Periods 8 and 9: APUSH

Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, 1963

(1963) Best-selling book by feminist thinker Betty Friedan. This work challenged women to move beyond the drudgery of suburban housewifery to demand a larger role in society on the basis of equality. Helped launch what would become second-wave feminist movement that would go beyond issues of suffrage to focus on economic, political, and social equality issues like equal pay for equal work and the ERA (Equal Rights Amendment)

Roe v. Wade, 1973

(Burger) Certain state criminal abortion laws violate the Due Process clause of the 14th Amendment, which protects against state action the (implied) right to privacy in the Bill of Rights (9th amendment). Abortion cannot be banned in the 1st trimester (1st 3 months), states can regulate the 2nd trimester, 3rd trimester - abortion is illegal except to save the life of the mother

Miranda v. State of Arizona, 1966

(Warren) Criminal suspect's rights include being informed of rights to counsel and to remain silent.

Cuban Missile Crises, 1962

13 days in October 1962 when the world came the closest it ever has to nuclear war. After the failed Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba by CIA-trained Cuban exiles, Castro agreed to allow the USSR to have Soviet nuclear missiles placed in Cuba pointed at the US. The US set up a blockade to prevent Soviet ships from approaching Cuba. Kennedy and Soviet PM Khrushchev finally reached a bargain where the Soviets wouldn't put nukes in Cuba if the US removed nukes from Turkey that were pointed at USSR

Why 1945 - 1980 was chosen as the dates for period 8

1945 = End of WWI/Beginning of the Cold War; 1980 = election of Ronald Reagan, conservative movement

Brown v. Board of Education

1954 Supreme Court Case that ruled separate facilities based on race inherently unequal. Reversed Plessy v. Ferguson

Why 1980 - Present was chosen as the dates for period 9

1980 = election of Ronald Reagan, conservative movement through present day (including war on terrorism)

Interstate Highway Act, 1956

25 billion dollars for the construction of the Interstate Highway System over a 20-year period, it was the largest public works project in American history through that time. Passed under Eisenhower, it was justified in part by the necessity for internal transportation in case of communist attack. Stimulated growth of suburbs and economy.

Marshall Plan, 1947

A plan that the US came up with to revive war-torn economies of Europe. This plan offered $13 billion in aid to western and Southern Europe on condition they wouldn't go communist. Helped contain communism in Europe and helped our economy as Europe bought from US businesses to rebuild.

Conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq

Afghanistan - response to 9/11; Iraq - concerns over WMDs and terrorism (no WMDs were found); both resulted in prolonged wars, the Iraq War in particular hurt Republicans and Bush as many Americans felt misled into war.

U-2 aircraft shot down by USSR, 1960

An American U-2 spy plane flown by Gary Powers is shot down while spying over the USSR. The incident derailed an important summit meeting between Eisenhower and Soviet leader Khrushchev. At first the US tried to deny what had happened, but was forced to admit it. It was a major embarrassment to the US and prompted a marked deterioration in its relations with the USSR. Powers was convicted of espionage and sentenced to 3 years of imprisonment plus 7 years of hard labor, but he was released on 10 February 1962 during a prisoner exchange.

Neil Armstrong walked on moon, 1969

Apollo 11 was the spaceflight that landed the first humans on the Moon, Americans Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, on July 20, 1969. This won the race to the moon against the USSR, who had beaten the US with Sputnik (first artificial satellite) and Yuri Gagarin (first man to orbit earth). Armstrong famously said, "that's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind."

Election of 1968

At the end of a difficult year, the presidential election of 1968 was held. Republican candidate Richard Nixon appealed to a nation tired of violence and unrest as the "law and order" candidate. Nixon vowed he would end the Vietnam War and win "peace with honor." Democratic nominee, Hubert Humphrey, Johnson's vice president, seemed a continuation of the old politics. In the end, Richard Nixon won.

Oklahoma City bombing, 1995

Attack on the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in downtown Oklahoma City on April 19, 1995. It remained the most destructive act of terrorism committed in the United States until 9/11/01. Killed 168 people. Destroyed or damaged 324 buildings($652 million). The official investigation, known as "OKBOMB", was the largest criminal investigation case in American history. As a result of the bombing, the U.S. government passed the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996.

