deny that Confucianism is a religion

all of the above: Confucianism does not profess belief in God Confucianism emphasizes orthopraxy (correct practice) over orthodoxy (correct belief) Confucianism has no specific institutional identity - there is no headquarters or governing body of Confucianism

Which of the following is an example of "Engaged Buddhism"?

all of the above: Political protests against the government in Burma and Cambodia Tibetan monks immolating themselves since 2010 The construction of hospitals and orphanages across Asia

Why did Confucius think that restoring ritual would alleviate problems such as social unrest and starvation during the Warring States period

all of the above: because ritual can distract people's attention away from their problems because ritual can transform people because ritual can prompt spirits to intervene and save the world

Which of the following is an "alchemical" practice

all of the above: consuming certain herbs and minerals circulating and enhancing one's qi energy ritual sexual intercourse

What does "studying religion" entail

all of the above: description of institutions description of practices description of beliefs

Although it has been criticized for absolving larger society from the need or responsibility to address conditions of poverty, care for those in need, etc., the doctrine of karma still remains fundamental to Hindu and Buddhist self-understanding. Why?

all of the above: it affirms self-transformation it reinforces moral responsibility it has been a principle of moral cause and effect for centuries in India

Which of the following reflects Jain belief about the Namokara Mantra (that begins, "I bow to the arhats, I bow to the siddhas...")?

all of the above: it can bring good merit or karma it can make one detached it can give protection

Why do Confucians think it is important to recognize, develop, and cultivate human relationships

all of the above: it enables people to create a better world it enables people to realize their potential as human beings it is an expression of ren (which can be translated "co-humanity," "kindness," "benevolence" or "humaneness")

What is the significance of the Mul Mantar ("Seed Formula") "There is One Supreme Being, the Eternal Reality, the Creator, without fear and devoid of enmity, immortal, never incarnated, self-existent, known by grace through the Guru. The Eternal One, from the beginning, through all time, present now, the Everlasting Reality"?

all of the above: it is repeated by Sikhs in their morning devotions it conveys Nanak's vision of the singularity of the divine it is the first words of the Adi Granth

For what reason is it problematic to define "religion" as "belief in God or gods" (i.e. supernaturalism)

all of the above: it overlooks the importance of ethics or ritual the emphasis on "belief" reflects a Christian bias some religions deny the existence of gods altogether

Which of the following describes the significance of the Sanskrit sound "om"

all of the above: it replicates the sounds of the god, it replicates the sounds of the cosmos, it includes all of the sounds that the voice can produce

Why was fengshui, the art of "wind and water," or a traditional form of ecological architecture, criticized by Western missionaries and modernizers in the nineteenth century

all of the above: it was considered irrational and superstitious it stood in the way of progress and industrialization since it opposed the construction of tunnels, straight line train tracks, etc. it saw nature as a force to be harnessed rather than conquered

Which of the following reasons explains why Taoism is considered a viable religious practice worldwide

all of the above: its holistic approach to the physical and emotional parts of human identity its emphasis on naturalism and ecological harmony its emphasis on non-invasive medicine

Which of the following conveys the meaning of the Taoist ideal of becoming the "Uncarved Block" - a natural object in its original state, before it had been cut, whittled, shaped, or molded by outside forces

all of the above: not having thoughts or calculations not having notions of good and evil not having desires

Yoga means "yoke." One uses a yoke to tame an animal and channel its energy. What does one seek to tame in the practice of yoga

all of the above: one's body one's thoughts one's desires and motivations

Which of the following is associated with Krishna

all of the above: parental love romantic love playfulness

Taoist practices -- such as regulating sleep by sunshin, massage, hiking, breathing fresh air, praying to gods of health and longevity, tea drinking, deep breathing, and time spent in quiet -- promote what type of well-being

all of the above: physical psychological spiritual

Which of the following are practices that Buddhist monks and nuns are encouraged to do, to aid in their practice of celibacy?

all of the above: shave their heads wear loose-fitting clothes regard the body as a "sack of blood and pus"

Which of the following is a type of ritual one might perform for one's ancestors

all of the above: spending three years in mourning of the death of a parent burning incense and paper money as offerings to one's ancestors sweeping one's ancestors' graves during Pure Brightness festival (Qingming)

What does the word samsara describe

all of the above: the cycle of an individual's rebirths the cycle of the universe's rebirths our world of everyday experience fueled by karma

Why did the Sikhs attract the unfavorable attention of the Mughal authorities?

all of the above: the growth of Sikhism the martial element of Sikh cultural traditions the Sikh pursuit of a just society

Which of the following is part of the aspect of the self called prakrti

all of the above: the physical body conscious thoughts unconscious motivations and desires

