Persuasion techniques
Ad hominem
"Against the man". Responding to an argument by attacking the opponent instead of addressing the argument itself. Also called "attacking the messenger". Working on the belief that if there is something wrong or objectionable about the messenger, the message must also be wrong.
Polysyndeton
A figure of speech in which several conjunctions are used to join connected clauses in places where they are not contextually necessary ("many" and "bound together") Sense of abundance and relentlessness
Epistrophe
A figure of speech that involves the repetition of a word or phrase at the end of successive clauses or sentences Opposite to anaphora so that when an author combines epistrophe with anaphora, the author repeats words or phrases at both the beginning and end of successive clauses (symploce)
Euphemism
A more acceptable or usually a more acceptable way of saying something uncomfortable (i.e. collateral damage instead of civilian death)
Tricolon
A rhetorical term for a series of three parallel words, phrases, or clauses
Anecdote
A short, simple narrative of an incident; often used for humorous effect or to make a point.
Sibilance
A special case of consonance in which the repeated consonant sound is either s, sh, z, or any of the other recognized sibilant sounds. Occurring when the repetition of these specific consonants are in close proximity.
Plain folks
A type of TESTIMONIAL - the opposite of Celebrities. Working because we may believe a "regular person" more than an intellectual or a highly-paid celebrity. It is often used to sell everyday products like laundry detergent because we can more easily see ourselves using the product, too. The plain folks technique strengthens the down-home, "authentic" image of products like pickup trucks and politicians. Unfortunately, most of the "plain folks" in ads are actually paid actors carefully selected because they look like "regular people."
Celebrities
A type of TESTIMONIAL - the opposite of Plain Folks. The audience tends to pay attention to famous people, so ads often use celebrities to grab the audience's attention. By appearing in an ad, celebrities implicitly endorse a product; sometimes the endorsement is explicit. Many people know that companies pay celebrities a lot of money to appear in their ads, but this type of testimonial still seems to be effective.
Experts
A type of TESTIMONIAL. The audience relies on experts to advise them about things that they do not know themselves. Scientists, doctors, professors and other professionals often appear in ads and advocacy messages, lending their credibility to the product, service, or idea being sold. Sometimes, Plain Folks can also be experts, as when a mother endorses a brand of baby powder or a construction worker endorses a treatment for sore muscles.
Appeal to Authority
A writer may mention an important event or person in an essay to lend importance or credibility to his/her argument. "According to..."
The Big Lie
According to Adolf Hitler, people are more suspicious of a small lie than a big one. The Big Lie is more than exaggeration or hype - telling a complete falsehood with such confidence and charisma that people believe it. Recognizing The Big Lie requires "thinking outside the box" of conventional wisdom and asking the questions other people do not ask.
Concession
Acknowledging the opposition's main idea
Denotation
Actual meaning of the word
Anecdotal Evidence
An anecdote is a tale involving real life events, a true story. Such stories can be used by writers as evidence to back their claims. To support a contention, and to make themselves appear more credible, writers often use personal anecdotes.
Connotation
An idea or feeling that a word invokes person in addition to its literal or primary meaning
Straw man
Building up an illogical or deliberately damaged idea and presenting it as something that one's opponent supports or represents. Knocking down it is easier than confronting the opponent directly.
Slippery Slope
Combining Extrapolation and Fear. Instead of predicting a positive future, it warns against a negative outcome. Arguing against an idea by claiming it is just the first step down a "slippery slope" toward something the target audience opposes. ("If we let them ban smoking in restaurants because it is unhealthy, eventually they will ban fast food, too." This argument ignores the merits of banning smoking in restaurants.) Commonly used in political debate because it is easy to claim that a small step will lead to a result most people will not like even though small steps can lead in many directions.
Analogy
Comparing one situation to another. For example, comparing the game of football to war.
Analogy
Comparing one situation with another. A good one, where the situations are reasonably similar, can aid decision-making. A weak one may not be persuasive, unless it uses emotionally-charged images that obscure the illogical or unfair comparison.
Hyperbole
Completely overstating and exaggerating your point for effect. (Like when your mom says, "I must have asked you a million times to clean your room!")
Name Calling
Describing poor aspects of a competitor's argument/product so that your argument/product seems better.
Rhetorical Questions
Designed to get us to agree with the speaker. Set up so that the "correct" answer is obvious. Used to build trust and alignment before the sales pitch.