Environmental Problems

Brought to the attention of the public by Rachel Carson and Silent Spring; helped lead to the creation of the EPA and Clean Air Act

Containment

Coined by George Kennan; urged the US to keep communism from spreading (Contain communism)

Climate Change

Continuing of the environmental movement of the 1960s and 1970s. Overwhelming scientific consensus (97%) is that human beings are accelerating climate change, but many conservatives continue to deny scientific evidence. Debates over sources of energy warped by influence of wealthy fossil fuel industries to media and political campaigns

Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, 1979

December 24, 1979 was the day that Soviet forces, after a series of perpetual pleas for assistance by the Afghan government, invaded Afghanistan, marking the beginning of the Soviet War in Afghanistan that lasted about 9 years. The two opposing sides consisted of the USSR and the democratic Republic of Afghanistan against the Sunni Mujahideen (Islamic warriors), who were supported by Pakistan, China, the US, the UK, Saudi Arabia, and Iran. These forces would later form the Taliban and al-Qaeda which would come to haunt the US in a classic case of "blowback"

OPEC oil embargo, 1973

During the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, Arab members of OPEC imposed an oil embargo against the US in retaliation for the US support for Israel. The price of oil in the US tripled causing widespread economic hardship.

Bellicose Rhetoric

Early in his administration, Reagan used aggressive words towards the Soviet Union: "Evil Empire"

Détente

Easing of Cold War tensions between the US and Soviet Union (Examples include: SALT I and Salt II)

Military-Industrial Complex

Eisenhower warned of a drastic military buildup in his farewell address

Reagan Administration

Elected in 1980, focused on denouncing "Big Government", decreasing taxes, increased military spending

Korean War

Example of Containment; US sided with South Korea against communist North Korea; some minor domestic opposition to the war

Barack Obama elected, 2008

First African American president. First years in office witnessed many important new laws: Affordable Care Act (AKA "Obamacare") extended health care to millions but was controversial. Financial reform after the economic collapse at the end of the Bush Administration. Most pro-gay rights president who ended "Don't Ask Don't Tell" and was the first to endorse gay marriage. Oversaw the withdrawal of forces from Iraq and the reconstruction of the American economy. Faced rise of the Tea Party in 2010, an extremely conservative wing of Republican Party that turned increasingly conservative and hostile to Obama's policies as American politics became extremely partisan.

Sputnik, 1957

First man-made satellite put into orbit by the USSR. This caused fear in the US that the Soviets had passed them by in science & technology and the arms race. Democrats scorched the Republican administration of Dwight D. Eisenhower for allowing the United States to fall so far behind the communists. Eisenhower responded by speeding up the U.S. space program (NASA), which resulted in the launching of the satellite Explorer I on January 31, 1958. The "space race" had begun. In 1969, the US would land men on the moon, a major victory.

September 11th terrorist attacks, 2001

Four coordinated terrorist attacks launched by the Islamic terrorist group al-Qaeda upon the US in NYC and the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area. Four passenger airliners were hijacked by terrorists. 2 crashed into the World Trade Center in NYC. A third plane crashed into the Pentagon in DC. The fourth plane was targeted at Washington, D.C., but crashed into a field in Pennsylvania after passengers attacked terrorists on the plane. Led directly to 2002 invasion of Afghanistan (then the base of al-Qaeda operations) and the longest war in US history.

Free Trade Agreements

Goal is to increase trade among countries by reducing tariffs (NAFTA - no tariffs between US, Canada, and Mexico)

Foreign Policy "failures"

Helped lead to public distrust in government; example is Iran Hostage Crisis

John F. Kennedy assassinated, 1963

In 1963 in Dallas, riding in a parade to drum up support for the upcoming presidential election in 1964, JFK was shot twice by ex-Marine Lee Harvey Oswald and pronounced dead at Parkland hospital. JFK's Vice President LBJ was immediately sworn into office. Oswald was later killed by Jack Ruby before he could stand trial.

