Phil 2 Midterm

Give two examples of valid argument forms and two examples of invalid argument forms.

Valid: -Modus Ponens: 1.) if P, then Q 2.) P 3.) Therefore, Q. -Disjunctive Syllogism: 1.) Either P or Q 2.) Not P 3.) Therefore, Q Invalid: -Affirming the Consequent: 1.) If P, then Q 2.) Q 3.)Therefore, P -Denying the Antecedent: 1.) If P, then Q 2.) Not P 3.)Therefore, not Q

What is an argument?

series of statements where the last statements where the last statement supposedly follows from or is supported by the first statements. ex: 1.) everyone who lives in LA lives in California 2.) Alvin lives in LA 3.) Therefore, Alvin lives in California.

What is an indexical?

word whose reference can shift from context to context (this, I, you, he, she, we now, here)

Explain David Lewis's distinction between external time and personal time. What is time travel?

-personal time: the time traveler's time. (ex: Doctor Who only experiences an hour passing) -external time: time outside of the time traveler. (Ex: Doctor Who went back to 1984, so 31 years went by) -Time travel takes place when there is a discrepancy between external time and personal time. Arrival and departure are separated by two unequal amounts of time.

Explain the difference between numerical and qualitative identity. Explain Leibniz's law. Explain the paradox of constitution or the Ship of Theseus paradox.

-qualitative identity: number of individuals or objects, or between different stages in the life of the very same individual/object (ex. identical twins, two dimes) -numerical identity: Number of individuals involved (ex. Clark Kent/Superman, Morning star/evening star) -Leibniz's law says that if x and y have different properties at the same time, then x does not equal y. if x=y, then they have the same properties at the same time. -Paradox of constitution: a sculptor takes a lump of clay then turns it into a state, so it seems as though the sculptopr has brought something new to existence. But, the lump of clay still exists. So where there was formerly one thing, there are now two things. the two things are in the same location, but two distinct things cannot be in the same place at the same time.

Explain the liar's paradox. Explain the role the principle of bivalence and the disquotation principle play for the liar's paradox.

1)This sentence is false If (1) is true, then it is false. If it is false, it is true. Bivalence: every declarative statement has exactly one truth value, either true or false. Disquotation principle: a declarative statement is true if and only if what it says is the case. ("X" is true if and only if X)

Explain Kant's argument for the antithesis that composites are not composed of simples. Explain Kant's argument for the thesis that everything is either simple or composed of simples.

1. Everything is either simple or composed of simples (thesis) 2. Every part of every composite thing occupies space 3. The basic parts of every composite are simple (1) 4. Simples occupy space (2,3) 5. Everything that occupies space has parts 6. Therefore, every part of a composite thing is composite So, simples are composite. Kant says that the question of whether objects are divisible leads us to an antinomy. the thesis of the antinomy is: everything is either simple or composed of simples. The antithesis is there aren't any simples; everything can be further broken down. For this argument, let's assume that everything is simple or composed of simples. Every part of composite thing occupies space, the basic parts of every composite are simple, and combining these two premises lead to the argument that simples occupy space. Everything that occupies space has parts. Therefore, every part of a composite thing is composite. This leads to the conclusion that simples are composite, which is the antithesis. If we assume the antithesis is true, it will lead to the opposite conclusion.

State McTaggart's argument to the effect that time is unreal. Explain the arguments pro and con the premise that temporal change is possible only in the A-series.

1. No time without change 2. Change is only possible in the A-series 3. A-series is contradictory 4. Time is unreal pro: -time does not flow in B-series, only in A -the type of time flow in the B-series is not genuine change because it will be a timeless fact. If something was hot on May 11, 2015, it will always be hot on May 11, 2015. con: -time does flow in B-series because time applies to objects, not events. objects change if it has different properties at two different points in time. -simply events going into existence and out of existence

Explain the following conceptual distinctions: a priori/a posteriori, analytic/synthetic, necessary/contingent, necessary/sufficient, type/token, use/mention