Explicit claims
Directly, fully, and/or clearly expressed or demonstrated. For example, some ads state the price of a product, the main ingredients, where it was made, or the number of items in the package - these are explicit claims. So are specific, measurable promises about quality, effectiveness, or reliability, like "Works in only five minutes!". Explicit claims can be proven true or false through close examination or testing, and if they are false, the advertiser can get in trouble. It can be surprising to learn how few ads make explicit claims. Mos of them try to persuade the audience in ways that cannot be proven or disproved.
Diversion
Diverting our attention from a problem or issue by raising a separate issue, usually one where the persuader has a better chance of convincing us. Often used to hide the part of the story not being told. Also known as a "red herring."
Flattery
Doing it by showing people doing stupid things so that we will feel smarter or superior. Working because we like to be praised and we tend to believe people we like.
Scapegoating
Extremely powerful and very common in political speech. Blaming a problem on one person, group, race, religion, etc. i.e. Some people claim that undocumented ("illegal") immigrants are the main cause of unemployment in the US even though unemployment is a complex problem with many causes. Particularly dangerous form of Simple solution.
Emphasis
Five types of emphasis that writers use to draw the reader's attention to a specific point or idea: Repetition, Cumulation, Alliteration, Anaphora, Parallelism
Humor
Grabbing our attention and it is a powerful persuasion technique. When we laugh, we feel good. Advertisers make us laugh and then show us their product or logo because they are trying to connect that good feeling to their product. They hope that when we see their product in a store, we will subtly re-experience that good feeling and select their product. Advocacy messages (and news) rarely use humor because it can undermine their credibility; an exception is political satire.
Inclusive Language
Inclusive language aims to directly address the reader, either personally or as a member of a shared group. This involves using such words as us, we, you, our.
Irony
Irony is present if the writer's words contain more than one meaning. This may be in the form of sarcasm, gentle irony, or a pun (play on words). It can be used to add humor or to emphasize an implied meaning under the surface.
Word Choice (Diction)
Is a person "slim" or "skinny"? Is an oil spill an "incident" or an "accident"? Is a government expenditure an "investment" or a "waste"? Writers reinforce their arguments by choosing words.
Simple Solution
Life is complicated. People are complex. Problems often have many causes, and they are not easy to solve. These realities create anxiety for many of us. Persuaders offer relief by ignoring complexity and proposing a Simple solution. Politicians claim one policy change (lower taxes, a new law, a government program) will solve big social problems. Advertisers take this strategy even further, suggesting that a deodorant, a car, or a brand of beer will make you beautiful, popular, and successful.
Statistical Evidence
Like any form of evidence, statistics can be used to make an argument seem more conclusive, a writer's opinion more valid. Often statistics are used that are out of context, or from unreliable sources. As the saying goes, "There are lies, damned lies, and statistics."
Name-calling
Linking a person or idea to a negative symbol (liar, creep, gossip, etc.). Opposite of glittering generalities. Using to make us reject the person or the idea on the basis of the negative symbol, instead of looking at the available evidence. A subtler version is to use adjectives with negative connotations (extreme, passive, lazy, pushy, etc.)
Association
Linking a product, service, or idea with something already linked or desired by the target audience, such as fun, pleasure, beauty, security, intimacy, success, wealth, etc. The media message does not make explicit claims; the association is implied. A good ad can create a strong emotional response and then associate that feeling with a brand (emotional transfer). Beautiful people, Warm & fuzzy, Symbols, and Nostalgia
Testimonials
Media messages often show people testifying about the value or quality of a product, or endorsing an idea. They can be experts, celebrities, or plain folks. We tend to believe them because they appear to be a neutral third party (a pop star, for example, not the lipstick maker, or a community member instead of the politician running for office.). Working best when it seems like the person "testifying" is doing so because they genuinely like the product or agree with the idea. Some testimonials may be less effective when we recognize that the person is getting paid to endorse the product.
Card Stacking
No one can tell the whole story; we all tell part of the story. Deliberately providing a false context to give a misleading impression. It "stacks the deck," selecting only favorable evidence to lead the audience to the desired conclusion.