Berlin Airlift, 1948

In June 1948, the USSR-who wanted Berlin all for themselves-closed all highways, railroads and canals into Berlin from West Germany. This, they believed, would make it impossible for the people who lived there to get food or any other supplies and would eventually drive Britain, France and the US out of the city for good. However, the US and its allies decided to supply their sectors of the city from the air. The "Berlin Airlift," lasted for more than a year and carried more than 2.3 million tons of cargo in 277,000 flights into West Berlin.

Eisenhower's Farewell Address, 1961

In his Farewell Address, Eisenhower warned of the necessary, but dangerous combination of the military and the industrial sector he called the MILITARY-INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX. This combination ensured that the U.S. would constantly be prepared for war. Although realizing the need to have this alliance between the defense and industries, Eisenhower also recognized the potential for the rise of mis-placed power, and urged citizens to be alert so this power would never threaten democracy (as miltiary power had in the past - Caesar and Napoleon for example)

Peace Corps, 1961

JFK called for volunteers who help third world nations and prevent the spread of communism by fighting poverty in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The work is generally related to social and economic development. Volunteers went abroad to work with governments, schools, non-profit organizations, non-government organizations, entrepreneurs in education, hunger, business, information technology, agriculture, and the environment.

Joseph McCarthy attacked the State Department, 1950

Joseph McCarthy, a relatively obscure Republican senator from Wisconsin, announces he has a list of 205 communists who have infiltrated the U.S. State Department. In widely publicized hearings, McCarthy bullied defendants under cross-examination with unlawful and damaging accusations, destroying the reputations of hundreds of innocent citizens and officials. In December, the Senate voted to condemn him for misconduct after he attacked the US military as full of communists. Most extreme example of Second Red Scare anti-communist hysteria.

Julius and Ethel Rosenberg executed, 1953

Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, a married couple convicted of conspiracy to commit espionage in 1951, are put to death in the electric chair. The execution marked the dramatic finale of the most controversial espionage case of the Cold War. Specifically, they were accused of heading a spy ring that passed top-secret information concerning the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union. Part of Second Red Scare anti-communist hysteria

The Great Society, 1964-65

LBJ & Democratic social reforms that sought the elimination of poverty and racial injustice. New major spending programs that addressed education, medical care, urban problems, and transportation were launched during this period. The Great Society in scope and sweep resembled the New Deal domestic agenda of FDR. Most important: Medicare (health care for those over 65), Medicaid (health care for poor, disabled)

Great Society

LBJ's platform; increased the size and involvement of the government in society. Extension of New Deal programs and Civil Rights (24th amendment, Civil Rights Act of 1964.)

National Security Act, 1947

Major reorganization of US military after WWII to fight Cold War. It creating the Department of Defense (replacing Dept. of War) in a new building - the Pentagon. Also established the National Security Council (NSC) to advise the president on security matters and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to coordinate the government's foreign fact gathering (spying) and subvert governments and popular movements seen as contrary to the interests of US government elites.

Joseph McCarthy condemned for misconduct, 1954

McCarthy's anti-communist witch hunt during the Second Red Scare, bullying tactics, and lack of evidence caused the public to turn against him, especially after his army hearings were televised. The Senate condemned him for his actions.

Suburbanization

More and more Americans moved to suburbs after WWII (cars, Interstate Highway System, Levittown)

Counterculture

Movement most represented by the Hippies - protested Vietnam War; rejected many ideas of their parents' generation (war, materialism, etc.); used marijuana; helped start a sexual revolution

AIM created, 1968

Native American activist organization in the United States. In October 1973 the American Indian Movement gathered its forces from across the country onto the Trail of Broken Treaties, championing Indian unity. The national AIM agenda focused on spirituality, leadership, and sovereignty.

Nixon visited China, 1972

Nixon, who was a leading anti-communist, was the 1st US president to visit China since its 1949 communist revolution. He took advantage of growing conflicts between China and the USSR over the "true" form communism, and drove a further wedge between them by improving US-China relations. "Only Nixon could go to China" has become a political metaphor that means the ability of a politician with an unassailable reputation among his supporters for defending their values to take actions that would draw their criticism if taken by someone without those credentials.