A priori/A posteriori: Two types of knowledge -A priori:independent of experience (all bachelors are unmarried) -A posteriori: dependent on experience (most of the bachelors i have met are very happy) Analytic/Synthetic: types of propositions -Analytic: true by virtue of their meaning (bachelors are unmarried) -Synthetic: True by how their meaning relates to the word (Bachelors are unhappy) Necessary/Contingent: -Necessary: must be true or whose opposite is impossible (2+2=4) -Contingent: truth is not necessary and the opposite is possible (It seldom rains in the Sahara) Type/Token: -type: category or class of object/event -token: specific instance or occurrence of a type of object or event (types of words vs number of individual words) Use/Mention: -use: when we talk about the world by means of it (ice is frozen water) -mention: When you talk about the word itself ("Ice" has three letters)

What does it mean for a statement/proposition to entail another statement/proposition?

A statement entails another statement if if follows validly from the premises. P entails Q = Q is validly deductible from P

Explain the argument pro and con McTaggart's premise that the A-series involves a contradiction. What, if anything, is problematic about the argument the effect that the A-series involves a contradiction?

A-series is contradictory b/c: -No event can be past, present, and future -indexical words are not associated with any time value, so it implies it is all three at once -But, on A-series, all events are past, present, and future. -can argue that it is not contradictory b/c every event was future, is present, and will be past -only contradictory if you use an A-theoretical statement objectively rather than subjectively because it A-theoretical statements are dependent on a fixed point in time.

When is an argument circular? Give an example of a circular argument.

An argument is circular if one or more of the premises relies for its truth on the truth of the conclusion. ex.) 1)The bible is the word of God. 2) The Bible says that God exists. 3) Therefore, god exists.

Explain the difference between deductive validity and soundness.

Deductive validity: (in deductive arguments) if the premises were true, the conclusion would have to be true. Soundness: the argument is valid and the premises are in fact true

Which solution to the liar's paradox strikes you as plausible and why? What, if anything, is problematic about your favorite solution to the liar's paradox?

Disallowing meaningless statements. Liar sentence is nonsense bc it violates the principle of bivalence. It also fails to make any statement at all because there is nothing which could make it true and nothing that could make it false.

Explain the distinction between discrete space and continuous space and the distinction between discrete time and continuos time.

Discrete space/continuous space: -if space is continuous, then in between two points, there is a third, and so on. if space is discrete, there are indivisible lengths. Discrete/continuous time: -if time is discrete, there are indivisible instants. if time is continuous, for any given amount of time, there is half that time, and so on.

Explain the fission paradox about personal identity. We have discussed two solutions to the fission paradox - survival theory and four-dimensionalism. Which of these solutions strikes you as plausible and why? What, if anything, is problematic about your favorite solution to the fission paradox?

Fission paradox: If a person is teletransported and creates a new person with the same psychological and neurological properties as the original person that has the same memories, emotions, etc. According to the memory theory, are they both the same person? -the survival theory seems plausible because it says that identity is not what matters for survival; all that matters is that you survive.

Explain the difference between an inductive and a deductive argument.

Inductive argument: the truth of the premises supports the truth of the conclusion but doesn't guarantee it. Provides us with new ideas and may expand our knowledge about the world in a way that is impossible for deductive arguments to achieve. Deductive argument: the truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion. Don't expand knowledge b/c the conclusion only makes explicit what is already contained.

Explain Zeno's paradox of the moving bodies or the paradox of the arrow. What is the paradox meant to show? How can the paradox be (re)solved?

Paradox of the arrow: in any instant, the arrow does not move, but nothing happens between one instant and the next. Based on premise two, the arrow does not move between instants, so the arrow does not move according to premises 1 and 3. -Shows that motion is impossible if space and time are discrete. -Can be resolved by saying that motion is just a matter of being in one place in one instant and another in the next instant.

What is a paradox? What is an antinomy?

Paradox: apparently unacceptable conclusion derived by apparently acceptible reasoning from apparently acceptable premises Antinomy: Pair of arguments, that together, form a paradox. Each argument has seemingly acceptable premises and reasons validly to a conclusion that contradicts the conclusion of the other argument. (thesis-antithesis, dark-light)

Explain Kant's notions of noumenon and phenomenon. Explain the main idea of his transcendental idealism. How does Kant's transcendental idealism resolve the second antinomy?

