Period 3 (1754-1800): Colonial Society in 18th Century

Proclamation of 1763

After Pontiac's Rebellion, the British Parliament created the Proclamation Line of 1763. Forbade colonists from moving across the Appalachian Mountains. Colonists were mad because this limited their ability to gain new land Colonists were mad that this decision was made by Parliament & not in colonial assemblies. The French & Indian War brought an end to salutary neglect & began parliamentary sovereignty. English officials assumed that Parliament must have ultimate authority over ALL laws & taxes. The British began governing their colonies more strictly As Britain assumed more control, The end of salutary neglect. New taxes & laws were passed without asking colonial assembliesthe colonists tried . to hang onto the power of their . colonial assemblies . This shift would prove to be the beginning of the long road towards colonial independence

Jefferson's hand-picked successor, James Madison, won the presidency in 1808 & 1812 Madison was well-qualified: He was the architect of the Constitution, served in Congress, & served as Jefferson's Secretary of State

As president, Madison tried to continue Jefferson's policies of limited national government Madison continued the dominance of the Democratic-Republican Party & tried to continue Jefferson's policies of limited national government But, the war between England & France continued to cause America problems England and France continued to violate American free trade The British navy continued to "impress" American merchants Many Congressmen called "War Hawks" demanded war with Britain to defend U.S. honor "Free Trade and Sailors' Rights" was a popular battle cry

Population Growth

At the start of the new century, in 1701, the English cofonies on the Atlantic Coast had a population of barely 250,000 Europeans and Africans.By 1775, the figure had jumped to 2,500,000, a tenfold increase within the span of a single lifetime. Among African Americans, the population increase was even more dramatic: from about 28,000 in 1701 to 500,000 in 1775. The spectacular gains in population during this period resulted from two factors: immigration of almost a million people and a sharp natural increase, caused chiefly by a high birthrate among colonial families. An abundance of fertile American land and a dependable food supply attracted thousands of European settlers each year and also supported the raising of large families.

Education

Basic education was limited and varied among the colonies. Formal efforts were directed to males since females were trained only for household work. Elementary Education In New England, the Puritans' emphasis on learninging the Bible led them to create the first tax-supported schools. A Massachusetts law in 1647 required towns with more than fifty families to establish primary schools for boys, and towns with more than a hundred families to establish grammar schools to prepare boys for college. In the middle colonies, schools were either church-sponsored or private. Often, teachers lived with the families of their students. In the southern colonies, parents gave their children whatever education they could. On plantations, tutors provided instruction for the owners' children. Higher Education The first colonial colleges were sectarian, meaning that they promoted the doctrines of a particular religious group. The Puritans founded Harvard in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1636 in order to give candidates for the ministry a proper theological and scholarly education. The Anglicans opened William and Mary in Virginia in 1694, and the Congregation alists started Yale in Connecticut in 1701. The Great Awakening prompted the creation of five new colleges between 1746 and 1769: • College of New Jersey (Princeton), 1746, Presbyterian • King's College (Columbia), 1754, Anglican • Rhode Island College (Brown), 1764, Baptist • Queens College (Rutgers), 1766, Reformed • Dartmouth College, 1769, Congregationalist Only one nonsectarian college was founded during this period. The College of Philadelphia, which later became the University of Pennsylvania, had no religious sponsors. On hand for the opening ceremonies in 1765 were the college's civic-minded founders, chief among them Benjamin Franklin . Ministry During the 17th century, the Christian ministry was the only profession to enjoy widespread respect among the common people. Ministers were often the only well-educated person in a small community. Physicians Colonists who fell prey to epidemics of smallpox and diphtheria were often treated by "cures" that only made them worse. One common practice was to bleed the sick, often by employing leeches or bloodsuckers. A beginning doctor received little formal medical training other than acting as an apprentice to an experienced physician. The first medical college in the colonies was begun in 1765 as part of Franklin's idea for the College of Philadelphia.

By 1750, Britain & France had become serious rivals because:

Both nations used mercantilism to expand their colonial claims in order to increase their wealth Britain & France went to war 3 times in Europe from 1690-1750. These wars in Europe meant that their colonists would fight too. During the 1700s, both the British & French colonies were growing. Land disputes along the Ohio River Valley led to the French & Indian War The growth of the British & French colonies impacted Indians too: The French increased their alliances with Native Americans along the Ohio River Valley. The spread of British colonists into the backcountry & across the Appalachian Mountains led to numerous Indian conflicts. Indians grew increasingly concerned about British colonists filling into the backcountry In 1754, colonists from across the British colonies met at the Albany Congress to discuss the common problem of Indian attacks. Benjamin Franklin proposed the Albany Plan of Union for a coordinated colonial army. The plan was not approved. The colonists lacked the unity to solve a common problem. In 1754, VA governor sent 22 year old George Washington to protect an Ohio Company claim. Washington's troops were forced to retreat from Fort Duquesne; This clash proved to be the beginning of the French & Indian War

All British colonies were governed with a policy called Salutary Neglect

British Parliament & the king controlled the colonies, but did not enforce its policies as long as Britain profited from the colonies Almost all the colonies had a royal governor, but their salaries were paid by the colonists so governors rarely overturned local laws This loose control allowed the colonists to create their own colonial assemblies Colonial assemblies were democratic self-governments made up of colonists who passed their own laws & taxes Typically, colonial assemblies were controlled by the wealthy landowners Two Examples of Colonial Government: The Virginia House of Burgesses Massachusetts Town Meetings The American colonies were an important part of the trans-Atlantic trade network. The colonies produced profitable raw materials, such as tobacco, wheat, fish, indigo, & whale oil. Britain sold manufactured goods back to the colonists, like clothing, tea, guns, & tableware Increased demand for colonial raw materials, increased the demand for African slaves. This network created a series of triangular trades among America, Europe, & Africa By the 1650s, Britain began to embrace the economic policy of mercantilism based on the idea that the colonies exist to generate wealth for the mother country Mercantilism is based on the idea of a balance of trade in which a nation exports more than it imports

The Economy

By the 1760s, almost half of Britain's world trade was with its American colo nies. The British government permitted limited kinds of colonial manufacturing, such as making flour or rum. It restricted efforts that would compete with Eng lish industries, such as textiles. The richness of the American land and British mercantile policy produced colonies almost entirely engaged in agriculture. As the people prospered and communities grew, increasing numbers be came ministers, lawyers, doctors, and teachers. The quickest route to wealth was through the land, although regional geography often provided distinct op portunities for hardworking colonists. New England With rocky soil and long winters, farming was limited to subsistence levels that provided just enough for the farm family. Most farms were small-under 100 acres-and most work was done by family members and an occasional hired laborer. The industrious descendants of the Puritans profited from logging, shipbuilding, fishing, trading, and rum-distilling. Middle Colonies Rich soil produced an abundance of wheat and com for export to Europe and the West Indies. Farms of up to 200 acres were common. Often, indentured servants and hired laborers worked with the farm family. A variety of small manufacturing efforts developed, including iron-making. Trad ing led to the growth of such cities as Philadelphia and New York. Southern Colonies Because of the diverse geography and climate of the southern colonies, agriculture varied greatly. Most people lived on small subsis tence family farms with no slaves. A few lived on large plantations of over 2,000 acres and relied on slave labor. Plantations were self-sufficient-they grew their own food and had their own slave craftworkers. Products were mainly tobacco in the Chesapeake and North Carolina colonies, timber and naval stores (tar and pitch) in the Carolinas, and rice and indigo in South Carolina and Georgia. Most plantations were located on rivers so they could ship exports directly to Europe.

Victory

Faced with a larger war, Britain decided to consolidate its forces in America. British troops were pulled out of Philadelphia, and New York became the chief base of British operations. In a campaign through 1778-1779, the Patriots, led by George Rogers Clark, captured a series of British forts in the Illinois country to gain control of parts of the vast Ohio territory. In 1780, the British army adopted a southern strategy, concentrating its military campaigns in Virginia and the Carolinas where Loyalists were especially numerous and active. Yorktown. In 1781, the last major battle of the Revolutionary War was fought near Yorktown, Virginia, on the shores of Chesapeake Bay. Strongly supported by French naval and military forces, Washington's army forced the surrender of a large British army commanded by General Charles Cornwallis. Treaty of Paris News of Cornwallis's defeat at Yorktown was a heavy blow to the Tory party in Parliament that was conducting the war. The war had become unpopular in Britain, partly because it placed a heavy strain on the economy and the government's finances. Lord North and other Tory ministers resigned and were replaced by Whig leaders who wanted to end the war. In Paris, in 1783, a treaty of peace was finally signed by the various belligerents. The Treaty of Paris provided for the following: (1) Britain would recognize the existence of the United States as an independent nation. (2) The Mississippi River would be the western boundary of that nation. (3) Americans would have fishing rights off the coast of Canada. (4) Americans would pay debts owed to British merchants and honor Loyalist claims for property confiscated during the War.

Philosophical Foundations of the American Revolution

For Americans, especially those who were in positions of leadership, there was a long tradition of loyalty to the king and Great Britain. As the differences between them grew, many Americans tried to justify this changing relationship. As discussed in Chapter 3, the Enlightenment, particularly the writings of John Locke, had a profound influence on the colonies. Enlightenment Ideas The era of the Enlightenment (see Chapter3) was at its peak in the mid-18th century-the very years that future leaders of the American Revolution (Washington, Jefferson, Franklin, and Adams) were coming to maturity. Many Enlightenment thinkers in Europe and America were Deists, who believed that God had established natural laws in creating the universe, but that the role of divine intervention in human affairs was minimal. They believed in rationalism and trusted human reason to solve the many problems of life and society, and emphasized reason, science, and respect for humanity. Their political philosophy, derived from Locke and developed further by the French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, had a profound influence on educated Americans in the 1760s and 1770s-the decades of revolutionary thought and action that finally culminated in the American Revolution. Did America's break with Great Britain in the 18th century signify a true revolution with radical change, or was it simply the culmination of evolutionary changes in American life? For many years, the traditional view of the founding of America was that a revolution based on the ideas of the Enlightenment had fundamentally altered society. During the 20th century, historians continued to debate whether American independence from Great Britain was revolutionary or evolutionary. At the start of the century, Progressive historians believed that the movement to end British dominance had provided an opportunity to radically change American society. A new nation was formed with a republican government based on federalism and stressing equality and the rights of the individual. The revolution was social as well as political. During the second half of the 20th century, a different interpretation argued that American society had been more democratic and changed long before the war with Great Britain. Historian Bernard Bailyn has suggested that the changes that are viewed as revolutionary-representative government, expansion of the right to vote, and written constitutionshad all developed earlier, during the colonial period. According to this perspective, what was revolutionary or significant about the break from Great Britain was the recognition of an American philosophy based on liberty and democracy that would guide the nation.

Immediate Effects of the War Britain's victory in the Seven Years' War

Immediate Effects of the War Britain's victory in the Seven Years' War gave them unchallenged supremacy in North America and also established them as the dominant naval power in the world. No longer did the American colonies face the threat of concerted attacks from the French, the Spanish, and their American Indian allies. More important to the colonies, though, was a change in how the British and the colonists viewed each other. The British View The British came away from the war with a low opinion of the colonial military abilities. They held the American militia in contempt as a poorly trained, disorderly rabble. Furthermore, they noted that some of the colonies had refused to contribute either troops or money to the war effort. Most British were convinced that the colonists were both unable and unwilling to defend the new frontiers of the vastly expanded British empire. The Colonial View The colonists took an opposite view of their military performance. They were proud of their record in all four wars and developed confidence that they could successfully provide for their own defense. They were not impressed with British troops or their leadership, whose methods of warfare seemed badly suited to the densely wooded terrain of eastern America.