Why is it that three quarters of Japanese people identify themselves as "non-religious" but typically participate in local religious festivals, make regular offerings to shrine kami and register their households at prestigious Buddhist temples?

all of the above: they see "religion" as exclusive they do not see these as "religious" activities they perceive those who identify themselves as "religious" to be "troubled" or "strange"

Which of the following is considered the holiest of all places for Sikh

amritsar

What are omamori that one finds at Shinto shrines?

amulets or charms

Which of the following terms does McCutcheon equate with the academic study of religion

anthropological

Why would it be mistaken to characterize Buddhism as negative or pessamistic

because there is a way to end suffering

How did the majority of Supreme Court justices interpret the First Amendment in the 1963 landmark case in which a non-religious family sued the public school board for its school's daily opening exercises in which Christian prayer was recited over the school's public address system

education is incomplete without the study of comparative religion or the history of religion

Which of the following is NOT one of the three prohibitions for Khalsa members (in addition to the five Ks)?

engaging in yoga

All Buddhists are vegetarian

false

China is primary an oral/aural culture, based on its phonetic writing system

false

Confucianism has always been highly valued in China

false

Confucians believe that one's nature is more important than how one is nurtured

false

In the Zen tradition, enlightenment is a one-time, life-ending event.

false

Renunciation has become an important aspect of Jain religious identity in the Diaspora (i.e. outside of India)

false

The Eightfold Path describes a sequence of steps that one takes on the Buddhist path to enlightenment.

false

The Hindu tradition is polytheistic, meaning there is a belief in and worship of more than one god

false

The academic study of religion involves making normative judgments

false

The hierarchy of the "five lasting relationships" - parent & child, husband & wife, siblings or friends, teacher & student, and ruler & subject -- demands strict obedience from those in lower positions

false

The majority of Indians can speak Sanskrit

false

Within Chinese religion Taoism is yang-oriented and Confucianism is yin-oriented

false

As Chinese people have become disillusioned with communism and equally distrustful of Western individualism, what do they see as the principle source of personal value

family

Which of the following has NOT contributed to the spread of Hinduism in America and Europe

hindu nationalism

Which of the following describes the distinction between hun souls ("cloud souls") and po souls ("white souls")

hun souls disspiate into heaven and into the next rebirth, while po souls stick with the bones and remain with the corpse

"Confucianism," "Taoism," and "Buddhism" are terms that do which of the following

innacurately capture everyday religious belief and practice in China

Which of the following illustrates the importance of Confucian values in contemporary Chinese society

intense nationalism expressed in traditional Confucian terms

What is the Sikh understanding of karam (karma)?

it is a principle of morality that can be overriden by divine grace

Traditional Chinese cosmogyny describes the beginning of time as "chaos", from which there emerged qi (vapor, steam, breath, as well as energy, strength, and vitality). As the qi rose out of the chaotic sea, it separated into two forces: yin and yang. The oscillation of yin and yang created the Way, Path, or Dao of the universe. In what way is the dualism of yin and yang different from the dualities that appear in the cosmogyny of Abrahamic traditions

it is complementary rather than conflicting

What do Hindu nationalists claim about Hindutva (Hindu "essence")

it is the essence of indian identity

Which of the following bodhisattvas plays a prominent role in rituals to "water babies" (mizuko) -- aborted or miscarried fetuses -- and also protects other children who have died prematurely?

jizo

What are the five physical symbols mandatory for Khalsa members following the rahit (discipline / codes of conduct)?

kes (uncut hair, symbolizing spirituality) kangha (a wooden comb, signifying order and discipline in life) kirpan (a miniature sword, symbolizing divine grace, dignity, and courage) kara (a steel wrist-ring, signifying responsibility and allegience to the guru) kachh (a pair of short breeches, symbolizing moral restraint)

Which of the following is a central part of Sikh congregational worship?

kirtan

Which of the following castes is responsible for maintaining social order

ksatriya

Which of the following refers to the annual or semi-annual festivals that feature public performances of song and dance, displays of local handicrafts, and religious processions involving the whole community, symbolizing the protection of the community by local kami?

matsuri

What is the central practice in the Zen (Chan) tradition of Buddhism?

meditation

Which of the following goals of life is NOT one of the trivarga (goals associated with this world)

moksa

What are the four kinds of kami in Shinto?

mythological creators exceptional persons extraordinary things natural objects and implements Response Feedback: [None Given]

About how long does it take for Sikhs to recite morning prayers

one hour

What is the nature of the soul, according to the Jain tradition?

peace

Some contemporary Confucians emphasize "human flourishing" as a central goal of life. Which of the following describes "human flourishing"

perceiving perfection as possible through individual effort

Which of the following terms refers to the ritual death achieved at the end of a long fast?