NATO formed, 1949

North Atlantic Treaty Organization was an alliance to stand against the Soviet Union (USSR). The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. NATO's headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium, In response, the USSR would form the Warsaw Pact - an alliance of communist countries against the capitalist world.

Integration of Little Rock H.S., 1957

On 1st day of school at Central High, a white mob gathered, and Gov. Orval Faubus deployed state police to prevent the black students from entering. In response, the NAACP sued & won a court injunction to prevent the governor from blocking the students' entry. With the help of police escorts, the students successfully attended school, despite community harassment. Faubus closed all four of Little Rock's public high schools in 1958 to stop desegregation. In 1959, the Supreme Court ruled that the school board must reopen the schools and continue desegregation.

Beirut embassy bombed, 1983

On April 18, 1983, the United States Embassy in Beirut, Lebanon was attacked by a suicide bombing that killed 63 people in total. Up to that time, it was the deadliest attack on a U.S. diplomatic mission and is often thought of as the beginning of anti-U.S. attacks by Islamist groups. This attack came in the wake of the intervention of a Multinational Force in the Lebanese Civil War who's goal was to restore order and central government authority.

Martin Luther King, Jr. assassinated, 1968

On April, 4th 1968 MLK was assassinated in Mephis, Tennesse. This caused an outrage in the black community and riots across the nation.

Vietnam War escalated, 1965

On August 2, 1964, gunboats of North Vietnam allegedly fired on ships of the USNavy stationed in the GULF OF TONKIN. They had been sailing 10 miles off the coast of North Vietnam in support of the South Vietnamese navy. When reports that further firing occurred on August 4, President Johnson quickly asked Congress to respond. With nearly unanimous consent, Congress in the Tonkin Gulf Resolution gave the President a "BLANK CHECK" to wage the war in Vietnam as he saw fit. After LBJ was elected President in his own right that November, he chose escalate the conflict.

Johnson withdrew from presidential race, 1968

On March 31, 1968, following Kennedy's entry into the election, the president announced that he was suspending all bombing of North Vietnam in favor of peace talks. Johnson concluded his speech announcing that he was withdrawing from the election because of his health. He died after two days of getting out of office

Iranian hostage crises, 1979-81

On November 4, 1979, 52 American citizens and diplomats were taken hostage by a group of supporters as the Iranian Revolution took control of the US Embassy in Tehran. These hostages were held captive for 444 days. To Iran, the asylum that was granted to Shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, was viewed as American complicity in the carnages enacted by the Shah, thus giving reason to their acts to take hostages. The crisis hurt President Carter's image, and the hostages were released the day before Reagan took office

Panama Canal Treaty, 1977

Passed by President Carter, these called for the gradual return of the Panama Canal to the people and government of Panama. They provided for the transfer of canal ownership to Panama in 1999 and guaranteed its neutrality. Condemned by many of Carter's opponents.

Baby Boom

Post WWII drastic increase in births in the US (1946 - 1964); led to future issues with Social Security

Denouncing "Big Government"

Reagan criticized the growth of the federal government over the previous years (Great Society)

War on terrorism

Response to 9/11, US would actively fight terrorism throughout the world

Immigration Laws of 1965

Reversed discriminatory quotas acts from the 1920s; favored immigrants from Latin America and Asia

Invasion of Grenada, 1983

Ronald Reagan dispatched an invasion force to the island of Grenada, where a military coup had killed the prime minister and brought Marxists to power ----Americans captured the island quickly demonstrating Reagan's determination to assert the dominance of the US in the Carribbean

Persian Gulf War, 1991

Saddam Hussein's Iraq invaded Kuwait over oil dispute on the border against US wishes (Saddam had formerly been US ally). US invaded Iraq to liberate Kuwait; Iraq set Kuwait's oil fields on fire so the Americans couldn't gain the oil; this conflict caused the US to set military bases in Saudi Arabia; also called Operation: Desert Storm.