In the early Antebellum era (1800-1840), the U.S. economy grew rapidly The South, North, and West each developed specialized regional economies that became connected into a national market economy

In 1793, Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin making cotton easy to refine and very profitable Cotton became the dominant cash crop of the Deep South (known as "King Cotton"). "King Cotton" had important effects on America. Cotton led to an increase in slavery in the Deep South Cotton led to an increase in western expansion.Only 25% of Southern whites owned any slaves; Those who did own slaves owned very few However, most slaves lived on large plantations Eli Whitney's development of interchangeable parts and new textile technologies led to an Industrial Revolution in the North. In the 1790s, Samuel Slater used British industrial designs to build the first American textile factories In the early 1800s textile mills spread across New England. The most famous textile mill in America was the Lowell Mill in Boston. The Lowell Mill used mechanized machines to mass-produce textiles. Lowell employed young women ("Lowell girls") from the country who lived in boarding houses

Intolerable Acts

In Great Britain, news of the Boston Tea Party angered the king, Lord North, and members of Parliament. In retaliation, the British government enacted a Series of punitive acts (the Coercive Acts), together with a separate act dealing with French Canada (the Quebec Act). The colonists were outraged by these various laws, which were given the epithet "Intolerable Acts." The Coercive Acts (1774) There were four Coercive Acts, directed mainly at punishing the people of Boston and Massachusetts and bringing the dissidents under control. 1. The Port Act closed the port of Boston, prohibiting trade in and out of the harbor until the destroyed tea was paid for. 2. The Massachusetts Government Act reduced the power of the Massachusetts legislature while increasing the power of the royal governor. 3. The Administration of Justice Act allowed royal officials accused of crimes to be tried in Great Britain instead of in the colonies. 4. A fourth law expanded the Quartering Act to enable British troops to be quartered in private homes. It applied to all colonies. Quebec Act (1774) When it passed the Coercive Acts, the British government also passed a law organizing the Canadian lands gained from France. This plan was accepted by most French Canadians, but it was resented by many in the 13 colonies. The Quebec Act established Roman Catholicism as the official religion of Quebec, set up a government without a representative assembly, and extended Quebec's boundary to the Ohio River. The colonists viewed the Quebec Act as a direct attack on the American colonies because it took away lands that they claimed along the Ohio River. They also feared that the British would attempt to enact similar laws in America to take away their representative government. The predominantly Protestant Americans also resented the recognition given to Catholicism.

Jonathan Edwards

In a Congregational church at Northampton , Massa chusetts, Reverend Jonathan Edwards expressed the Great Awakening ideas in a series of sermons, notably one called "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" (1741). Invoking the Old Testament scriptures, Edwards argued that God was rightfully angry with human sinfulness. Each individual who expressed deep penitence could be saved by God's grace, but the souls who paid no heed to God 's commandments would suffer eternal damnation.

Proclamation of 1763.

In an effort to stabilize the western frontier, the British government issued a proclamation that prohibited colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains. The British hoped that limiting settlements would prevent future hostilities between colonists and American Indians. But the colonists reacted to the proclamation with anger and defiance. After their victory in the Seven Years' War, colonists hoped to reap benefits in the form of access to western lands. For the British to deny such benefits was infuriating. Defying the prohibition, thousands streamed westward beyond the imaginary boundary line drawn by the British. (See map, page 76.) The Proclamation of 1763 was the first of a series of acts by the British government that angered colonists. From the British point of view, each act was justified as a proper method for protecting its colonial empire and making the colonies pay their share of costs for such protection. From the colonists' point of view, each act represented an alarming threat to their cherished liberties and long-established practice of representative government.

Established Churches

In the 17th century, most colonial governments taxed the people to support one particular Protestant denomination. Churches financed through the government are known as established churches. For example, in Vrrginia, the established church was the Church of England. In Massachusetts Bay it was the Congregational Church. As various immigrant groups increased the religious diversity of the colonies, governments gradually reduced their support of churches. In Virginia, all tax support for the Anglican Church ended shortly after the Revolution. In Massachusetts by the time of the Revolution, members of other denominations were exempt from supporting the Congregational Church. However, some direct tax support of the denomination remained until the 1830s.

The Enlightenment

In the 18th century, some educated Americans felt attracted to a European movement in literature and philosophy that is known as the Enlightenment. The leaders of this movement believed that the "darkness" of past ages could be corrected by the use of human reason in solving most of humanity 's problems. A major influence on the Enlightenment and on American thinking was the work of John Locke, a 17th-century English philosopher and political theorist. Locke, in his Two Treatises of Government, reasoned that while the state (the government) is supreme, it is bound to follow "natural laws" based on the rights that people have simply because they are human. He argued that sovereignty ultimately resides with the people rather than with the state. Furthermore, said Locke, citizens had a right and an obligation to revolt against whatever govern ment failed to protect their rights. Other Enlightenment philosophers adopted and expounded on Locke's ideas. His stress on natural rights would provide a rationale for the American Revolution and later for the basic principles of the U.S. Constitution.

Cultural Life and early concerns

In the early 1600s, the chief concern of most colonists was economic survival. People had neither the time nor the resources to pursue leisure activities or cre ate works of art and literature. One hundred years later, however, the colonial population had grown and matured enough that the arts could flourish, at least among the well-to-do southern planters and northern merchants.

During Jefferson's presidency, the U.S. population was growing and people were moving West

Jefferson was worried about French control of New Orleans and the Mississippi River Jefferson sent a delegation to France to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans Napoleon wanted to sell all French territories in America to fund his war In 1803, Congress approved the purchase of Louisiana from the French for $15 million The Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the USA Americans were excited about gaining new western lands, but the Louisiana Purchase presented problems Was the purchase constitutional? Despite his belief in strict interpretation, Jefferson used the elastic clause to buy it What about the French and Spaniards in New Orleans? Despite his belief in protecting liberty, Jefferson did not grant foreigners citizenship Americans were excited about gaining new western lands, but the Louisiana Purchase presented problems What did the USA buy? No one knew what resources exited in the Louisiana territory Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore the Louisiana Territory Their findings revealed an abundance of natural resources for America

The Navigation Acts

Mercantilism meant that Britain began to control & regulate colonial trade In 1660, Britain began the first of a series of Navigation Acts designed to restrict colonial trade & increase British wealth The Navigation Acts required the colonists to trade only with Britain English colonists typically made up the plantation owners in the nutrient-rich lands in the east Former English indentured servants, Irish, & German immigrants moved to the "backcountry" with poor soil, near Indians, & lived in poverty Slavery in the South was far more common than in the Northern colonies. 80-90% of Southern slaves were field workers, most on plantations Slaves came from a variety of places in West Africa & had a variety of languages & cultures. Slaves used music & dance to maintain their African culture. Slave families were common, but marriages were not recognized . Slave religion often blended African rituals with Christianity. Slaves resisted by running away, slowing down work,  or sabotaging equipment. In the Stono Rebellion 150 slaves attacked & killed over 20 whites The Northern economy was more diverse than the South Northern farms typically were small & grew multiple crops like wheat, corn, & livestock. In addition to farms, the Northern economy focused on lumber, shipbuilding, fishing, iron works. Northern cities like Boston, Philadelphia, & New York were important ports for international trade. Northern cities gave people more professional & trade opportunities than anywhere in the colonies Benjamin Franklin represented opportunity in America by rising to fame through his printing business, scientific inventions, & political writings. Slavery existed in Northern colonies where most slaves worked on small-scale farms or as domestic servants. Like in the South, English, Germans, & Irish immigrants lived in the backcountry as small-scale farmers By the 1700s, church attendance in the colonies had declined. In the 1730s & 1740s, the Great Awakening began as preachers used revivals to encourage religious conversions Preachers like Jonathan Edwards & George Whitefield were popular evangelists Preachers used "fire & passion" & camp revivals" to encourage people to examine their faith The Great Awakening led to a rise of new religious denominations like Methodists & Baptists The Great Awakening took place in all colonies & became the first national American event

James Monroe was overwhelmingly elected president in 1816 and 1820 Monroe's presidency began during an era of increased nationalism after the War of 1812 known as the "Era of Good Feelings" (1815-1825)

Monroe's goals as president were to promote national unity and America's place the world By 1816 the Federalists were so weak that the Democratic-Republicans could do almost anything Monroe and the Republicans in Congress used this time to promote American nationalism Monroe and the Republicans in Congress promoted nationalism & American unity in three ways: Government: Increase the power of the national gov't over the states John Marshall (1801-1835) used the Supreme Court to strengthen the power of the national government: Fletcher vs Peck Economy: Encourage industry and transportation to link the South, North, and West In 1816, Congressman Henry Clay proposed the American System to unify the economies of the North, South, and West Create a tariff to encourage industry and limit British manufactured goods Create a Second Bank of the United States Improve transportation with roads and canals The American System allowed the USA to create a national market economy for the first time Western farms grew grains and raised livestock that fed the nation Northern factories made manufactured goods that were sold throughout the country Southern cotton was used in northern textiles factories

Reorganization of the British Empire

More serious than the resentful feelings stirred by the war experience was the British government's shift in its colonial policies. Previously, Britain had exercised little direct control over the colonies and had generally allowed its navigation laws regulating colonial trade to go unenforced. This earlier policy of salutary neglect was abandoned as the British adopted more forceful policies for taking control of their expanded North American dominions. All four wars-and the last one in particular-had been extremely costly. In addition, Britain now felt the need to maintain a large British military force to guard its American frontiers. Among British landowners, pressure was building to reduce the heavy taxes that the colonial Wars had laid upon them. To pay for troops to guard the frontier without increasing taxes at home, King George III and the dominant political party in Parliament (the Whigs) wanted the American colonies to bear more of the cost of maintaining the British empire. 

European Immigrants

Newcomers to the British colonies came not only from England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, but also from other parts of Western and Central Europe. Many immigrants, most of whom were Protestants, came from France and Ger man-speaking kingdoms and principalities. Their motives for leaving Europe were many. Some came to escape religious persecution and wars. Others sought economic opportunity either by fanning new land or setting up shop in a colo nial town as an artisan or a merchant. Most immigrants settled in the middle colonies (Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, and Delaware) and on the western frontier of the southern colonies (Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia). Inthe 18th century, few immigrants headed for New England, where land was both limited in extent and under Puritan control. English Settlers from England continued to come to the American colo nies. However, with fewer problems at home, their numbers were relatively small compared to others, especially the Germans and Scotch-Irish. Germans This group of non-English immigrants settled chiefly on the rich farmlands west of Philadelphia, an area that became known as Pennsylvania Dutch country. They maintained their German language, customs, and religion (Lutheran, Amish, Brethren, Mennonite, or one of several smaller groups) and, while obeying colonial laws, showed little interest in English politics. By 1775, people of German stock comprised 6 percent of the colonial population. Scotch-Irish These English-speaking people emigrated from northern Ireland. Since their ancestors had moved to Ireland from Scotland, they were commonly known as the Scotch-Irish or Scots-Irish. They had little respect for the British government, which had pressured them into leaving Ireland. Most settled along the frontier in the western parts of Pennsylvania, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia. By 1775, they comprised 7 percent of the population. Other Europeans Other immigrant groups included French Protestants (called Huguenots), the Dutch, and the Swedes. These groups made up 5 per cent of the population of all the colonies in 1775.