sallekhana

Which Hindu god has the capacity to hold opposite characteristics within one form

shiva

What does the term panth refer to?

sikh community

Which of the following terms best describes Buddhist monastic life?

simple

What does haiku traditionally describe?

temporary scenes of nature

What did the Buddha learn from the Four Passing Sights?

that there is a way out of suffering

Which of the following describes purusa

that which takes on new forms as the result of karmic energy

Which of the following factors account for the fact that no large Jain monasteries were ever established?

the close relationship between renunciants and householders

How do Shinto notions of "sacred time" compare to those of Abrahamic traditions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam)?

the former is cyclical, the latter is linear

How do the Five Precepts in Buddhism differ from the Ten Commandments in Christianity?

the former portrays things as black and white, while the latter suggests a gray area between success and failure

Krishna instructs Arjuna that all action is to be performed without attachment to which of the following

the fruits of the action

Which of the following is NOT one of the three dimensions of religious Taoism, which uses yin-yang cosmology as its organizing principle

the moral

Which of the following describes a Confucian understanding of the self

the self in relation to the world or social existence

What are the most important kami of the home?

the souls of deceased family members

Which of the following is a Confucian value or behavior

the veneration of ancestors

What does the term "cosmology" refer to

theories of the structure of the universe

In which of the following Buddhist traditions are women only permitted to take lay vows, because the order of nuns died out centuries ago?

theravada

Which of the following traditions refers to the "school of the elders," whose texts were composed in Pali, and is found primarily in Southeast Asia (Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam)?

theravada

According to Chinese "Elemental" Theory, how do the "five phases" (wuxing) -- fire, earth, metal, water, and wood -- produce "the ten thousand things"

through their interaction

"Taoism" (or "Daoism") is not a term used by Chinese to describe their religion. Very rarely do people identify themselves as "Taoist"

true

A single overarching goal of Taoism through the centuries is long life and immortality

true

According to the religion scholar Mircea Eliade, "sacred time" and "sacred space" is distinct from ordinary time and space because they create experiences that seem to suspend, contract, or expand our time-space perceptions

true

In the West lay Buddhists focus on meditation, while in Asia lay Buddhists focus on worship and making offerings.

true

Self-cultivation and human flourishing are accessible to anyone, regardless of social class

true

Shinto is a polytheistic and animistic religion.

true

Sikhism is the youngest of India's indigenous religions.

true

The term "Hinduism" is problematic because it suggests a false unity -- it masks the diversity of Hindu institutions, languages, beliefs, practices and worldviews

true

There is no equivalent term to "religion" in language families unrelated to Latin

true

There is no ordained priesthood in the Sikh tradition.

true

Which of the following terms refers to the notion of "skillful means" that bodhisattvas use to ease the suffering of sentient beings?

upaya

Why does the Vinaya (the Monastic Code) contain rules such as "wash your bowl without splashing or scraping" and "do not make noise with your mouth when eating" in addition to rules about celibacy, not stealing, and not killing?

when internalized, they allow monastics to focus on spiritual matters

Which of the following reflects Guru Nanak's stance towards women?

women give birth to every human being

Which of the following statements describes the relationship between yin and yang

yin and yang complement one another

Which of the following is NOT a persuasive explanation why communitarianism, which emphasizes an individual's connection to his or her community, remains strong in China

Chinese people tend to conform in group situations

What did Guru Nanak declare immediately following his mystical experience?

There is no Hindu, there is no Muslim

Which of the following English terms best describes what karma in itself means

action

What are key components of Sikh ethics? (In other words, what do Sikhs consider important for leading a righteous or ethical life?)

Service (seva) to others, which should be voluntary and free of judgment, justice (respecting the rights of others and not exploiting others), and defending human rights (trying to eliminate poverty and help those in need)

The Adi Granth largely consists of what?

devotional hymns

Which of the following practices of "remembering the divine Name" (nam-simaran) is public?

devotional singing of hymns

According to Nadeau, what is one of the consequences of globalization

more people forming an eclectic religious identity

Where does one typically find Shinto shrines?

on the outskirts of a community

Which of the following adjectives would best characterize Zhuangzi

reclusive

What did Clifford Geertz mean when he said that "religion is a model of and a model for reality"

religion describes the world and also instructs us how to transform the world

What does "religious pluralism" refer to

seeking to understand different religious traditions

Which of the following does NOT accurately characterize the Jain view of Mahavira (ca. 599-527 BCE)?

the founder of the jain tradition

What is the symbolism of the sharing of the langar, which is a vegetarian meal usually consisting of flat bread, bean stew, and curry?

the oneness and equality of humankind

Which of the following is NOT one of the three margas ("paths")

the path of renunciation