Phenomenon: things as they appear to humans -pain, sensations Noumenon: things in themselves -Kant believes that we depend on phenomena to understand the world. -Ex. Gravity: the law of gravity is a noumenon; gravity will be there even if humans did not exist. We rely on things falling, examples of gravity in work, to understand how gravity works

What is your favorite solution to the paradox of the heap and why? What, if anything, is problematic about your favorite solution to the paradox of the heap?

The existence of truth-value gaps is my favorite solution because it is the most logical to me. Truth-value gaps explain that there is a middle, indeterminate area where there is no truth-value. it is undefined. This can be problematic because it does not explain why one premise can be more true than the other.

Explain the memory theory of personal identity. Explain the brave office paradox. What is your favorite solution to the brave officer paradox and why?

The memory theory says that you are the same person at T1 and T2 if and only if you, at T2, can remember the thoughts and feelings that you had at T1. Suppose a brave officer was flogged as a little boy, to have taken a standard, and to have been made a general. suppose when he took the standard, he remembered being flogged as a little boy, but when made a general, he was conscious of taking the standard, but lost conciousness of the flogging. A=B, B=C, so A=C, but C does not have memories of A. The 2nd memory theory is my favorite solution because it seems as though it is the only solution. In the previous example, B is the memory connection that connects A and C together. Indirect memory connections are sufficient for personal identity.

Explain the paradox of the heap. What does it mean for a word or phrase to be vague?

The paradox of the heap occurs when there are vague predicates that have indeterminate limits of application. For example, if a man has one hair on his head, he is bald. if he has two hairs, he is bald. this goes on to the conclusion that a man with 100,000 hairs on his head is bald, so everyone is bald. this is obviously false but the premises are valid. -a statement is vague if it uses concepts that have indefinite application to particular cases.

Which solution to the paradox of constitution (or the Ship of Theseus paradox) strikes you as plausible and why? What, if anything, is problematic about your favorite solution to the paradox of constitution (or the Ship of Theseus paradox)?

The takeover theory is plausible b/c the lump of clay is no longer a lump of clay when it is turned into a statue. The statue is a new object created by the lump of clay. There are composite objects, but there can only be one at a time. This can be problematic b/c one can argue that it is counterintuitive because the lump of clay simply takes on a new shape rather than going out of existence.

Explain Zeno's Achilles paradox or his racetrack paradox. What is the paradox meant to show? How can the paradox be (re)solved?

With the racetrack, imagine you are trying to go from point A to point b. Point C is the midpoint of the distance from A to B. Before you get to C, you must get to D which is is the midpoint between A and C. Space is infinitely divisible so this process can be continued. -It shows that it is impossible to move any finite distance in a finite time. -can be resolved by looking at how the total time will always be a fixed amount. no matter how many times you divide the distance in half, it will always equal the amount that Zeno will have travelled.

What is a paradox?

apparently unacceptable conclusion derived by apparently acceptible reasoning from apparently acceptable premises

What is a proposition?

the bearers of truth-value, the objects of belief and other "propositional attitudes"

What is nihilism?

the view that there are no composite material objects

Explain McTaggart's distinction between an A-series and a B-series of time. According to McTaggart, what is the status of the A-series/B-series distinction?

A-series is indexical, B-series is not. Status: some people believe that there it is simply a terminological choice. McTaggart believes that the A-series and B-series point out different metaphysical doctrines of time. both tells you what time is, but they are incompatible, so one must be true and one must be false because they tell you what time is.

Some have argued that time travel into the past is impossible because it would allow the time traveler to undermine her own existence. What is the grandfather paradox? Explain David Lewis's solution to the grandfather paradox.

Grandfather paradox occurs when a time-traveler goes into the past and prevents an event that is a pre-condition of the traveler making the backward time-journey in the first place. 1. by standards of ability, the backwards time traveler can kill her grandfather 2. but the time traveller cannot kill her grandfather. the grandfather lived, so to kill him would be to change the past. you cannot change tha past. 3. 1 &2 is a contradiction -solution: 1 &2 are both true. there is no contradiction bc "can" is equivocal. When somebody "can" do something, we mean that they have the capacity, holding certain things fixed (ex. brain's linguistic abilities vs actual knowledge of languages)