Pentagon Papers, 1971

Secret document papers, leaded by Daniel Ellsberg, published by the New York Times in 1971, showed the blunders and deceptions that led the United States that led to the Vietnam war. Revealed the government misleading the people of its involvement in Vietnam, both about the intentions and the outcomes of the conflict.

Mikhail Gorbachev

Soviet leader that saw improved relations with Reagan, instituted glasnost and perestroika which helped lead to the downfall of the Soviet Union

Kent State, 1970

Students protesting against the expansion of the Vietnam War into Cambodia by Nixon; the national guard opens fire, killing to 4 students. The impact of the shootings was dramatic. The event triggered a nationwide student strike that forced hundreds of colleges and universities to close. Added to antiwar mood that would soon force end of war.

Taxation and deregulation as victories for conservatives

Tax rates decreased under Ronald Reagan and government regulation of businesses decreased as well

"Iron Curtain" speech, 1946

Term coined by British PM Winston Churchill referring to a political barrier that after WWII isolated the peoples of Soviet-dominated communist Eastern Europe from the US-dominated democratic capitalist Western Europe. "Iron Curtain" would last until many countries in Eastern Europe had democratic revolutions in the 1980s

Bay of Pigs, 1961

The Bay of Pigs was a failed invasion of Cuba, planned under Eisenhower, implemented under JFK. Cuban exiles living in the US were trained by the CIA and landed in Cuba at the Bay of Pigs. They believed it would start an uprising of the Cuban people against Castro. That didn't happen, and the event was a huge embarrassment for the US and pushed Castro to seek more help from the USSR, leading directly to the Cuban Missile Crisis

Berlin Wall torn down, 1989

The Berlin Wall was a barrier constructed by East Germany in 1961 that completely cut off West Berlin from surrounding East Germany and East Berlin. In 1989, after hundreds of thousands of East Germans had fled westward via Hungary and Czechoslovakia, the beleaguered East German regime lifted travel restrictions on Nov. 9, and days later the dismantling of the wall began. It became a powerful metaphor for the crumbling of communism in Eastern Europe.

Camp David Accords, 1979

The Camp David Accords were the peace accords signed by Menachem Begin and Anwar Sadat after the 1973 Arab-Israeli War to finally end the Israeli-Egyptian disputes. The achievement by Carter is considered his greatest while in office.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, 1964

The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution was a joint resolution of the U.S. Congress passed on August 7, 1964 in direct response to a minor naval engagement known as the Gulf of Tonkin Incident. It is of historical significance because it gave U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson authorization, without a formal declaration of war by Congress, for the use of military force in Southeast Asia. Led to massive escalation of Vietnam War.

INF Treaty, 1988

The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) is a 1987 agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union. The treaty eliminated nuclear and conventional ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with intermediate ranges, defined as between 500-5,500 km (300-3,400 miles). The treaty was signed in Washington, D.C. by U.S. President Ronald Reagan and General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev on December 8, 1987, it was ratified by the United States Senate on May 27, 1988 and came into force on June 1 of that year.

Montgomery bus boycott, 1955-56

The Montgomery Bus Boycott, was a political and social protest campaign against the policy of racial segregation on the public transit system of Montgomery, Alabama. The campaign lasted from December 1, 1955, when Rosa Parks, an African American woman, was arrested for refusing to surrender her seat to a white person, to December 20, 1956, when a federal ruling, Browder v. Gayle, took effect, and led to a US Supreme Court decision that laws requiring segregated buses to be unconstitutional. MLK Jr. led boycott protests and became a national figure as a result.

My Lai massacre made public, 1969

The Pentagon Papers revealed American troops brutally massacred innocent women and children in the village of My Lai. Led to the opposition to the war of Vietnam

Iran-Contra scandal, 1987

The Reagan Administration illegally sold weapons in secret to the Islamic Republic of Iran while it was fighting Saddam Hussein's Iraq (also supported by the US), then used the money to illegally support brutal right-wing Contras in their attempt to overthrow the left-wing government in Nicaragua even though Congress had prohibited this assistance. Talk of Reagan's impeachment ended when presidential aides took the blame for the illegal activity.