The Press

News and ideas circulated in the colonies principally by means of a postal system and local printing presses. Newspapers In 1725, only five newspapers existed in the colonies, but by 1776 the number had grown to more than 40. Issued weekly, each newspaper consisted of a single sheet folded once to make four pages. It contained such items as month-old news from Europe, ads for goods and services and for the return of runaway indentured servants and slaves, and pious essays giving advice for better living. illustrations were few or nonexistent. The first cartoon appeared in the Philadelphia Gazette, placed there by, of course, Ben Franklin. According to English common law at the time, injuring a governor's reputation was considered a criminal act, no matter whether a printed statement was true or false. Ignoring the English law, the jury voted to acquit Zenger. While this case did not guarantee complete freedom of the press, it encouraged newspapers to take greater risks in criticizing a colony's government. Rural Folkways The majority of colonists rarely saw a newspaper or read any book other than the Bible. As farmers on the frontier or even within a few miles of the coast, they worked from first daylight to sundown. The farmer 's year was divided into four ever-recurring seasons: spring planting, summer growing, fall harvesting, and winter preparations for the next cycle. Food was usually plentiful, but light and heat in the colonial farmhouse were limited to the kitchen fireplace and a few well-placed candles. Entertainment for the well-to-do consisted chiefly of card playing and horse-racing in the southern colonies, theater-going in the middle colonies, and attending religious lectures in Puritan New England.

Lawyers

Often viewed as talkative troublemakers, lawyers were not com mon in the 1600s. In that period, individuals would argue their own cases before a colonial magistrate. During the 1700s, however, as trade expanded and legal problems became more complex, people felt a need for expert assistance in court. The most able lawyers formed a bar (committee or board), which set rules and standards for aspiring young lawyers. Lawyers gained further respect in the 1760s and 1770s when they argued for colonial rights. John Adams, James Otis, and Patrick Henry were three such lawyers whose legal arguments would ultimately provide the intellectual underpinnings of the American Revolution.

Lexington and Concord

On April 18, 1775, General Thomas Gage, the commander of British troops in Boston, sent a large force to seize colonial military supplies in the town of Concord. Warned of the British march by two riders, Paul Revere and William Dawes, the militia (or Minutemen) of Lexington assembled on the village green to face the British. The Americans were forced to retreat under heavy British fire; eight of their number were killed in the brief encounter. Who fired the first shot of this first skirmish of the American Revolution? The evidence is ambiguous, and the answer will probably never be known. Continuing their march, the British entered Concord, where they destroyed Some military supplies. On the return march to Boston, the long column of British soldiers was attacked by hundreds of militiamen firing at them from behind stone walls. The British suffered 250 casualties-and also considerable humiliation at being so badly mauled by "amateur" fighters. Bunker Hill Two months later, on June 17, 1775, a true battle was fought between opposing armies on the outskirts of Boston. A colonial militia of Massachusetts farmers fortified Breed's Hill, next to Bunker Hill, for which the ensuing battle was wrongly named. A British force attacked the colonists' position and managed to take the hill, suffering over a thousand casualties. Americans claimed a victory of sorts, having succeeded in inflicting heavy losses on the attacking British army.

Hamilton's Financial Program

One of the most pressing problems faced by Congress under the Articles had been the government's financial difficulties. Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, presented to Congress a plan for putting U.S. finances on a stable foundation. Hamilton's plan included three main actions. (1) Pay off the national debt at face value and have the federal government assume the war debts of the states. (2) Protect the young nation's "infant' (new and developing) industries and collect adequate revenues at the same time by imposing high tariffs on imported goods. (3) Create a national bank for depositing government funds and printing banknotes that would provide the basis for a stable U.S. currency. Support for this program came chiefly from northern merchants, who would gain directly from high tariffs and a stabilized currency. Opponents of Hamilton's financial plan included the Anti-Federalists, who feared that the states would lose power to the extent that the central government gained it. Thomas Jefferson led a faction of southern Anti-Federalists who viewed Hamilton's program as benefiting only the rich at the expense of indebted farmers. After much political Wrangling and bargaining, Congress finally adopted Hamilton's plan in slightly modified form. For example, the tariffs were not as high as Hamilton wanted. Debt Jefferson and his supporters agreed to Hamilton's urgent insistence that the U.S. government pay off the national debt at face value and also assume payment of the war debts of the states. In return for Jefferson's support on this vital aspect of his plan, Hamilton agreed to Jefferson's idea to establish the nation's capital in the South along the Potomac River (an area that, after Washington's death, would be named Washington, D.C.). National Bank Jefferson argued that the Constitution did not give Congress the power to create a bank. But Hamilton took a broader view of the Constitution, arguing that the document's "necessary and proper' clause authorized Congress to do whatever was necessary to carry out its enumerated powers. Washington supported Hamilton on the issue, and the proposed bank was voted into law. Although chartered by the federal government, the Bank of the United States was privately owned. As a major shareholder of the bank, the federal government could print paper currency and use federal deposits to stimulate business.

Chief Justice John Marshall served as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court from 1801 to 1835

Over three decades, Marshall's ruling helped strengthen the power of the national gov't over the states and protected the rights of citizens Marbury v. Madison (1803) McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819) Cohens v. Virginia (1821) Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831)

Political Influence of the Great awakening

Political Influence A movement as powerful as the Great Awakening affected all areas of life, including politics. For the first time, the colonists regardless of their national origins or their social class-shared in a common experience as Americans.The Great Awakening also had a democratizing effect by changing the way people viewed authority. If common people could make their own religious decisions without relying on the "higher" authority of min isters, then might they also make their own political decisions without deferring to the authority of the great landowners and merchants? This revolutionary idea was not expressed in the 1740s, but 30 years later, it would challenge the author ity of a king and his royal governors.

Religious Impact of The Great Awakening

Religious Impact The Great Awakening had a profound effect on reli gious practice in the colonies. As sinners tearfully confessed their guilt and then joyou sly exulted in being "saved," emotionalism became a common part of Protestant services. Ministers lost some of their former authority among those who now studied the Bible in their own homes. The Great Awakening also caused divisions within churches, such as the Congregational and Presbyterian, between those supporting its teachings ("New Lights") and those condemning them ("Old Lights"). More evangelical sects such as the Baptists and Methodists attracted large numbers.As denominations competed for followers, they also called for separation of church and state

Renewal of the Conflict

The Gaspee One incident frequently discussed in the committees' letters was that of the Gaspee, a British customs ship that had caught several smugglers. In 1772, it ran aground off the shore of Rhode Island. Seizing their opportunity to destroy the hated vessel, a group of colonists disguised as American Indians ordered the British crew ashore and then set fire to the ship. The British ordered a commission to investigate and bring guilty individuals to Britain for trial. Boston Tea Party: The colonists continued their refusal to buy British tea because the British insisted on their right to collect the tax. Hoping to help the British East India Company out of its financial problems, Parliament passed the Tea Act in 1773, which made the price of the company's tea-even with the tax included-cheaper than that of smuggled Dutch tea. Many Americans refused to buy the cheaper tea because to do so would, in effect, recognize Parliament's right to tax the colonies. A shipment of the East India Company's tea arrived in Boston harbor, but there were no buyers. Before the royal governor could arrange to bring the tea ashore, a group of Bostonians disguised themselves as American Indians, boarded the British ships, and dumped 342 chests of tea into the harbor. Colonial reaction to this incident (December 1773) was mixed. While many applauded the Boston Tea Party as a justifiable defense of liberty, others thought the destruction of private property was far too radical.

Marbury v Madison (1803)

The President of the United States has the power to appoint judges to the federal courts. Usually, the President appoints individuals who are members of his political party or who share his ideas about politics. In 1800, John Adams was President. There was an election that year. Thomas Jefferson, who belonged to another political party, got elected. There were many positions in the federal government that were empty. Before he left office, Adams tried to fill these positions with people who shared his ideas. President Adams appointed 58 new people. He asked his Secretary of State, John Marshall, to deliver the paperwork to these people so they could start their new jobs. Marshall delivered most of the papers. He was in a hurry, so he left some of the papers for the new Secretary of State, James Madison, to deliver. When he came into office, President Thomas Jefferson told Madison not to deliver the papers to some of the people Adams had appointed. One of the individuals who didn't receive his papers was William Marbury. He sued James Madison and tried to get the Supreme Court to issue a writ of mandamus. A writ is a court order that forces an official to do something. Marbury argued that a law passed by Congress (Judiciary Act of 1789) gave the Supreme Court of the United States the power to issue this writ. If the Court issued the writ, Madison would have to deliver the papers. Then Marbury would become a justice of the peace. The Supreme Court of the United States had to decide the case. The new Chief Justice of the United States was John Marshall. He was the same person who had been unable to deliver the paperwork in the first place! The Supreme Court ruled that President Jefferson's decision to deny Marbury his judicial appointment did not violate the Judiciary Act or the Constitution Marbury: Congress created the Judiciary Act to create lower courts with judges!! Jefferson and Madison: Yes, but the president can appoint (not deny) whoever he wants!! The Marbury v. Madison case established the principle of judicial review giving the Supreme Court the power to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional

In 1812, Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war against England Patriotism surged as Americans claimed the War of 1812 was a "Second American Revolution"

The U.S. had a small navy and poorly trained army when the war began Meanwhile, Britain's well-trained army had been fighting France for a decade The war went badly in the early years The British attacked and burned the national capital Washington, D.C. When the British laid siege to Fort McHenry, American Francis Scott Key wrote the poem "The Star Spangled Banner" Though Britain was winning, they were also fighting France and wanted to quickly end the War of 1812 In 1814, Britain and the United States signed the Treaty of Ghent ending the war Before news arrived, the Americans beat the British at the Battle of New Orleans General Andrew Jackson emerged as a war hero The victory at New Orleans led many Americans to feel as though they won the war Treaty of Ghent ended the war, but it did not address trade rights or other causes of the war The War of 1812 had important effects on America Americans were united in a sense of nationalism, believing that they had beaten the British America entered an "Era of Good Feelings" with a popular president and booming national economy

What caused American colonists in the 1760s to become, as John Adams expressed it, "more attentive to their liberties"?

The chief reason for their discontent in these years was a dramatic change in Britain's colonial policy. Britain began to assert its power in the colonies and to collect taxes and enforce trade laws much more aggressively than in the past. To explain why Britain took this fateful step, we must study the effects of its various wars for empire. Empires at War Late in the 17th century, war broke out involving Great Britain, France, and Spain. This was the first of a series of four wars that were worldwide in scope, with battles in Europe, India, and North America. These wars occurred intermittently over a 74-year period from 1689 to 1763. The stakes were high, since the winner of the struggle stood to gain Supremacy in the West Indies and Canada and to dominate the lucrative colonial trade. The First Three Wars The first three wars were named after the British king or queen under whose reign they occurred. In both King William's War (1689-1697) and Queen Anne's War (1702-1713), the British launched expeditions to capture Quebec, but their efforts failed. American Indians supported by the French burned British frontier settlements. Ultimately, the British forces prevailed in Queen Anne's War and gained both Nova Scotia from France and trading rights in Spanish America. A third war was fought during the reign of George II: King George's War (1744-1748). Once again, the British colonies were under attack from their perennial rivals, the French and the Spanish. In Georgia, James Oglethorpe led a colonial army that managed to repulse Spanish attacks. To the north, a force of New Englanders captured Louisbourg, a major French fortress, on Cape Breton Island, controlling access to the St. Lawrence River. In the peace treaty ending the war, however, Britain agreed to give Louisbourg back to the French in exchange for political and economic gains in India. New Englanders were furious about the loss of a fort that they had fought so hard to win.

Military Actions

The congress adopted a Declaration of the Causes and Necessities for Taking Up Arms and called on the colonies to provide troops. George Washington was appointed the commander-in-chief of a new colonial army and sent to Boston to lead the Massachusetts militia and volunteer units from other colonies. Congress also authorized a force under Benedict Arnold to raid Quebec in order to draw Canada away from the British empire. An American navy and marine corps was organized in the fall of 1775 for the purpose of attacking British shipping. Peace Efforts At first the congress adopted a contradictory policy of Waging war while at the same time seeking a peaceful settlement. Many in the colonies did not want independence, for they valued their heritage and Britain's protection, but they did want a change in their relationship with Britain. In July 1775, the delegates voted to send an "Olive Branch Petition' to King George III, in which they pledged their loyalty and asked the king to intercede with Parliament to secure peace and the protection of colonial rights. King George angrily dismissed the congress' plea and agreed instead to Parliament's Prohibitory Act (August 1775), which declared the colonies in rebellion. A few months later, Parliament forbade all trade and shipping between Britain and the colonies.

Actions of the Congress

The delegates voted on a series of proposed measures, each of which was intended to change British policy without offending moderate and conservative colonists. Joseph Galloway proposed a plan, similar to the Albany Plan of 1754, that would have reordered relations with Parliament and formed a union of the colonies within the British empire. By only one vote, Galloway's plan failed to pass. Instead, the convention adopted these measures: 1. It endorsed the Suffolk Resolves, a statement originally issued by Massachusetts. The Resolves called for the immediate repeal of the Intolerable Acts and for colonies to resist them by making military preparations and boycotting British goods. 2. It passed the Declaration of Rights and Grievances. Backed by moderate delegates, this petition urged the king to redress (make right) colonial grievances and restore colonial rights. In a conciliatory gesture, it recognized Parliament's authority to regulate commerce. 3. It created the Continental Association (or just Association), a network of committees to enforce the economic sanctions of the Suffolk Resolves. 4. It declared that if colonial rights were not recognized, delegates would meet again in May 1775. Fighting Begins Angrily dismissing the petition of the First Continental Congress, the king's government declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and sent additional troops to put down any further disorders there. The combination of colonial defiance and British determination to suppress it led to violent clashes in Massachusetts-what would prove to be the first battles of the American Revolution.

The Delegates

The delegates were a diverse group, whose views about the crisis ranged from radical to conservative. Leading the radical faction-those demanding the greatest concessions from Britain-were Patrick Henry of Virginia and Samuel Adams and John Adams of Massachusetts. The moderates included George Washington of Virginia and John Dickinson of Pennsylvania. The conservative delegates-those who favored a mild statement of protest-included John Jay of New York and Joseph Galloway of Pennsylvania. Unrepresented were the loyal colonists, who would not challenge the king's government in any way.

The Family

The family was the economic and social center of colonial life. With an expanding economy and ample food supply, people married at a younger age and reared more children than in Europe. More than 90 percent of the people lived on farms. While life in the coastal communities and on the frontier was hard, most colonists had a higher standard of living than did most Europeans. Men While wealth was increasingly being concentrated in the hands of a few, most men did work. Landowning was primarily reserved to men, who also dominated politics. English law gave the husband almost unlimited power in the home, including the right to beat his wife. Women The average colonial wife bore eight children and performed a wide range of tasks. Household work included cooking, cleaning, making clothes, and providing medical care. Women also educated the children. A woman usually worked next to her husband in the shop, on the plantation, or on the farm. Divorce was legal but rare, and women had limited legal and political rights. Yet the shared labors and mutual dependence with their husbands gave most women protection from abuse and an active role in decision-making.

By 1840, Northern factories mass produced textiles, farm equipment, and other finished goods

The growth of factories led to an increase in American cities (called urbanization). Immigrants worked in low-paying New England factoriesor moved west as farmers. Rapid immigration led to hostility and prejudice by native-born Americans called nativism. Nativists were worried that immigrants would vote, would remain poor and become a social burden, and that Catholic immigrants would remain loyal to the Pope The Know-Nothing Party formed in the 1850s to restrict immigration and limit immigrant voting rights The West became "America's bread basket" where commercial farms produced wheat, corn, livestock. From 1800 to 1840, these three regional economies became connected into a national market economy. Henry Clay's American System helped connect the South, North, and West American System created a tariff to promote Northern industry. The Second Bank provided federal money for investment and regulation over the U.S. banking system. The BUS held ~$10 million in federal money and loaned it to state banks which forced small banks to be smart when issuing loans. State banks loaned money to individual citizens, businesses, or local governments to finance roads, canals, factories, & farms. Clay's American System provided national funding for transportation. A transportation revolution created an infrastructure of roads, canals, early railroads Farmers in the South and the West could get their goods to market by using rivers and ocean-based shipping. But, no rivers connected Eastern factories and Western farmer. Private companies, state gov'ts, and the national gov't invested in road construction . Many states built canals to link the East and West The first major link between the East and West was the Erie Canal (finished in 1825) The Erie Canal brought so much trade down the Hudson River, New York City became the commercial capital of the U.S. . Transportation improved when Robert Fulton invented the steamboat . Steamboats allowed for up-river travel and reduced shipping time and costs. Canals and steamboats allowed Western farmers to buy manufactured farm equipment, reduce shipping costs by 90%, and increase their profits In the 1830s, railroad construction first began The growth of trains was slow because they were expensive and competed with canals, but... They were faster than . By 1860, railroads were the dominant means of transportation in America roads and canals, could travel in any season, and could go in any direction

Africans

The largest single group of non-English immigrants did not come to Amer ica by choice. They were Africans-or the descendants of Africans-who had been taken captive, forced into European ships, and sold as enslaved laborers to southern plantation owners and other colonists. Some Africans were granted their freedom after years of forced labor. Outside the South, thousands of Afri can Americans worked at a broad range of occupations, such as being a laborer, bricklayer, or blacksmith. Some of these workers were enslaved and others were free wage earners and property owners. Every colony, from New Hampshire to Georgia, passed laws that discriminated against African Americans and limited their rights and opportunities. By 1775, the African American population (both enslaved and free) made up 20 percent of the colonial population. About 90 percent lived in the southern colonies in lifelong bondage. African Americans formed a majority of the popu lation in South Carolina and Georgia.

Rural Folkways

The majority of colonists rarely saw a newspaper or read any book other than the Bible. As farmers on the frontier or even within a few miles of the coast, they worked from first daylight to sundown. The farmer 's year was divided into four ever-recurring seasons: spring planting, summer growing, fall harvesting, and winter preparations for the next cycle. Food was usually plentiful, but light and heat in the colonial farmhouse were limited to the kitchen fireplace and a few well-placed candles. Entertainment for the well-to-do consisted chiefly of card playing and horse-racing in the southern colonies, theater-going in the middle colonies, and attending religious lectures in Puritan New England.

Alliance With France

The turning point for the American revolutionaries came with a victory at Saratoga in upstate New York in October 1777. British forces under General John Burgoyne had marched from Canada in an ambitious effort to link up with other forces marching from the west and south. Their objective was to cut off New England from the rest of the colonies (or states). But Burgoyne's troops were attacked at Saratoga by troops commanded by American generals Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold. The British army was forced to surrender. The diplomatic outcome of the Battle of Saratoga was even more important than the military result. News of the surprising American victory persuaded France to join in the war against Britain. France's king, Louis XVI, was an absolute monarch who had no interest in aiding a revolutionary movement. Nevertheless, he saw a chance to weaken his country's traditional foe, Great Britain, by helping to undermine its colonial empire. France had secretly extended aid to the American revolutionaries as early as 1775, giving both money and supplies. After Saratoga, in 1778, France openly allied itself with the Americans. (A year later, Spain and Holland also entered the war against Britain.) The French alliance proved a decisive factor in the American struggle for independence because it widened the war and forced the British to divert military resources away from America.

The French and Indian War (1754-1763) Britain & the North American colonists France, their colonists, & Indian allies

The war started in North America (1754-1763), but became part of a larger, "world" war called the Seven Years War (1756-1763) due to competition among empires Britain was losing during the early years of the war The colonists saw this war as another European conflict & did not help fight or raise taxes as much as England expected . But, in 1757, British Prime Minister William Pitt issued a "blank check" to win the war The war officially ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1763 France lost Canada, most of its empire in India, & claims to lands east of the Mississippi River. England gained all French lands in Canada & exclusive rights to the Caribbean slave trade. Spain got all lands west of the Mississippi River, New Orleans, but lost Florida to England

Loyalists

Tories The Revolutionary War was in some respects a civil war in which anti-British Patriots fought pro-British Loyalists. Those who maintained their allegiance to the king were also called Tories (after the majority party in Parliament). Almost 60,000 American Tories fought next to British soldiers, supplied them with arms and food, and joined in raiding parties that pillaged Patriot homes and farms. Members of the same family sometimes joined opposite sides. For example, while Benjamin Franklin was a leading patriot, his son William joined the Tories and served as the last royal governor of New Jersey. How many American Tories were there? Estimates range from 520,000 to 780,000 people-roughly 20 to 30 percent of the population. In New York, New Jersey, and Georgia, they were probably in the majority. Toward the end of the war, about 80,000 Loyalists emigrated from the states to settle in Canada or Britain rather than face persecution at the hands of the victorious Patriots. Although Loyalists came from all groups and classes, they tended to be wealthier and more conservative than the Patriots. Most government officials and Anglican clergy in America remained loyal to the crown. American Indians At first, American Indians tried to stay out of the war. Eventually, however, attacks by colonists prompted many American Indians to support the British, who promised to limit colonial settlements in the West.

The XYZ Affair

Troubles abroad related to the French Revolution presented Adams with the first major challenge of his presidency. Americans were angered by reports that U.S. merchant ships were being seized by French warships and privateers. Seeking a peaceful settlement, Adams sent a delegation to Paris to negotiate with the French government. Certain French ministers, known only as X, Y, and Z because their names were never revealed, requested bribes as the basis for entering into negotiations. The American delegates indignantly refused. Newspaper reports of the demands made by X, Y, and Z infuriated many Americans, who now clamored for war against France. "Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute" became the slogan of the hour. One faction of the Federalist party, led by Alexander Hamilton, hoped that by going to war the United States could gain French and Spanish lands in North America. President Adams, on the other hand, resisted the popular sentiment for war. Recognizing that the U.S. Army and Navy were not yet strong enough to fight a major power, the president avoided war and sent new ministers to Paris.

Organizing the Federal Government

Washington took the oath of office as the first U.S. president on April 30, 1789. From then on, what the Constitution and its system of checks and balances actually meant in practice would be determined from day to day by the decisions of Congress as the legislative branch, the president as the head of the executive branch, and the Supreme Court as the top federal court in the judicial branch. Executive Departments As chief executive, Washington's first task was to organize new departments of the executive (law-enforcing) branch. The Constitution authorizes the president to appoint chiefs of departments, although they must be confirmed, or approved, by the Senate. Washington appointed four heads of departments: Thomas Jefferson as secretary of state, Alexander Hamilton as secretary of the treasury, Henry Knox as secretary of war, and Edmund Randolph as attorney general. These four men formed a cabinet of advisers with whom President Washington met regularly to discuss major policy issues. Today, presidents still meet with their cabinets to obtain advice and information. Federal Court System. The only federal court mentioned in the Constitution is the Supreme Court. Congress, however, was given the power to create other federal courts with lesser powers and to determine the number of justices making up the Supreme Court. One of Congress' first laws was the Judiciary Act of 1789, which established a Supreme Court with one chief justice and five associate justices. This highest court was empowered to rule on the constitutionality of decisions made by state courts. The act also provided for a system of 13 district courts and three circuit courts of appeals.

Foreign Affairs

Washington's first term as president (1789-1793) coincided with the outbreak of revolution in France, a cataclysmic event that was to touch off a series of wars between the new French Republic and the monarchies of Europe. Washington's entire eight years as president, as well as the four years of his successor, John Adams, were taken up with the question of whether to give U.S. support to France, France's enemies, or neither side. The French Revolution Americans generally supported the French people's aspiration to establish a republic, but many were also horrified by reports of mob hysteria and mass executions. To complicate matters, the U.S.- French alliance remained in effect, although it was an alliance with the French monarchy, not with the revolutionary republic. Jefferson and his supporters sympathized with the revolutionary cause. They also argued that, because Britain was seizing American merchant ships bound for French ports, the United States should join France in its defensive war against Britain. Proclamation of Neutrality (1793) Washington, however, believed that the young nation was not strong enough to engage in a European war. Resisting popular clamor, in 1793 he issued a proclamation of U.S. neutrality in the conflict. Jefferson resigned from the cabinet in disagreement with Washington's policy. "Citizen' Genet Objecting to Washington's policy, "Citizen' Edmond Genét, the French minister to the United States, broke all the normal rules of diplomacy by appealing directly to the American people to support the French cause. So outrageous was his conduct that even Jefferson approved of Washington's request to the French government that they remove the offending diplomat. Recalled by his government, Genét chose to remain in the United States, where he married and became a U.S. citizen. The Jay Treaty (1794) Washington sent Chief Justice John Jay on a special mission to Britain to talk that country out of its offensive practice of searching and seizing American ships and impressing seamen into the British navy. After a year of negotiations, Jay brought back a treaty in which Britain agreed to evacuate its posts on the U.S. western frontier. But the treaty said nothing about British seizures of American merchant ships. Narrowly ratified

George Whitefield

While Edwards mostly influenced New England, George Whitefield, who came from England in 1739, spread the Great Awaken ing throughout the colonies, sometimes attracting audiences of 10,000 people. In barns, tents, and fields, he delivered rousing sermons that stressed that God was all-powerful and would save only those who openly professed belief in Jesus Christ. Those who did not would be damned into hell and face eternal torments. Whitefield taught that ordinary people with faith and sincerity could understand the gospels without depending on ministers to lead them.

Organization of New Governments

While the Revolutionary War was being fought, leaders of the 13 colonies worked to change them into independently governed states, each with its own constitution (written plan of government). At the same time, the revolutionary Congress that originally met in Philadelphia tried to define the powers of a new central government for the nation that was coming into being. State Governments By 1777, ten of the former colonies had written new constitutions. Most of these documents were both written and adopted by the states' legislatures. In a few of the states (Maryland, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina), a proposed constitution was submitted to a vote of the people for ratification (approval). Each state constitution was the subject of heated debate between conserwatives, who stressed the need for law and order, and liberals, who were most concerned about protecting individual rights and preventing future tyrannies. Although the various constitutions differed on specific points, they had the following features in common: List of Rights. Each state constitution began with a "bill' or "declaration' listing the basic rights and freedoms, such as a jury trial and freedom of religion, that belonged to all citizens by right and that state officials could not infringe (encroach on). Separation of Powers With a few exceptions, the powers of state government were given to three separate branches: (1) legislative powers to an elected two-house legislature, (2) executive powers to an elected governor, and (3) judicial powers to a system of courts. The principle of separation of powers was intended to be a safeguard against tyranny--especially against the tyranny of a too-powerful executive. Voting The right to vote was extended to all white males who owned some property. The property requirement, usually for a minimal amount of land or money, was based on the assumption that property owners had a larger stake in government than did the poor and propertyless. Office-Holding Those seeking elected office were usually held to a higher property qualification than the voters.

Drafting the Constitution at Philadelphia

After a number of states elected delegates to the proposed Philadelphia conVention, congress consented to give its approval to the meeting. It called upon all 13 states to send delegates to Philadelphia "for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation." Only Rhode Island, not trusting the other states, refused to send delegates. The Delegates Of the 55 delegates who went to Philadelphia for the convention in the summer of 1787, all were white, all were male, and most were college-educated. As a group, they were relatively young (averaging in their early forties). With few exceptions, they were far wealthier than the average American of their day. They were well acquainted with issues of law and politics. A number of them were practicing lawyers, and many had helped to write their state constitutions. The first order of business was to elect a presiding officer and decide whether or not to communicate with the public at large. The delegates voted to conduct their meetings in secret and say nothing to the public about their discussions until their work was completed. George Washington was unanimously elected chairperson. Benjamin Franklin, the elder statesman at age 81, provided a calming and unifying influence. The work in fashioning specific articles of the Constitution was directed by James Madison (who came to be known as the Father of the Constitution), Alexander Hamilton, Governor Morris, and John Dickinson. While they represented different states, these convention leaders shared the common goal of wanting to strengthen the young nation. Several major leaders of the American Revolution were not at the convention. John Jay, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Thomas Paine were on diplomatic business abroad. Samuel Adams and John Hancock were not chosen as delegates. Patrick Henry, who opposed any growth in federal power, refused to take part in the convention. Key Issues: The convention opened with the delegates disagreeing sharply on its fundamental purpose. Some wanted to simply revise the Articles. Strong nationalists, such as Madison and Hamilton, wanted to draft an entirely new document. The nationalists quickly took control of the convention. Americans in the 1780s generally distrusted government and feared that officials would seize every opportunity to abuse their powers, even if they were popularly elected. Therefore, Madison and other delegates wanted the new constitution to be based on a system of checks and balances so that the power of each branch would be limited by the powers of the others. Representation Especially divisive was the issue of whether the larger states such as Virginia and Pennsylvania should have proportionally more representatives in Congress than the smaller states such as New Jersey and Delaware. Madison's proposal-the Virginia Plan-favored the large states; it was countered by the New Jersey Plan, which favored the small states. The issue was finally resolved by a compromise solution. Roger Sherman of Connecticut proposed what was called the Connecticut Plan or the Great Compromise. It provided for a two-house Congress. In the Senate, states would have equal representation, but in the House of Representatives, each state would be represented according to the size of its population. Slavery Two of the most contentious issues grew out of slavery. Should enslaved people be counted in the state populations? The delegates agreed to the Three-Fifths Compromise, which counted each enslaved individual as threefifths of a person for the purposes of determining a state's level of taxation and representation. Should the slave trade be allowed? The delegates decided to guarantee that slaves could be imported for at least 20 years longer, until 1808. Congress could vote to abolish the practice after that date if it wished. Trade The northern states wanted the central government to regulate interstate commerce and foreign trade. The South was afraid that export taxes would be placed on its agricultural products such as tobacco and rice. The Commercial Compromise allowed Congress to regulate interstate and foreign commerce, including placing tariffs (taxes) on foreign imports, but it prohibited placing taxes on any exports. The Presidency The delegates debated over the president's term of office-some argued that the chief executive should hold office for life. The delegates limited the president's term to four years but with no limit on the number of terms. They also debated the method for electing a president. Rather than having voters elect a president directly, the delegates decided to assign to each state a number of electors equal to the total of that state's representatives and senators. This electoral college system was instituted because the delegates feared that too much democracy might lead to mob rule. Finally, the delegates debated what powers to give the president. They finally decided to grant the president considerable power, including the power to veto acts of Congress. Ratification On September 17, 1787, after 17 weeks of debate, the Philadelphia convention approved a draft of the Constitution to submit to the states for ratification. Anticipating opposition to the document, the Framers (delegates) specified that a favorable vote of only nine states out of 13 would be required for ratification. Each state would hold popularly elected conventions to debate and vote on the proposed Constitution. Federalst And Anti-Federalist Ratification was fiercely debated for almost a year, from September 1787 until June 1788. Supporters of the Constitution and its strong federal government were known as Federalists. Opponents were known as Anti-Federalists. Federalists were most common along the Atlantic Coast and in the large cities while Anti-Federalists tended to be small farmers and settlers on the Western frontier. (See table on the next page for more on the two groups.)

The Alien and Sedition Acts

Anger against France strengthened the Federalists in the congressional elections of 1798 enough to win a majority in both houses. The Federalists took advantage of their victory by enacting laws to restrict their political opponents, the Democratic-Republicans. For example, since most immigrants voted Democratic-Republican, the Federalists passed the Naturalization Act, which increased from 5 to 14 the years required for immigrants to qualify for U.S. citizenship. They also passed the Alien Acts, which authorized the president to deport aliens considered dangerous and to detain enemy aliens in time of War. Most seriously, they passed the Sedition Act, which made it illegal for newspaper editors to criticize either the president or Congress and imposed fines or imprisonment for editors who violated the law.

Second Phase of the Crisis, 1767-1773

Because the British government still needed new revenues, the newly appointed chancellor of the exchequer, Charles Townshend, proposed another tax measure. The Townshend Acts Adopting Townshend's program in 1767, Parliament enacted new duties to be collected on colonial imports of tea, glass, and paper. The law required that the revenues raised be used to pay crown officials in the colonies, thus making them independent of the colonial assemblies that had previously paid their salaries. The Townshend Acts also provided for the search of private homes for smuggled goods. All that an official needed to conduct such a search would be a writ of assistance (a general license to search anywhere) rather than a judge's warrant permitting a search only of a specifically named property. Another of the Townshend Acts suspended New York's assembly for that colony's defiance of the Quartering Act. At first, most colonists accepted the taxes under the Townshend Acts because they were indirect taxes paid by merchants (not direct taxes on consumer goods). However, soon leaders began protesting the new duties. In 1767 and 1768, John Dickinson of Pennsylvania in his Letters From a Farmer in Pennsylvania wrote that Parliament could regulate commerce but argued that because duties were a form of taxation, they could not be levied on the colonies without the consent of their representative assemblies. Dickinson argued that the idea of no taxation without representation was an essential principle of English law. In 1768, James Otis and Samuel Adams jointly wrote the Massachusetts Circular Letter and sent copies to every colonial legislature. It urged the various colonies to petition Parliament to repeal the Townshend Acts. British officials in Boston ordered the letter retracted, threatened to dissolve the legislature, and increased the number of British troops in Boston. Responding to the circular letter, the colonists again conducted boycotts of British goods. Merchants increased their smuggling activities to avoid the offensive Townshend duties. Repeal of the Townshend Acts Meanwhile, in London, there was another change in the king's ministers. Lord Frederick North became the new prime minister. He urged Parliament to repeal the Townshend Acts because they damaged trade and generated a disappointingly small amount of revenue. The repeal of the Townshend Acts in 1770 ended the colonial boycott and, except for an incident in Boston (the "massacre' described below), there was a three-year respite from political troubles as the colonies entered into a period of economic prosperity. However, Parliament retained a small tax on tea as a symbol of its right to tax the colonies. Boston Massacre Most Bostonians resented the British troops who had been quartered in their city to protect customs officials from being attacked by the Sons of Liberty. On a snowy day in March 1770, a crowd of colonists harassed the guards near the customs house. The guards fired into the crowd, killing five people including an African American, Crispus Attucks. At their trial for murder, the soldiers were defended by colonial lawyer John Adams and acquitted. Adams' more radical cousin, Samuel Adams, angrily denounced the shooting incident as a "massacre' and used it to inflame anti-British feeling.

Western Land Claims

Ceded by the States. First, states had cede (give up) their claims to lands in the west to the national gov't. Congress passed the Land Ordinance of 1785 to create an orderly way to divide the west into townships & farms. Selling western lands was the only way the national gov't could generate money since it did not have the power to tax The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 gave government to the territories. When a territory had 5,000 residents, it could create a self-governing legislature. When a territory had 60,000 residents, it could apply to become a U.S. state The Articles of Confederation was America's 1st form of gov't. Later, these same weaknesses kept the gov't from solving serious national problems. The weakness the national gov't was originally seen as good because it eliminated tyranny. America could not pay off debts from the Revolutionary War. The inability of the government to collect taxes led to problems

Monroe & the Republicans in Congress promoted nationalism & American unity in three ways:

Congress quickly admitted 5 new states to the Union Economic and territorial growth created a need to settle America's national borders Foreign Policy: Expanding America's borders and increasing America's role in world affairs After the War of 1812, Americans flooded into the West; By 1840 over 1/3 of the population lived in the West Indiana (1816) Illinois (1818) Alabama (1819) Mississippi (1817) Louisiana (1812) President Monroe and his Secretary of State John Quincy Adams used foreign policy to promote nationalism & territorial expansion In 1818, the USA and Britain agreed to establish the Canadian border at the 49° In 1819 the USA gained Florida from Spain with the Adams-Onis Treaty

Adding the Bill of Rights

Did the Constitution need to list the rights of individuals? Anti-Federalists argued vehemently that it did, while Federalists argued that it was unnecessary. Arguments for a Bill of Rights Anti-Federalists argued that Americans had fought the Revolutionary War to escape a tyrannical government in Britain. What was to stop a strong central government under the Constitution from acting similarly? Only by adding a bill of rights could Americans be protected against such a possibility. Arguments Against a Bill of Rights Federalists argued that since members of Congress would be elected by the people, they did not need to be protected against themselves. Furthermore, people should assume that all rights were protected rather than create a limited list of rights that might allow unscrupulous officials to assert that unlisted rights could be violated at will. In order to win adoption of the Constitution in the ratifying conventions, the Federalists finally backed off their position and promised to add a bill of rights to the Constitution as the first order of business for a newly elected Congress. The First Ten Amendments In 1789, the first Congress elected under the Constitution acted quickly to adopt a number of amendments listing people's rights. Drafted largely by James Madison, the amendments were submitted to the states for ratification. The ten that were adopted in 1791 have been known ever since as the U.S. Bill of Rights. Originally, they provided protection against abuses of power by the central (or federal) government. Since the ratification of the 14th Amendment in 1868, most of the protections have been extended to apply to abuses by state governments as well. Below is the text of the Bill of Rights: First Amendment "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances." Second Amendment "A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the Security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed." Third Amendment "No Soldiershall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of War, but in a manner prescribed by law." Fourth Amendment "The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, Supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized." Fifth Amendment "No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation." Sixth Amendment "In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed; which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense.' Seventh Amendment "In suits of common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law." Eighth Amendment "Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted." Ninth Amendment "The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people." Tenth Amendment "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people."

The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions

Democratic-Republicans argued that the Alien and Sedition Acts violated rights guaranteed by the 1st Amendment of the Constitution. In 1799, however, the Supreme Court had not yet established the principle of judicial review (see Chapter 7). Democratic-Republican leaders challenged the legislation of the Federalist Congress by enacting nullifying laws of their own in the state legislatures. The Kentucky legislature adopted a resolution that had been written by Thomas Jefferson, and the Virginia legislature adopted a resolution introduced by James Madison. Both resolutions declared that the states had entered into a "compact" in forming the national government, and, therefore, if any act of the federal government broke the compact, a state could nullify the federal law. Although only Kentucky and Virginia adopted nullifying resolutions in 1799, they set forth an argument and rationale that would be widely used in the nullification controversy of the 1830s (see Chapter 10). The immediate crisis over the Alien and Sedition Acts faded when the Federalists lost their majority in Congress after the election of 1800, and the new Democratic-Republican majority allowed the acts to expire or repealed them. In addition, the Supreme Court under John Marshall asserted its power in deciding whether a certain federal law was constitutional.

The Election of 1800

During Adams' presidency, the Federalists rapidly lost popularity. People disliked the Alien and Sedition Acts and complained about the new taxes imposed by the Federalists to pay the costs of preparing for a war against France. Though Adams avoided war, he had persuaded Congress that building up the U.S. Navy was necessary for the nation's defense. Election Results The election of 1800 swept the Federalists from power in both the executive and legislative branches of the U.S. government. A majority of the presidential electors cast their ballots for two Democratic-Republicans: Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr. Because both these candidates received the same number of electoral ballots, it was necessary (according to the rules in the original Constitution) to hold a special election in the House of Representatives to break the tie. In December 1800 the Federalists still controlled the House. They debated and voted for days before they finally gave a majority to Jefferson. (Alexander Hamilton had urged his followers to vote for Jefferson, whom he considered less dangerous and of higher character than Burr.) Democratic-Republican lawmakers elected in 1800 took control of both the House and the Senate when a new Congress met in March 1801. A Peaceful Revolution The passing of power in 1801 from one political party to another was accomplished without violence. This was a rare event for the times and a major indication that the U.S. constitutional system would endure the various strains that were placed upon it. The Federalists quietly accepted their defeat in the election of 1800 and peacefully relinquished control of the federal government to Jefferson's party, the Democratic-Republicans. The change from Federalist to Democratic-Republican control is known as the Revolution of 1800. From the moment it was drafted in 1787, the U.S. Constitution has been a continuing subject of controversy. As political issues changed from one era to the next, Americans changed their views of how the Constitution should be interpreted. The dispute between the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists over the proper powers of the central government has never been completely resolved and, to a certain extent, continues to be debated by modern-day Republicans and Democrats. In the decades preceding the Civil War (1790-1860), the chief constitutional issue concerned the nature of the federal union and whether the states could nullify acts of the federal government. The North's triumph in the Civil War settled the issue in favor of centralized power and against southern champions of states' rights. In the post-Civil War era, northerners regarded Hamilton and other Federalist Framers of the Constitution as heroes. At the same time, states'-rights advocates were portrayed as demagogues and traitors. In the early 20th century, a change in politics again brought a change in scholars' views toward the Framers of the Constitution. Reacting to the excesses of big business, certain historians identified economic factors and class conflict as the primary force behind the Constitutional Convention of 1787. Published in 1913, at the height of the Progressive era, Charles Beard's An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution argued that, in writing the Constitution, the Framers were chiefly motivated by their own economic interests in preserving their wealth and property. Beard's controversial thesis dominated historical scholarship on the Constitution for almost 50 years. Expanding on Beard's thesis, some historians have argued that even the sectional differences between northern Framers and southern Framers were chiefly economic in nature. In recent years, many historians have concluded that the economic interpretation of the Framers' motives, while valid up to a point, oversimplifies the issues of the 1780s. Historians place greater stress on the philosophical and intellectual backgrounds of the delegates at Philadelphia and explain how they shared similar 18th-century views of liberty,government, and society.

Achievements in the Arts and Sciences

In the coastal areas, as fear of American Indians faded, people displayed their prosperity by adopting architectural and decorative styles from England. Architecture In the 1740s and 1750s, the Georgian style of London was widely imitated in colonial houses, churches, and public buildings. Brick and stucco homes built in this style were characterized by a symmetrical placement of windows and dormers and a spacious center hall flanked by two fireplaces. Such homes were found only on or near the eastern seaboard. On the frontier, a one-room log cabin was the common shelter. Painting Many colonial painters were itinerant artists who wandered the countryside in search of families who wanted their portraits painted. Shortly before the Revolution, two American artists, Benjamin West and John Copley, went to England where they acquired the necessary training and financial sup port to establish themselves as prominent artists.' Literature With limited resources available, most authors wrote on seri ous subjects, chiefly religion and politics. There were, for example, widely read religiou s tracts by two Massachusetts ministers, Cotton Mather and Jonathan Edwards. In the years preceding the American Revolution, writers including John Adams,James Otis, John Dickinson, Thomas Paine, and Thomas Jefferson issued political essays and treatises highlighting the conflict between Ameri can rights and English authority.The lack of support for literature did not stop everyone. The poetry of Phillis Wheatley is noteworthy both for her triumph over slavery and the quality of her verse. By far the most popular and successful American writer of the 18th century was that remarkable jack-of-all-trades, Benjamin Franklin. His witty aphorisms and advice were collected in Poor Richard 'sAlmanack, a best-selling book that was annually revised from 1732 to 1757. Science Most scientists, such as the botanist John Bartram of Philadelphia, were self-taught. Benjamin Franklin won fame for his work with electricity and his developments of bifocal eyeglasses and the Franklin stove.

Monetary System

One way the British controlled the colonial economy was to limit the use of money. The growing colonies were forced to use much of the limited hard currency-gold and silver-to pay for the imports from Britain that increasingly exceeded colonial exports. To provide currency for domestic trade, many colonies issued paper money, but this often led to inflation. The British government also vetoed colonial laws that might harm British merchants.

The Seven Years' War

The first three wars between Britain and France focused primarily on battles in Europe and only secondarily on conflict in the colonies. The European powers saw little value in committing regular troops to America. However, in the fourth and final War in the series, the fighting began in the colonies and then spread to Europe. Moreover, Britain and France now recognized the full importance of their colonies and shipped large numbers of troops overseas to North America rather than rely on "amateur' colonial forces. This fourth and most decisive war was known in Europe as the Seven Years' War. The North American phase of this war is often called the French and Indian War. Beginning of the War From the British point of view, the French provoked the war by building a chain of forts in the Ohio River Valley. One of the reasons the French did so was to halt the westward growth of the British colonies. Hoping to stop the French from completing work on Fort Duquesne (Pittsburgh) and thereby win control of the Ohio River Valley, the governor of Virginia sent a small militia (armed force) under the command of a young colonel named George Washington. After gaining a small initial victory, Washington's troops surrendered to a superior force of Frenchmen and their American Indian allies on July 3, 1754. With this military encounter in the wilderness, the final war for empire began. At first the war went badly for the British. In 1755, another expedition from Virginia, led by General Edward Braddock, ended in a disastrous defeat, as more than 2,000 British regulars and colonial troops were routed by a smaller force of French and American Indians near Ft. Duquesne. The Algonquin allies of the French ravaged the frontier from western Pennsylvania to North Carolina. The French repulsed a British invasion of French Canada that began in 1756. The Albany Plan of Union Recognizing the need for coordinating colonial defense, the British government called for representatives from several colonies to meet in a congress at Albany, New York, in 1754. The delegates from seven colonies adopted a plan-the Albany Plan of Union-developed by Benjamin Franklin that provided for an intercolonial government and a system for recruiting troops and collecting taxes from the various colonies for their common defense. Each colony was too jealous of its own taxation powers to accept the plan, however, and it never took effect. The Albany congress was significant, however, because it set a precedent for later, more revolutionary congresses in the 1770s. British Victory The British prime minister, William Pitt, concentrated the government's military strategy on conquering Canada. This objective was accomplished with the retaking of Louisbourg in 1758, the surrender of Quebec to General James Wolfe in 1759, and the taking of Montreal in 1760. After these British victories, the European powers negotiated a peace treaty (the Peace of Paris) in 1763. Great Britain acquired both French Canada and Spanish Florida. France ceded (gave up) to Spain its huge western territory, Louisiana, and claims west of the Mississippi River in compensation for Spain's loss of Florida. With this treaty, the British extended their control of North America, and French power on the continent virtually ended. also called the French and Indian War, which broke out in 1754 and lasted until 1763, was an imperial war between Britain and France over control of the Ohio territory. The French and British rushed into the region to build forts and establish a military presence in order to solidify their colonial claims on the area. A young George Washington, at only 21 years of age, was sent on behalf of the Virginia colony to build a fort at the forks of the Ohio river in what is modern-day Pittsburgh. When Washington and his small force of Virginians and Native American allies attacked a French reconnaissance party, the French counterattacked and drove them out of their fort and back into Virginia. The skirmish led to an outright declaration of hostilities.

The Annapolis Convention

To review what could be done about the country's inability to overcome critical problems, George Washington hosted a conference at his home in Mt. Vernon, Virginia (1785). Representatives from Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, and Pennsylvania agreed that the problems were serious enough to hold further discussions at a later meeting at Annapolis, Maryland, at which all the states might be represented. However, only five states sent delegates to the Annapolis Convention in 1786. After discussing ways to improve commercial relations among the states, James Madison and Alexander Hamilton persuaded the others that another convention should be held in Philadelphia for the purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation.

In 1823, the Monroe Doctrine warned European nations that the USA would protect the Western Hemisphere and that the U.S. would not interfere in Europe

When Latin American nations gained independence, the USA wanted to support the new republics and keep European nations from colonizing Latin America The Era of Good Feelings was a time of nationalism, but there were growing problems between the North and South (called sectionalism) When Missouri applied to become a U.S. state, sectionalism emerged Northerners did not want Southern states to increase power in the national gov't If Missouri entered as a slave state, the South would have 2 more Senators than the North In 1820, Henry Clay negotiated the Missouri Compromise (Compromise of 1820) Maine broke from Massachusetts and became a free state Missouri became a slave state Slavery was outlawed in all western territories above the latitude of 36°30' Monroe Doctrine: a principle of US policy, originated by President James Monroe in 1823, that any intervention by external powers in the politics of the Americas is a potentially hostile act against the US.

The Zenger Case Newspaper

printers in colonial days ran the risk of being jailed for libel if any article offended the political authorities. In 1735, John Peter Zenger, a New York editor and publisher, was brought to trial on a charge of libelously criticizing New York's royal governor. Zenger's lawyer, Andrew Hamilton, argued that his client had printed the truth about the governor.

Treaty of Paris,

signed in 1763, France surrendered nearly all of its claims to North American territory. The Native American tribes of the region rejected the notion that France had the authority to cede their lands to the British.

After the Seven Years' War ended in 1763,

the British desired more revenue to pay for protecting their empire while many American colonists saw themselves as self-sufficient. These clashing views resulted in the colonies declaring independence, winning a war, and founding a new nation. Initially governed by Articles of Confederation with a weak federal government, the new United States soon replaced it with a new constitution that created a federal government that was stronger, though still with limited powers. Out of the debates over the new constitution and policies emerged two parties. The test of the stability of the American system came in 1800, when one party, the Federalists, peacefully transferred power to the other, the Democratic-Republicans. Throughout this period there was a continuous westward migration resulting in new opportunities, blended cultures, and increased conflicts with the American Indians and other European nations. Alternate View Some historians start the story of the birth of the United States in 1763, at the end of the Seven Years' War. Starting in 1754 emphasizes that fighting the war drove the colonies and the British apart. While the United States declared independence in 1776 and ratified the Constitution in 1788, not until 1800 had it clearly survived the divisions of the early years.

In May 1787, 55 delegates held a Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia to discuss ways to strengthen the national gov't...

...But instead of revising the Articles of Confederation, they replaced it with the Constitution. The Constitution was a radical shift from the AOC because it gave more power to the national gov't than to the state gov'ts. The supremacy clause establishes the Constitution (not the states) as the "the supreme law of the land". The national government under the Constitution would have new features & powers that the Articles of Confederation did not have. Rather than a single unicameral Congress, the new national government would be divided among three equal branches of government. Like the AOC, the gov't had a Congress (legislative branch) to make laws.Unlike the AOC, the new gov't had a president (executive branch) to lead the nation and enforce laws passed by Congress. Unlike the AOC, Congress had the power to tax & coin money. Unlike the AOC, the new gov't had a court system (judicial branch) to interpret laws and prosecute federal crimes. Delegates at the Constitutional Convention agreed on some major philosophical ideas for the new national government Main Principles of Constitution: Popular Sovereignty: the people have power by voting for leaders Limited gov't: even though the national government was stronger, citizens' liberty was still protected Federalism: the national gov't shares power with state gov'ts Separation of powers: three branches with defined powers Checks & balances: each branch can limit the power of the others The delegates at the convention had to negotiate a series of compromises in order to agree on a framework for government. Many of these compromises dealt with how representatives would be chosen from the states to serve in Congress The large states supported the Virginia Plan which proposed adding a president to lead the nation and a bicameral congress in which larger states have more representatives The small states supported the aNew Jersey Plan which called for a unicameral congress in which states are equally represented just like the AOC

Meanwhile, The Duel

1804, Vice-President Aaron Burr , angry over insulting remarks made by Alexander Hamilton challenged Hamilton to a duel Hamilton's shot was high, Burr's was not; Hamilton died Next day

The Federalist Papers

A key element in the Federalist campaign for the Constitution was a series of highly persuasive essays written for a New York newspaper by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay. The 85 essays, later published in book form as The Federalist Papers, presented cogent reasons for believing in the practicality of each major provision of the Constitution. Outcome The Federalists won early victories in the state conventions in Delaware, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania-the first three states to ratify. By promising to add a bill of rights to the Constitution, they successfully addressed the Anti-Federalists' most telling objection. With New Hampshire voting yes in June 1788, the Federalists won the necessary nine states to achieve ratification of the Constitution. Even so, the larger states of Virginia and New York had not yet acted. If they failed to ratify, any chance for national unity and strength would be in dire jeopardy. on Colonial experiences Disadvantages Constitution was new and Poorly organized; slow to untried; as originally written, respond to Federalist it lacked a bill of rights challenge Virginia In 1788, Virginia was by far the most populous of the original 13 states. There, the Anti-Federalists rallied behind two strong leaders, George Mason and Patrick Henry, who viewed the Constitution and a strong central government as threats to Americans' hard-won liberty. Virginia's Federalists, led by Washington, Madison, and John Marshall, managed to prevail by a close vote only after promising a bill of rights. Final States News of Virginia's vote had enough influence on New York's ratifying convention (combined with Alexander Hamilton's efforts) to win the day for the Constitution in that state. North Carolina in November 1789 and Rhode Island in May 1790 reversed their earlier rejections and thus became the last two states to ratify the Constitution as the new "supreme law of the land.'

Religion and its Challenges

Although Maryland was founded by a Catholic proprietor, and larger towns such as New York and Boston attracted some Jewish settlers, the overwhelm ing majority of colonists belonged to various Protestant denominations.In New England, Congregationalists (the successors to the Puritans) and Presbyterians were most common. In New York, people of Dutch descent often attended ser vices of the Reformed Church, while many merchants belonged to the Church of England, also known as Anglicans (and later, Episcopalians). In Pennsylvania, Lutherans, Mennonites, and Quakers were the most common groups.Anglicans were dominant in Vrrginia and some of the other southern colonies. Challenges Each religious group, even the Protestants who dominated the colonies, faced problems. Jews, Catholics, and Quakers suffered from the most serious discrimination and even persecution. Congregationalist ministers were criticized by other Protestants as domineering and for preaching an overly com plex doctrine. Because the Church of England was headed by the king, it was viewed as a symbol of English control in the colonies.In addition, there was no Church of England bishop in America to ordain ministers.The absence of such leadership hampered the church's development

The Articles of Confederation

At Philadelphia in 1776, as Jefferson was writing the Declaration of Independence, John Dickinson drafted the first constitution for the United States as a nation. Congress modified Dickinson's plan to protect the powers of the individual states. The Articles of Confederation, as the document was called, was adopted by Congress in 1777 and submitted to the states for ratification. Ratification of the Articles was delayed by a dispute over the vast American Indian lands west of the Alleghenies. Seaboard states such as Rhode Island and Maryland insisted that these lands be under the jurisdiction of the new central government. When Virginia and New York finally agreed to cede their claims to western lands, the Articles were ratified in March 1781. Structure of Government The Articles established a central government that consisted of just one body, a congress. In this unicameral (one-house) legislature, each state was given one vote, with at least 9 votes out of 13 required to pass important laws. Amending the Articles required a unanimous vote. A Committee of States, with one representative from each state, could make minor decisions when the full congress was not in session. Powers The Articles gave the congress the power to wage war, make treaties, send diplomatic representatives, and borrow money. However, Congress did not have the power to regulate commerce or to collect taxes. To finance any of its decisions, the congress had to rely upon taxes voted by each state. Neither did the government have executive power to enforce its laws. Accomplishments Despite its weaknesses, the congress under the Articles did succeed in accomplishing the following: 1. Winning the war. The U.S. government could claim some credit for the ultimate victory of Washington's army and for negotiating favorable terms in the treaty of peace with Britain. 2. Land Ordinance of 1785. Congress established a policy for surveying and selling the western lands. The policy provided for setting aside one section of land in each township for public education. 3. Northwest Ordinance of 1787. For the large territory lying between the Great Lakes and the Ohio River, the congress passed an ordinance (law) that set the rules for creating new states. The Northwest Ordinance granted limited self-government to the developing territory and prohibited slavery in the region. Problems with the Articles The 13 states intended the central government to be weak-and it was. The government faced three kinds of problems: 1. Financial. Most war debts were unpaid. Individual states as well as the congress issued worthless paper money. The underlying problem was that the congress had no taxing power and could only request that the states donate money for national needs. 2. Foreign. European nations had little respect for a new nation that could neither pay its debts nor take effective and united action in a crisis. Britain and Spain threatened to take advantage of U.S. weakness by expanding their interests in the western lands soon after the war ended. 3. Domestic. In the summer of 1786, Captain Daniel Shays, a Massachusetts farmer and Revolutionary War veteran, led other farmers in an uprising against high state taxes, imprisonment for debt, and lack of paper money. The rebel farmers stopped the collection of taxes and forced the closing of debtors' courts. In January 1787, when Shays and his followers attempted to seize weapons from the Springfield armory, the state militia of Massachusetts broke Shays's Rebellion.