Asyndeton
Omission of a conjunction such as "and" or "as" from a series of related clauses as a means to accelerate a passage and emphasize the significance of the relation between these clauses ("not linked" or "unconnected") Opposite to syndeton (use of one conjunction to connect related caluses)
Fear
Opposite of Association. Using something disliked or feared by the intended audience (like bad breath, failure, high taxes or terrorism) to promote a "solution." Ads use fear to sell us products that claim to prevent or fix the problem. Politicians and advocacy groups stoke our fears to get elected or to gain support.
Nostalgia
Opposite of New. Many advertisers invoke a time when life was simpler and quality was supposedly better ("like Mom used to make"). Politicians promise to bring back the "good old days" and restore "tradition". But whose traditions are being restored? Who did they benefit, and who did they harm? Working because people tend to forget the bad parts of the past and remember the good.
Scientific Evidence
Particular application of the Expert. using the paraphernalia science (charts, graphs, statistics, lab coats, etc.) to "prove" somethings. Often working because many people trust science and scientists. Important to look closely at the "evidence" because it can be misleading.
Bandwagon
Persuade people to do something by letting them know others are all doing it as well ("everyone is doing it"). No one likes to be left out or left behind, and these ads urge the audience to "jump on the bandwagon."
Extrapolation
Persuaders sometimes draw huge conclusions on the basis of a few small facts. Working by ignoring complexity. Most persuasive when it predicts something we hope can or will be true.
Bribery
Persuading the audience to buy a product by promising to give the audience something else, like a discount, a rebate, a coupon, or a "free gift". Examples include sales, special offers, contests, and sweepstakes. Unfortunately, the audience does not really get something for free - part of the sales price covers the cost of the bribe.
Colloquial Language
Refers to the usage of informal or everyday language. This slang can be used in different ways. It can set the writer up as knowledgeable, on the inside of a social group. A writer may also use slang in a sarcastic manner, to attack an opponent or mock an argument. It may also be used to appeal to a reader's own sense of cultural identity, or reinforce a writer's overall tone.
Consonance
Repetition of the same consonant sound in close proximity
Assonance
Repetition of the same vowel sound in close succession
Imagery
Sensory details in a work; the use of figurative language to evoke a feeling, call to mind an idea, or describe an object. Imagery involves any or all of the five senses
Majority belief
Similar to Bandwagon. Working on the assumption that if most people believe something, it must be true. Why polls and survey results are so often sued to back up an argument, even though pollsters will admit that responses vary widely depending on how one asks the question.
Timing
Sometimes a media message is persuasive not because of what it says, but because of when it is delivered. As simple as placing ads for flowers and candy just before Valentine's Day, or delivering a political speech right after a major news event. Sophisticated ad campaigns commonly roll out carefully-timed phases to grab our attention, stimulate desire, and generate a response.
Rhetorical Question
Sometimes a writer or speaker will ask a question to which no answer is required. The answer is obvious so the reader has no choice but to agree with the writer's point.
Charisma
Sometimes, persuaders can be effective simply by appearing firm, bold, strong, and confident. Particularly true in political and advocacy messages. People often follow charismatic leaders even when they disagree with their positions on issues that affect them.
Card Stacking
Telling the facts for one side only.
Tone
The attitude a work takes towards its subject and theme. It reflects the author's attitude.
Intensity
The language of ads is full of intensifiers, including superlatives, comparatives, hyperbole, exaggeration, and many other ways to hype the product.
Antithesis
The presentation of two contrasting ideas. The ideas are balanced by word, phrase, clause, or paragraphs. "To be or not to be..." "Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country...."
Anaphora
The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of a sentence.
Parallelism
The technique of arranging words, phrases, clauses, or larger structures by placing them side by side and making them similar in form. Example (from Churchill): "We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields.
Syntax
The way words are put together to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. It is sentence structure and how it influences the way a reader perceives a piece of writing.
Alliteration
This refers to the repetition of the first sound in consecutive words, an effect which draws attention to the words in question. (Ex. "To rip people off so blatantly shows Mr. Craven to be cruel, calculating and crooked.")
Figurative Language
This tool is not limited to poets. Essay writers often use figures of speech or comparisons (simile, metaphor, personification, symbolism, allusion) for desired emphasis.
Expert Opinion
To make a writer's position seem more credible, they may quote the opinions of experts that correspond with their own. As in a court case, experts are often called on to make one side seem stronger and more believable.