Soviet Union dissolved, 1991

The Revolutions of 1989 that started in Eastern Europe ended with the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the end of Cold War. 1989 saw the Soviet people making a democratic choice for the first time since 1917 when they elected the new Congress of People's Deputies, and Boris Yeltsin as president. Gorbachev, the last Soviet leader, abandoned the oppressive, expensive Brezhnev Doctrine(preservation of Soviet satellite states) and decided not to use force to maintain the Soviet empire, which broke up into 15 different countries.

SALT I and the policy of detente, 1972

The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) were two rounds of bilateral talks and corresponding international treaties involving the United States and the Soviet Union—the Cold War superpowers—on the issue of armament control. The policy of Détente- The term is often used in reference to the general easing of the geo-political tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States which began in 1969, as a foreign policy of U.S. presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford called détente; a 'thawing out' or 'un-freezing' at a period in the middle of the Cold War.

Tet Offensive, 1968

The Tet Offensive was one of the largest military campaigns of the Vietnam War, launched on January 30, 1968 by forces of the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese Army against the forces of South Vietnam, the United States, and their allies. It failed militarily, but had an enormous psychological impact on the US, showing that the war was far from over, and proving that the government was lying about the war.

Vietnamization, 1969

The US policy of withdrawing its troops and transferring the responsibility and direction of the war effort to the government of South Vietnam. It is important because it would bring the end of the Vietnam war in 1973.

Nixon resigned, 1974

The Watergate scandal led to the discovery of multiple abuses of power by the Nixon administration, articles of impeachment, and the resignation of Republican Richard Nixon, the President of the United States, on August 9, 1974—the only resignation of a U.S. president to date.

Clinton impeachment trial, 1999

Two charges, one of perjury and one of obstruction of justice(no infidelity charge!). Second time in history that the House had impeached the President of the United States. Fifty Senators voted to remove Clinton on the obstruction of justice charge and 45 voted to remove him on the perjury charge; no Democrat voted guilty on either charge. Clinton was acquitted of both charges.

Vietnam War

US aided the South (non-communist); led to sizeable, passionate, and sometimes violent protests, especially as the war went on

Civil Rights Activists

Used various techniques (sit-ins, legal challenges, etc.); post-1965, debates emerged over the proper role of activists

Sunbelt

VA to FL, extending to CA; saw a large population increase after WWII and rise of key industries

Anti-war riots at the Chicago Democratic Convention, 1968

Where 10,000 antiwar protestors gathered outside as Hubert Humphrey was decided upon as the Democratic candidate in 1968. Gave impression of Democrats as the party of disorder, helping Nixon win with "law and order" & "silent majority" (meaning pro-war, anti-hippie) message.

Geneva Accords, 1954

a 1954 peace agreement between Ho Chi Minh's communists and the French after the French loss at Dien Bien Phu that divided Vietnam into communist-controlled North and non-communist South until unification elections could be held in 1956. Diem cancelled the elections when he realized the communists would win, further escalating the violence.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

a landmark piece of civil rights legislation in the United States that outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It ended unequal application of voter registration requirements and racial segregation in schools, at the workplace and by facilities that served the general public (known as "public accommodations").

Voting Rights Act, 1965

a landmark piece of federal legislation in the US that prohibits discrimination in voting. Signed by LBJ during the height of the Civil Rights Movement. Designed to enforce the voting rights guaranteed by the 14th & 15th Amendments, the Act allowed for a mass enfranchisement of racial minorities throughout the country, especially in the South. According to the Justice Dept, the Act is widely considered to be the most effective piece of civil rights legislation ever enacted in the US.

March on Washington, 1963

a large political rally that took place in Washington, D.C. on August 28, 1963. Martin Luther King, Jr. delivered his historic "I Have a Dream" speech advocating racial harmony at the Lincoln Memorial during the march. Widely credited as helping lead to the Civil Rights Act (1964) and the National Voting Rights Act (1965). 80% of the marchers were black. Organized by union leader A. Philip Randolph.

Watts riots, 1965

a race riot that took place in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles from August 11 to 17, 1965. The six-day unrest resulted in 34 deaths, 1,032 injuries, 3,438 arrests, and over $40 million in property damage. It was the most severe riot in the city's history until the Los Angeles riots of 1992.

Taft-Hartley Act, 1947

anti-union law passed by increasingly conservative Congress over Truman's veto. Prohibited the closed shop (union only), permitted states to ban union-shop agreements (to become anti-union "right to work" states), forbade union contributions to candidates in federal elections, forced union leaders to swear in affidavits that they were not communists, and mandated an 80 day cooling off period before carrying out strikes. This enraged labor, who called it a "slave labor" law. Helped contribute to massive decline in unions.

Korean War, 1950-1953

began as a civil war between North and South Korea (which had been established by the USSR and US respectively), but the conflict soon became international when, under U.S. leadership, the United Nations joined to support South Korea and China entered to aid North Korea. The war left Korea divided along the 38th parallel. The Korean War was an example of the U.S. Cold War policies of containment and militarization, setting the stage for the further enlargement of the U.S. defense perimeter in Asia (Vietnam)

Freedom Riders, 1961

civil rights activists who rode interstate buses into the segregated southern U.S. in 1961. They wanted to challenge local laws or customs that enforced segregation in seating and bus terminals and the non-enforcement of the U.S. Supreme Court decisions, which ruled segregated public buses unconstitutional. The Southern states had ignored the rulings and the federal government did not enforce them. Helped push Kennedy towards supporting civil rights.

Watergate break-in, 1972

five men arrested for breaking into the Democratic National Committee's executive quarters in the Watergate Hotel. Senate investigations revealed they were trained by the CIA and that the White House was involved. Nixon later admitted to complicity in the burglary, in part because of the recording devices he had installed in the White House held proof he was involved. In July, 1974, Nixon's impeachment began, so he resigned - the only president in US history to do so

Greensboro sit-ins, 1960

nonviolent protest against a segregated lunch counter in Greensboro, N.C., that began on Feb. 1, 1960. Its success led to a wider sit-in movement, organized primarily by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), that spread throughout the South. The sit-in was organized by Ezell Blair, Jr., Franklin McCain, Joseph McNeil, and David Richmond—all African Americans and all students at North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University in Greensboro. Influenced by the nonviolent protest techniques of Mohandas Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr.

Reaganomics began, 1981

refers to the economic policies promoted by President Reagan in the 1980s and is supported by most conservatives today. The policies are similar to laisezz-faire policies of the Gilded Age and 1920s Republican presidents. The five pillars of Reaganomics include: reducing size of federal government spending, reduce taxes, reduce government regulation, increase military spending, and tighten the money supply to reduce inflation. Political opponents often call this form of economics "trickle-down economics" while its advocates title it "supply side economics"

Malcolm X assassinated, 1965

renamed himself X to signify the loss of his African heritage; converted to Nation of Islam in jail in the 50s, became Black Muslims' most dynamic street orator and recruiter; his beliefs were the basis of a lot of the Black Power movement built on seperationist and nationalist impulsesto achieve true independence and equality (violent). After visiting Mecca, he moderated his views and split with the NOI, who then assassinated him.

Truman Doctrine, 1947

stated that the U.S. would support Greece and Turkey with economic and military aid to resist internal left-wing (and therefore it was assumed "communist") movements and prevent them from falling into the Soviet sphere. Early example of application of "containment" doctrine - that the US would take action to stop spread of communism. Some see this as beginning of Cold War.

Brown v. Board of Education, 1954

unanimously held that the racial segregation of children in public schools violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. Brown claimed that Topeka's racial segregation violated the Constitution's Equal Protection Clause because the city's black and white schools were not equal to each other and never could be. Overruled Plessy v. Ferguson's "separate but equal" doctrine and would eventually led to the desegregation of schools across the South

Robert Kennedy assassinated, 1968

while running in Democratic primary in 1968 promoting civil rights and other equality based ideals he was assassinated. Nixon, a Republican, won presidency that year. Sirhan Sirhan, a 24-year-old Palestinian/Jordanian immigrant, was convicted of Kennedy's murder. He possibly could have been president.