The Structure of Colonial Society

Each of the thirteen British colonies developed distinct patterns of life. How ever, they all also shared a number of characteristics. General Characteristics Most of the population was English in origin, language, and tradition. How ever, both Africans and non-English immigrants brought diverse influences that would modify the culture of the majority in significant ways. Self-government The government of each colony had a representative assembly that was elected by eligible voters (limited to white male property own ers). In only two colonies, Rhode Island and Connecticut, was the governor also elected by the people. The governors of the other colonies were either appointed by the crown (for example, New York and Virginia) or by a proprietor (Pennsyl vania and Maryland). Religious Toleration All of the colonies permitted the practice of different religions, but with varying degrees of freedom. Massachusetts , the most conser vative, accepted several types of Protestants, but it excluded non-Christians and Catholics. Rhode Island and Pennsylvania were the most liberal. No Hereditary Aristocracy The social extremes of Europe, with a nobil ity that inherited special privileges and masses of hungry poor, were missing in the colonies. A narrower class system, based on economics, was developing. Wealthy landowners were at the top; craft workers and small farmers made up the majority of the common people. Social Mobility With the major exception of the African Americans, all people in colonial society had an opportunity to improve their standard of liv ing and social status by hard work.

The Revolutionary War

From the first shots fired on Lexington green in 1775 to the final signing of a peace treaty in 1783, the American War for Independence, or Revolutionary War, was a long and bitter struggle. As Americans fought they also forged a new national identity, as the former colonies became the United States of America. About 2.6 million people lived in the 13 colonies at the time of the war. Maybe 40 percent of the population actively participated in the struggle against Britain. They called themselves American Patriots. Around 20 to 30 percent sided with the British as Loyalists. Everyone else tried to remain neutral and uninvolved. Patriots The largest number of Patriots were from the New England states and Virginia. Most of the soldiers were reluctant to travel outside their own region. They would serve in local militia units for short periods, leave to work their farms, and then return to duty. Thus, even though several hundred thousand people fought on the Patriot side in the war, General Washington never had more than 20,000 regular troops under his command at one time. His army was chronically short of supplies, poorly equipped, and rarely paid. African Americans Initially, George Washington rejected the idea of African Americans serving in the Patriot army. However, when the British promised freedom to enslaved people who joined their side, Washington and the congress quickly made the same offer. Approximately 5,000 African Americans fought as Patriots. Most of them were free citizens from the North, who fought in mixed racial forces, although there were some all-African American units. African Americans took part in most of the military actions of the war, and a number, including Peter Salem, were recognized for their bravery. Washington's demoralized troops suffered through the severe winter of 1777-1778 camped at Valley Forge in Pennsylvania. The Revolutionary War was being fought, leaders of the 13 colonies worked to change them into independently governed states, each with its own constitution (written plan of government). At the same time, the revolutionary Congress that originally met in Philadelphia tried to define the powers of a new central government for the nation that was coming into being. State Governments By 1777, ten of the former colonies had written new constitutions. Most of these documents were both written and adopted by the states' legislatures. In a few of the states (Maryland, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina), a proposed constitution was submitted to a vote of the people for ratification (approval). Each state constitution was the subject of heated debate between conserwatives, who stressed the need for law and order, and liberals, who were most concerned about protecting individual rights and preventing future tyrannies. Although the various constitutions differed on specific points, they had the following features in common: List of Rights. Each state constitution began with a "bill' or "declaration' listing the basic rights and freedoms, such as a jury trial and freedom of religion, that belonged to all citizens by right and that state officials could not infringe (encroach on). Separation of Powers With a few exceptions, the powers of state government were given to three separate branches: (1) legislative powers to an elected two-house legislature, (2) executive powers to an elected governor, and (3) judicial powers to a system of courts. The principle of separation of powers was intended to be a safeguard against tyranny--especially against the tyranny of a too-powerful executive. Voting The right to vote was extended to all white males who owned some property. The property requirement, usually for a minimal amount of land or money, was based on the assumption that property owners had a larger stake in government than did the poor and propertyless. Office-Holding Those seeking elected office were usually held to a higher property qualification than the voters.

New Revenues and Regulations

In the first two years of peace, King George III's chancellor of the exchequer (treasury) and prime minister, Lord George Grenville, successfully pushed through Parliament three measures that aroused colonial suspicions of a British plot to subvert their liberties. Sugar Act (1764) This act (also known as the Revenue Act of 1764) placed duties on foreign Sugar and certain luxuries. Its chief purpose was to raise money for the crown, and a companion law also provided for stricter enforcement of the Navigation Acts to stop smuggling. Those accused of smuggling were to be tried in admiralty courts by crown-appointed judges without juries. Quartering Act (1765) This act required the colonists to provide food and living quarters for British soldiers stationed in the colonies. Stamp Act In an effort to raise funds to support British military forces in the colonies, Lord Grenville turned to a tax long in use in Britain. The Stamp Act, enacted by Parliament in 1765, required that revenue stamps be placed on most printed paper in the colonies, including all legal documents, newspapers, pamphlets, and advertisements. This was the first direct tax-collected from those who used the goods-paid by the people in the colonies, as opposed to the taxes on imported goods, which were paid by merchants. People in every colony reacted with indignation to news of the Stamp Act. A young Virginia lawyer named Patrick Henry spoke for many when he stood up in the House of Burgesses to demand that the king's government recognize the rights of all citizens-including the right not to be taxed without representation. In Massachusetts, James Otis initiated a call for cooperative action among the colonies to protest the Stamp Act. Representatives from nine colonies met in New York in 1765 to form the so-called Stamp Act Congress. They resolved that only their own elected representatives had the legal authority to approve taxes. The protest against the stamp tax took a violent turn with the formation of the Sons and Daughters of Liberty, a secret society organized for the purpose of intimidating tax agents. Members of this society sometimes destroyed revenue stamps and tarred and feathered revenue officials. Boycotts against British imports were the most effective form of protest. It became fashionable in the colonies in 1765 and 1766 for people not to purchase any article of British origin. Faced with a sharp drop in trade, London merchants put pressure on Parliament to repeal the controversial Stamp Act. Declaratory Act In 1766, Grenville was replaced by another prime minister, and Parliament voted to repeal the Stamp Act. When news of the repeal reached the colonies, people rejoiced. Few colonists at the time noted that Parliament had also enacted a face-saving measure known as the Declaratory Act (1766). This act asserted that Parliament had the right to tax and make laws for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever." This declaration of policy would soon lead to renewed conflict between the colonists and the British government.

Jefferson wanted to reverse Federalist policies by reducing the size and cost of the national government

Jefferson believed the government had grown too large and powerful He cut the size of the army He eliminated taxes on whiskey, slaves, and property He allowed the charter of the Bank of the U.S. to expire Focused on paying down the federal government's debt Wanted an Agrarian society

When Americans declared independence in 1776, they needed to form a new government

The American republic would be a more "enlightened" version of the Roman Senate . They wanted to form a republic where citizens vote for elected leaders to represent them. They wanted to protect citizens & individual states from a powerful national government When independence was declared, the 13 colonies became independent states. Each state had its own constitution, legislature, & an elected governor; 8 states had Bills of Rights . But, the USA needed a national gov't to do things that states could not, like sign treaties & form a military. America's 1st national gov't was the Articles of Confederation (1777-1789) This "confederation" style gov't loosely connected the states under a weak national government . Each state could send between 2-7 representatives to the national congress, but each state had only 1 vote, To pass a law, 9 of the 13 states had to agree. The national congress could make laws, settle disputes between states, negotiate treaties, handle Indian affairs, oversee a military. But all other powers were left up to the states no president & could not tax the states or citizens Americans did not want to re-create a powerful gov't like the one they just fought the Revolutionary War to break away from. So, the national gov't had

North America 1763

The French & Indian War changed the relationship between Britain & the American colonists Colonists were excited about the possibility of new land in the west now that the French were gone. Colonists learned new guerilla fighting tactics from the Indians. William Pitt's "blank check" led to huge war debts Parliament expected colonists to help pay off these debts More decisions would now be made by British Parliament The Ottawa Indians, led by Chief Pontiac, attacked frontier settlers who flooded into the Ohio Valley

Pontiac's Rebellion

The first major test of the new British imperial policy came in 1763 when Chief Pontiac led a major attack against colonial settlements on the western frontier. The American Indians were angered by the growing westward movement of European settlers onto their land and by the British refusal to offer gifts as the French had done. Pontiac's alliance of American Indians in the Ohio Valley destroyed forts and settlements from New York to Virginia. Rather than relying on colonial forces to retaliate, the British sent regular British troops to put down the uprising.

Jefferson was widely popular and easily won the election of 1804 But, Jefferson's second term was plagued by foreign policy problems

The war between England and France led to more attacks on U.S. trade ships The British navy impressed more than 1,000 American merchant sailors per year from 1803 to 1807 Jefferson was frustrated with his inability to get England or France to stop attacking U.S. ships In 1807, he ordered an embargo and banned all U.S. trade with England and France The embargo failed, merchants smuggled goods to continue trading with Europe, and the embargo hurt U.S. trade more than England or France Jefferson had to increase the size of the gov't and military to enforce the law

Transportation

Transportation Transporting goods by water was much easier than at tempting to carry them over land on rough and narrow roads or trails. Therefore, trading centers such as Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston were located on the sites of good harbors and navigable rivers. Despite the difficulty and expense of maintaining roads and bridges, overland travel by horse and stage became more common in the 18th century. Taverns not only provided food and lodging for travelers, but also served as social centers where news was exchanged and politics discussed. A postal system using horses on overland routes and small ships on water routes was operating both within and between the colonies by the mid-18th century.

Shays' Rebellion

proved to be the convincing event that led to the Constitutional Convention of 1787. Property foreclosures led an uprising among Massachusetts farmers called Shays' Rebellion in 1787 but the gov't could not pay for an army to stop it. Poor farmers in western MA were angered over high taxes & prospect of debtors jail . Daniel Shays led an uprising & closed debt courts & threatened a federal arsenal. After Shays' Rebellion, people like Hamilton & Madison began calling for a stronger national gov't In 1787, delegates met in Philadelphia to discuss ways to improve the Articles. Instead of revising the Articles of Confederation, the delegates replaced it with the Constitution

The Great Compromise

resolved the differences between the large & small states by creating a bicameral Congress In the Senate each state has 2 reps who serve 6-year terms In the House of Representatives, the number of reps is determined by each state's population. Northern & Southern states could not agree whether or not to count slaves towards population size If slaves are counted, Southern states would have more votes and power in the House of Representatives The Three-Fifths Compromise allowed states to count three of every five slaves toward taxation and population size Many Northerners wanted to use the Constitutional Convention to end slavery, but Southerners threatened to leave the USA anytime slavery was discussed As a compromise for the South, the slave trade could continue for 20 more years & runaway slaves would be returned to slave masters James Madison negotiated and wrote much of the framework of the new government and is referred to as the "father of the Constitution"