Juxtaposition
To place two concepts, characters, ideas, or places near or next to each other so that the reader will compare and contrast them. Implying a link that is not necessarily real or to be trusted.
Maybe
Unproven, exaggerated or outrageous claims are commonly preceded by "weasel words" such as may, might, can, could, some, many, often, virtually, as many as, or up to. Watch for these words if an offer seems too good to be true. Commonly used with Intensity, making the whole thing meaningless
Ambiguity
Use of language in which multiple meanings are possible. Ambiguity can be unintentional through insufficient focus on the part of the writer; in good writing, ambiguity is frequently intentional in the form of multiple connotative meanings, or situations in which either the connotative or the denotative meaning can be valid in a reading.
Glittering generalities
Use of so-called "virtue words" such as civilization, democracy, freedom, patriotism, motherhood, fatherhood, science, health, beauty, and love. Persuaders use those words in the hope that we will approve and accept their statements without examining the evidence. They hope that few people will ask whether it is appropriate to invoke these concepts, while even fewer will ask what these concepts really mean.
Denial
Used to escape responsibility for something that is unpopular or controversial. It can be either direct or indirect. A politician who says, "I won't bring up my opponent's martial problems," has just brought up the issue without sounding mean.
Beautiful people
Using good-looking models (or celebrities) to attract the audience's attention. Extremely common in ads, which may also imply that we will look like the models if we use the product (NOT TRUE).
Cumulation
Using many similar words in a short space is cumulation and can give weight to the idea being expressed. (Ex. "This task requires guts, determination, grit and willpower.")
Warm & Fuzzy
Using sentimental images (especially of families, kids and animals) to stimulate feelings of pleasure, comfort, and delight. It may also include the use of soothing music, pleasant voices, and evocative words like "cozy" or "cuddly." Another form of Association. Working well with some audiences, but not with others, who may find it too corny.
Facts
Using statistics or data to support an argument.
Testimonial
Using words of an expert, a famous person, or a regular "Joe" to persuade others.
Group dynamics
We are greatly influenced by what other people think and do. We can get carried away by the potent atmosphere of live audiences, rallies, or other gatherings. A more intense version of the Majority belief and Bandwagon.
New
We tend to believe that new things and new ideas are better than old ones because the dominant culture in the US (and many other countries) places great faith in technology and progress. But sometimes leading to new and more difficult problems.
Logos
When a writer tries to persuade the audience based on statistics, facts, and reasons. The process of reasoning.
Pathos
When a writer tries to persuade the audience by appealing to their emotions. The aspects of a literary work that elicit sorrow or pity from the audience. An appeal to emotion that can be used as a means to persuade. Over-emotionalism can be the result of an excess of pathos.
Ethos
When a writer tries to persuade the audience to respect and believe him or her based on a presentation of image of self through the text. Reputation is sometimes a factor in ethical appeal, but in all cases the aim is to gain the audience's confidence.
Repetition
When used sparingly for effect, it can reinforce the writer's message and/or entertain the reader. Writers may repeat a word, a phrase or an entire sentence for emphasis. (Ex. "We will all suffer for years to come unless we stop this government, stop them in the workplace, stop them in the polls, and stop them on election day.")
Euphemism
While the Glittering generalities and Name-calling arouse audiences with vivid, emotionally suggestive words, it tries to pacify audiences in order to make an unpleasant reality more palatable. Bland or abstract terms re used instead of clearer, more graphic words. Thus, we hear about corporate "downsizing" instead of "layoffs," or "intensive interrogation techniques" instead of "torture".
Cause vs. Correlation
While understanding true causes and true effects is important, persuaders can fool us by intentionally confusing correlation with cause. i.e. Babies drink milk. Babies cry. Drinking milk makes babies cry.
Repetition
Within an ad or advocacy message, words, sounds or images may be repeated to reinforce the main point. The message itself (a TV commercial, a billboard, a website banner ad) may be displayed many times. Even unpleasant ads and political slogans work if they are repeated enough to pound their message into our minds.
Symbols
Words or images that bring to mind some larger concept, usually one with strong emotional content, such as home, family, nation, religion, gender, or lifestyle. Persuaders use the power, and intensity of symbols to make their case. Able to have different meanings for different people.
Evidence
Writers use evidence to make their argument stronger and bolster their credibility. There are three main types of evidence: Anecdotal; Expert Opinion and Statistical:
