PHILO FINALS
Buddhism
Focuses on the teachings of Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama), who lived in India from the mid-6th to the early 5th Century B.C.
BRIEFNESS AND DISCONNECTEDNESS
It may be said that the apparent disconnectedness of the sayings and writings of the Chinese philosophers is due to the fact that these are not formal philosophical works.
Fa
Law or principle
Shih-shuo Hsin-yü
Record of clever sayings and romantic activities of the famous men of age.
Buddhism
Religion, a practical philosophy and arguably a psychology
Confucianism major concepts
Ren (humanity or humaneness) Zhengming (similar to the concept of the Mandate of Heaven) Zhong (loyalty) Xiao (filial piety) Li (ritual)
Li
Ritual
Zhengming
Similar to the concept of the Mandate of Heaven
Achieved by intuition
"Confucianism maybe defined as the state of mind in which the concept of indeterminate intuited manifold moves into the background of thought and the concrete differentiations in their relativistic, humanistic, transitory comings and goings form the content of philosophy. " - Northrop In Taoism, the concept of indefinite or undifferentiated aesthetic continuum that forms the content of philosophy.
Po
"Elder" / "senior"
Jen/ Ren
"Good" / "goodness"
Mencius
"He who attends to his greater self becomes a great man, and he who attends to his smaller self becomes a small man." "I like fish, and I also like bear's paws. If I cannot have the two together, I will let the fish go, and take the bear's paws. So, I like life, and I also like righteousness. If I cannot keep the two together, I will let life go, and choose righteousness." "Friends are siblings God never gave us" "We live, not as we wish to, but as we can."
Wang
"King"
Lao-tzu as the sage of daoism
"Kong Qiu, the times are out of joint. Chaos is everywhere but you still go your own way with your rituals, music, benevolence and harmony." -Lao-Tzu "Then stop trying, men habitually long for fame and authority but such aims should detain no man for long." -Confucius "Maybe no contribution is the true contribution. The weak survive and the mild persist. Nothing is softer than water and yet, aggression and force never triumph over water. So be like water!" -Lao-Tzu "Then tolerate the misunderstandings of those in your world, unlike those who are rich, I have no gold to give. Only this simple advice." -Lao-Tzu
Li
"Ritual" / "tradition" *
Chun-tzu
"Son of a ruler"/ "gentleman"
Mo Tzu's Cristicism of Confucianism
"The principles of Confucius ruin the whole world in four ways" The confucianists doesn't believe in God on Spirits. Insists on elaborate funerals and the practice of 8 years mourning of the death of the parent. Lays stress on the practice of music, leading to an identical result. Believed in a predetermined fate, causing the people to be lazy and to design themselves to this fate. In "Anti- Confucianism" Mo tzu also says: "Even those with long life cannot exhaust the learning required for their studies. Even people with vigor of youth cannot perform all the ceremonial duties. And even those who have amazed wealth cannot afford music. They enhanced the beauty of wicked arts and lead their sovereign astray. Their doctrines cannot meet the needs of the age, nor can their learning educate their people."
T'ien
"The sky" / "heaven"
Ju
"Un-warlikeness" / "preference for peace or moral force"
Tao/Dao
"Way" / "path"
Tao
"path" or "way".
Hsin
"truth" / "good faith"
Confucius/The Master/Master K'ung
A Chinese philosopher, politician, and teacher who lived from 551-479 BC
Lin Fang
A disciple who some scholars believe was known primarily for his slow wit and general lack of intelligence.
Taoism
A philosophy which later also developed into a religion.
Jan Yung/Zhonggong
An important Confucian figure who appears to have been well liked and respected by Confucius.
4 Classes od Society in Chinese
Scholars- Landlords Farmers- Mataas ang tingin Artisans - Craftsman Merchants - nomads
LAO-TZU & CONFUCIUS
A story told by the historian Szuma Ch'ien (also known as Sima Qian, 145/35-86 BCE) relates how a young Confucius went to visit Lao-Tzu to ask him a question regarding history. Lao-Tzu is said to have responded: "Those about whom you inquire have molded with their bones into dust. Nothing but their words remain. When the hour of the great man has struck he rises to leadership; but before his time has come he is hampered in all that he attempts. I have heard that the successful merchant carefully conceals his wealth, and acts as though he had nothing - that the great man, though abounding in achievements, is simple in his manners and appearance. Get rid of your pride and your many ambitions, your affectation and your extravagant aims. Your character gains nothing for all these. This is my advice to you." According to Szuma's narrative, Confucius was so impressed by the old master that he could only compare him to a great, mythical dragon and took his advice to heart, concentrating more on his inner wealth than outward displays of affluence and dedicating himself to philosophy. The story is considered fictional but exemplifies the high esteem with which Lao-Tzu was accorded, whether an actual or fictional figure, in that he is shown to have influenced the greatest of the philosophers of China. Szuma Ch'ien is the main source for our knowledge about Lao-Tzu. According to his account, Lao-Tzu was the curator of the Royal Library of Chou and, disgusted by the ineptitude and cruelty of the politicians of the time, and the endless suffering of the people, resolved to leave China completely and find a place of peace and solitude. On his way through the western pass of the frontier, he encountered the gate-keeper, Yin Hsi, who said to him, "So you are going into retirement. I beg you to write a book for me." Lao-Tzu promptly sat down, wrote the Tao-Te-Ching, handed it to Yin Hsi, and walked on through the pass, disappearing into the mists. Although there are no accounts of his life after this event, it is claimed that he lived to the age of 87 and died peacefully.
PERSONAL LIFE AND LEGACY
According to many popular legends, the philosopher got married and also had a son named 'Zong', who later became a legendary soldier. The teachings of Lao-Tzu and 'Daoism' influenced the Han Dynasty the most. It was there that Lao-Tzu was held synonymous with God, a belief, which gave rise to the Daoist movement called 'Way of the Celestial Masters' or 'Tianshi Dao' in 142 C.E. The movement controlled the legislation of present-day Sichuan, which suggests that ancient state of Sichuan was theocratic. Through 'Tao Te Ching', the philosopher preached the essence of 'nature' in human lives and that everyone should go back to it. Naturalness is the mainstay of the book which talks about the primitive state of all things that exist. Over time, Lao Tzu came to be seen as a personification of 'Tao' meaning the 'path' or 'principle' in order to reinstate the 'Way'. He emphasized on simplicity of life, spontaneity and detachment from desires. Taoism believes in "the One, which is natural, spontaneous, eternal, nameless, and indescribable. It is at once the beginning of all things and the way in which all things pursue their course." The 'path' or the 'way', talks about how often it is referred to "flow of the universe".
5-6 million
Adherent of Confucianism
Mohism
Argued strongly against Confucianism and Taoism Philosophy emphasized: self- restraint, self reflection, authenticity rather that obedience to ritual. Declined when confucianism became dominant
REN
BENEVOLENCE Ultimate moral principle for Confucius "Love others and be kind to one another." Golden Rule "Those who are without virtue cannot abide long either in a condition of poverty and hardship, or n a condition of enjoyment. The virtuos rest in virtue, the wise desire virtue."
BOOK 3 • Ba yi 八佾
Book III, though dealing primarily with ritual, also touches on government. It can be interpreted that Confucian ideals saw rulers and government as possible guardians of such ritual.
BOOK 4 • Li ren 里仁
Book IV concerns itself largely with the qualities of jen and what can and cannot be considered jen. Thus it also deals with the characteristics of a gentleman. Book IV also speaks of te, or moral force.
BOOK 9 • Zi nan 子罕
Book IX continues in much the same fashion as Book VIII, without a central theme or idea. There is a mix of statements concerning the character of Confucius as well as observations on goodness and ritual propriety.
BOOK 5 • Gongye Chang 公冶長
Book V continues the discussion of jen by directly examining the disciples themselves as well as historical figures.
BOOK 6 • Yong ye 雍也
Book VI continues with the discussion of the disciples and public figures. In particular, Confucius laments the passing of Yen Hui, a disciple who died and whom Confucius evidently held in high regard.
BOOK 7 • Shu er 述而
Book VII begins with an important passage in which Confucius states that he has not taught anything that he himself did not absorb from others before him, namely the Ancients, the ancient kings of China.
BOOK 10 • Xiang dang 鄕黨
Book X presents a series of statements that speak directly to issues of propriety involving the gentleman's proper conduct. In many ways it reads like a list of rules specifically stating how a gentleman should handle himself in a variety of situations and settings.
BOOK 11 • Xianjin 先進
Book XI focuses on comments made by the disciples themselves, revealing partially their relationships with Confucius. It is obvious that Confucius had strong feelings for some of them.
BOOK 13 • Zi Lu 子路
Book XIII continues in the discussion of government The final two passages of the book, find Confucius discussing warfare.
BOOK 19 • Zi Zhang 子張
Book XIX features sayings by his disciples and does not feature Confucius himself. A number of different disciples are quoted in it, though Tzu-chang and Tzu-hsia factor most heavily.
BOOK 15 • Wei Ling Gong 衞靈公
Book XV features a broad collection of topics without a singular theme. Research is necessary to fully understand a text as dense and difficult as The Analects. However, even in such cases there are instances where research cannot reveal what might have been meant by the authors.
BOOK 16 • Ji shi 季氏
Book XVI is quite different in style from previous books. As opposed to the short statements or sayings offered before, Book XVI introduces a more narrative approach.
BOOK 17 • Yang Huo 陽貨
Book XVII likewise lacks a central theme and is largely a collection of disjointed sayings and stories. Much of the rest of Book XVII contains short anecdotes and sayings, reflecting on familiar themes such as ritual or the nature of the gentleman.
BOOK 18 • Weizi 微子
Book XVIII deals largely with the concept of seclusion. Many of the passages deal with individuals distancing themselves from amoral actions or behavior.
BOOK 20 • Yao yue 堯曰
Book XX, the final book in the work, is extremely brief. Although the chapters are lengthier than in other books, they are not numerous, and generally revisit sayings and ideas already covered in past books. Book XX ends in Chapter 3 with a short passage about the gentleman. Confucius states that one who does not understand Heaven cannot be a gentleman. One who does not know rites cannot partake in public occasions, and one who does not understand the meaning behind words cannot understand people.
BOOK 14 • Xian wen 憲問
Books (XIV and XV) present a mix of subject material in a broad collection of sayings and discussions. However, Confucius still manages to surprise his pupils once in a while. Chapter 37 features such an occurrence in a conversation Confucius has with Tzu-kung. He complains that he is not recognized or known by anyone. He finds comfort in the studies of antiquity that he has undertaken and assures himself that perhaps he is recognized after all, in Heaven.
BOOK 14 • Xian wen 憲問
Books (XIV and XV) present a mix of subject material in a broad collection of sayings and discussions. However, Confucius still manages to surprise his pupils once in a while. Chapter 37 features such an occurrence in a conversation Confucius has with Tzu-kung. He complains that he is not recognized or known by anyone. He finds comfort in the studies of antiquity that he has undertaken and assures himself that perhaps he is recognized after all, in Heaven.
BOOK 12 • Yan Yuan 顏淵
Books XII (and XIII) focus on questions posed by the disciples for clarification on Confucian ideals. Most of the questions are related to topics of governance.
The wang (sage) king
Carried on through moral instruction
BOOK 2 • Wei zheng 爲政
Chapters 1,2, and 3: government issues and the importance of te, or character. A "filial son" has only one intention: to ensure that his parents are happy instead of simply having their base needs met.
The pa (military lord)
Conducted through force and compulsion
Confucius and Mo Tzu
Confucius Rationalizer and justifier of ancient civilization Mo Tzu Critic of the validity and usefulness of the traditions of ancient civilizations. Mo Tzu's major aim in his preaching was to oppose both the traditional institutions and practices, and the theories of Confucius and Confucianism.
LIFE
Connectivity with the Tao "Life is a treasure and it has to be lived as it is supposed to be." "Life is a journey towards death." The goal of life is to live a good moral life. " Even one has only vegetables for food and water to drink and bent arm for pillow, he will still find happiness, and find life worth living."
Mohists
Constituted a strictly disciplined organization capable of military action.
BOOK 8 • Tai Bo 泰伯
Content: more miscellaneous. The passages touch on topics of ritual and propriety with regard to the characteristics of the gentleman. It seems to form a core text, largely culled from sayings by Master Tseng, a figure who likely became a leader in the Confucian community in Lu after Confucius's death.
GOVERNMENT
Elements (Zigong asked, The Master answered: FOOD (2) WEAPONS (1) CONFIDENCE (3) * SUFFICIENT "If people have no faith in their rulers, they cannot stand." " To rule a country of a thousand chariots requires attention to business, sincerity, economy, and love for men, as well as the employment of the people only in the right seasons."
TOPICS
GENTLEMAN LIFE REN RECTIFICATION OF NAMES GOVERNMENT MOURNING
Mo tzu
He was schooled in Confucianism in his early years but he viewed confucianism as being too fatalistic and emphasizing too much on elaborate celebrations which he felt were detrimental to the livelihood and productivity of common people. Hailed as "greatest hero" to come from Henan. His passion was said to be for the good of people. As long as something benefit mankind, Mozi will pursue it even if it means hurting his head/feet. In terms of moral virtue, Confucius and Laozi can't be compared to Mozi.
Military Specialists
Heredity warriors who contributed the backbone of the armies during the feudal age of the Chou Dynasty
Ren
Humanity or humaneness
RECTIFICATION OF NAMES
If names be not correct, language is not in accordance with truth of things. If language be not in accordance with the truth of things, affairs cannot be carried on to success. When affairs cannot be carried on to success, properties and music do not flourish, punishments will not be properly awarded. When punishments are not properly awarded, the people do not know how to move hand and foot. Therefore, a superior man considers it necessary that the names he uses may be spoken appropriately, and also that what he speaks may be carried out appropriately. What the superior man requires is just that in his words there may be nothing incorrect.
Mozi's Ethics:
It is considered a form of consequentialism. Universal love In confucianism : befitting human relations Mozi's: community-oriented.
LATER LIFE
Lao Tzu embarked on a voyage to the west, after an early realization that the Zhou Dynasty was on the verge of collapse. He travelled to the Xiangu pass to enter the state of Qin, where he met the guardian of the pass Yinxi, who insisted the philosopher to write a book. Upon his request, he began writing a book the 'Daodejing', which is the combination of 'Dao' which means 'way' and 'de' means 'its virtue'. The book is a philosophical account and can be literally translated as 'Classic of the Way of Power'. Following the completion of the book, the wise old man left Xiangu pass and nothing was known about his whereabouts, thereafter, major works.
MAJOR WORKS
Lao Tzu is primarily known his book 'Tao Te Ching' or 'Daodejing' which contains the philosophical and religious scripts about 'Taoism', depicted through 81 short poems. 'Taoism' or 'Daoism, is a way of life which is all about harmonious living, was founded by him. It is divided into two categories: Philosophical and Religious Taoism. Philosophical Taoism or the School of Dao is based on the ancient Chinese texts of both 'Daodejing' by Lao Tzu and Zhuangzi, written by a philosopher of the same name. Religious Taoism, on the other hand, refers to a family of systematized religious movements sharing thoughts derived from Daojia (Family of Dao).
CHILDHOOD AND EARLY LIFE
Lao Tzu's personal life is still shrouded in mystery and there are many legends associated with his birth and life. The only reliable biography of him is the 'Shiji' written by historian Sima Qian of 145 BC. According to Shiji (his biography), Lao Tzu was born in the Ku Country of the state of Chu, the present day Luyi Country of the Henan Province. His family name was 'Li' while, 'Dan' was his designation. Legend says that he was born after spending eight or eighty years in his mother's womb, for which he was called the 'the old child'. At that time, the Zhou Dynasty flourished and he worked as a 'shi' or historian at the royal court. Somewhere around this time, he was known to have met the great Confucius and, supposedly, criticized his arrogance. Confucius on the other hand, was so fascinated by the scholar that he drew a comparison between him and a dragon which glides on the winds and through the clouds in the sky.
Humanism
Mo Tzu said: "The purpose of humanist is to be found in procuring benefits for the world and eliminating its calamities Promote the Talented Mo Tzu said: "All the rulers desire their provinces to be wealthy, their people to be numerous and their jurisdiction to secure order. But what they obtain is not wealth but poverty, not multitude but scarcity, not order but chaos- this is to lose what they desire and obtain what they avert.
LAO-TZU
Lao-Tzu or Laozi, who existed in the 6th century B.C, was the founder of Chinese philosophical 'School of the Tao' or 'Taoism'. He was known to be a contemporary of the great and the most revered Chinese teacher and philosopher 'Confucius', but some legends believe that they both were the same person, whereas according to some he existed before Confucius. The origin and life of Laozi is extremely ambiguous and even after centuries of research very little is known about his life. Nevertheless, his teachings have been handed down through centuries and today his followers are manifold. Laozi's philosophy was particularly known during the Han Dynasty, though the philosopher lived in the Zhou Dynasty, the longest surviving dynasty in primeval China. It was in the Han Dynasty that Taoism have any reference about Laozi's life. Due to less information, several speculations, confusions and also conflicts about the life and death of Laozi, have arisen in the past few decades. Many researchers are of the view that 'Tao te ching' the religious and philosophical book written by Laozi, was in fact not written by him alone. Some are even of the opinion that the philosopher never existed and Laozi can be referred to any old wise man of the ancient China who preached philosophy.
SOCIAL BACKGROUND OF THE MOHIST SCHOOL
Military Specialists In the latter part of the Chou Dynasty, the disintegration of feudalism took place. The warrior specialists lost their positions and titles and became known as the "hsieh" or "yu hsieh"
ETYMOLOGY:
Mohism: Moh, former transliteration of the first syllable of Mozi, Chinese philosopher (about 470-391 BC), Chinese 墨子 (Mòzǐ). Chou: Chinese (Beijing) Zhōu First Known Use: 1771
Consequentialism
Mohist ethics evaluates the moral worth based on how it contributed to the stability of state.
Origin of Name:
Mozi was said to have inherited the surname "Mo" from his ancestor, Lord of Guzhu. There was a clan named "Motai", shortened to Mo. "Mo" means "ink", signals Mohist's identification with lowest of common people. "Mo" - dark - from the philosopher's skin.
Kuo Hsiang
One of the great commentators of Chuang Tzu
MO TZU
Original name: Mo Ti Book: Mozi (71 Chapters), only 53 survived. Born: Tengzhou, Shandong Province Founded school of Mohism
Mysticism
Our nature is "what Heaven has given to us" therefore, when we know out nature, we also know heaven. "If a man knows heaven, he is not only a citizen of society, but also a citizen of heaven," t'ien min, as mencius says. Honors of heaven (Human-heartedness, righteousness, loyalty, good faith, and untiring practice of the good) are those to which a man can attain in the world of values. Honors of man (Princes, ministers, and officials) are purely material concepts in the human world.
MOURNING
Period of mourning: THREE (3) YEARS [Confucius] "Only when a child is three years old does it leaves its parents arms. Deep devotion to parents (Chinese people) Mourning is something you feel, not something you do. It's not a matter of some particular behavior or ceremony. It's something internal. Something that happens in your heart and mind. It's more important to feel it than to do it. Sincere > Punctilious (doing things in an accurate way)
Mozi's teachings:
Self reflection Authenticity -by reflecting on one's successes and failures, one attains true self-knowledge. Introduced the concept of: "impartial caring" or "universal love" -people should care for all people equally. This implies no special amount of care/duty towards one's parents and family. -mutual love by all would benefit to all. Heaven was not the "amoral", it was benevolent, moral force that rewarded good and punished evil. "Universal love is the way to heaven" since "heaven nourishes and sustains all life without regard to status"
Tzu-yu. Tzu-lu, Tzu-chang
Some of the disciples
THE GENTLEMAN
THREE BASIC CHARACTERISTICS: Benevolent with no worry. Wise with no bepuzzlement. Courageous with no fear. Other: Harmonious Should speak carefully but act quickly (A > W) Helps others to fulfill goo, not vice. Faithful to your superiors True to your words Shun to friendship of profit prone people Admits mistakes Amends his ways Practices the Tao "Always discovers and do everything to discover what is true." Yi: "oughtness" Superior man Always happy Li: "selfishness" Small man Always sad
THE TAO-TE-CHING
The Tao-Te-Ching (Book of the Way) is an anti-intellectual, anti-authoritarian treatise which posits that the way of virtue lies in simplicity and a recognition of a natural, universal force known as the Tao. Lao-Tzu writes, "When we renounce learning we have no troubles...The ancients who showed their skill in practicing the Tao did so not to enlighten people, but to make them simple and ignorant." By `ignorant' Lao-Tzu did not mean uninformed but, rather, purposefully focused on the present rather than accumulating knowledge which leads to idle speculation and complications in one's own life and in the larger community. Lao-Tzu's Taoism stood in direct contradiction to Confucius' philosophy emphasizing education, knowledge as power, and strict adherence to the law. Lao-Tzu's claim that "the more laws one makes, the more criminals one creates" is the antithesis of Confucius's assertion that more laws make better citizens.
Political Philosophy
The existence of the human relationships and the moral principles based on them is what differentiates man from birds and beasts. The state and society have their origin in the existence of these human relationships. according to the Mohists, the state exist according to the confucianist, it exist because it ought to exist "Man is a political animal." If a ruler lacks the ethical qualities that makes a good leader, the people have the moral right of revolution. In that case, even the killing of the ruler id no longer a crime of regicide. This is because, according to Mencius, if a sovereign does not act as he ideally ought to do, he morally ceases to be a sovereign ang following confucius theory of the rectification of names is a "mere fellow" If a sage becomes a king his government is called kingly government
All men in their nature possess these "four beginnings":
The feeling of commiseration is the beginning of human heartedness the feeling of shame and dislike is the beginning of righteousness the feeling if modesty and yielding is the beginning of propriety, the sense of right and wrong si the beginning of wisdom which, if fully developed, become the four "constant virtues" so greatly emphasized in Confucianism. These virtues, if not hindered by external conditions, develop naturally from within, just as a tree grows by itself, from the seed, or a flower from the bud.
Chu Tzu (great masters)
The leader of the mohist organization. Mo tzu was the first Chu Tzu
The Mohist Legacy
The legalist adopted the Mohist's authoritarian principles. The universalistic social vision of Mohism to help inspire similar tendencies in later post Classical Taoism.
Taoism
The religion of Taoism, which advocated adherence to the universal Tao long before the Tao-Te-Ching, was practised through ancestor worship and an acknowledgement of the natural law of the Tao in all things. Confucianism, which refused to speculate on universal unknowns, served as a practical guide to living well through emphasis on law and proper behavior. Lao-Tzu's writings clarified and codified an underlying philosophy to the belief in a universal force while condemning the laws which attempted to regulate that force in the lives of human beings. According to Taoism, all human beings are naturally good but are corrupted by law and an incorrect belief in how they are supposed to behave in society. By regulating people's behavior through law, government only makes them behave badly because it creates an artificial environment which human beings rebel against in an effort to maintain their natural state of harmony. If one observes the Tao, and submits to the natural flow of energy in the universe, one will be at peace. Resistance to the Tao is exemplified through the creation of laws which keep people from behaving in accordance with their natures which, if left unregulated and unrestricted, would tend toward goodness and peace. Lao-Tzu maintained, as did Teng Shih (his contemporary or elder), that people behaved badly because they were forced to through poor government and unjust laws.
2 Kinds of Government
The wang (sage) king - carried on through moral instruction The pa (military lord) - conducted through force and compulsion The sage-king in his kingly government does all he can for the welfare and benefit if the people, which means that his state must be built on a sound economic basis. Mencius ideal land system has been known as the "well-field system". According to this system each square of land has to be divided into nine squares, each consisting of hundred Chinese acres. The central square known as the "public field", while the eight surrounding squares are the private land of eight farmers with their families, each family having one square. The arrangement of the nine squares resembles in form the Chinese character for "well" which is why it is called the "well-field system". "All men have a mind which cannot bear (to see the suffering of) others. The early kings, having this unbearing mind, thereby had likewise an unbearing government"
The Shi Chi says:
Their words were always sincere and trustworthy, and their actions always quick and decisive. They were always true to what they promised. And without regard to their own person, they would rush into dangers threatening others. In Chinese history, both Ju (literati) and Hsieh (knights- errants) originated as specialists attached to the houses of aristocrats and were themselves members of the upper class. In the later times the Ju continued to come mainly from the upper or middle classes. But the Hsieh more frequently were recruited from the lower classes. In ancient times, such social amenities, as rituals and music were all exclusively from the aristocrats. From the point of view of the common man, therefore, they were luxuries that had no practical utility. It was the point of view that Mo Tzu and the Mohists criticised the traditional institutions and their rationalizers, Confucius and the confucianists. The criticism together with the elaboration and rationalization of the professional ethics of their own social class, that of the hsieh, constituted the central core of the Mohist Philosophy.
Universal Love/ All-Embracing Love
This is the central one in Mo Tzu's philosophy. It represents a logical extension of the professional ethics of the class of hsieh from which Mo Tzu sprang. Hsieh: enjoy equally or suffer equally Everyone in the world should love everyone equally and without discrimination
BOOK 1 • Xue er 學而
Two of the basic themes of the work: what qualities are desirable in a human being and how morality can be reflected in one's behavior. Filial piety (xiào) refers to the virtue of respect for one's parents or ancestors. Book I, Chapter 5: importance of agriculture
Hsiao/Xiao
Virtue of filial piety
Mencius
Was a native of state of Tsou, in the present southern part of Shantung province in East China He was linked with Confucius through his study under a disciple of Tzu-ssu who in turn was Confucius grandson.
Mencius
Was a native of state of Tsou, in the present southern part of Shantung province in East China He was linked with Confucius through his study under a disciple of Tzu-ssu who in turn was Confucius grandson. At that time, the king of Ch'i, a larger state also in present Shantung, were great admiters of learning. One of Eminent scholars, but he also traveled to other states, vainly trying to get a hearing for his ideas among their rulers. Retired and with his disciples composed the Mencius in seven books Mencius represents the idealistic wing of confucianism and the somewhat later Hsun Tzu realistic wing JEN - ( human- heartedness ) YI ( righteousness ) LI ( profit ) Everyman should, without thought of personal advantage, unconditionally do what he ought to do, and he want he ought to be. In other words he should "extend himself so as to include others" In a discussion with a Mohist by the name of Yi Chih, Mencius asked him whether he really believed that men love their neighbors' childern in the same way as they love their brothers children. The love for a brother's child is quite proper; what should be done is to extend such love until it includes the more distant members of society "Treat the aged in your family as they should be treated, and extend this treatment to the aged of other people's families. Treat the young in young family as they should be treated and extend this treatment to the young of other people's families." We have seen that Confucius spoke very much about jen (human-heartedness), and made a sharp distinction about yi (righteousness) and li (profit). According to Mencius, there were in his time, three other theories besides his own on this subject. The first was the human nature is neither good nor bad The second was that human nature can be either good or bad (which seems to mean that in the nature of man there are both good and bad elements) The third was that the nature of some men is good, and that of others is bad.
Chapter 26 of Chuang-tzu
"A basket-trap is for catching fish, but when one has got the fish, one need think no more about the basket. A foot-trap is for catching hares; but when one has got the hare, one need think no more about the trap. Words are for holding Ideas, but when one has got the idea, one need no longer think about the words. If only I could find someone who had stopped thinking about words and could have him with me to talk to!" During the third and fourth centuries A.D., the most influential philosophy was the Neo-Taoist School known as hsüan hsüeh (the dark or mystic learning) Shih-shuo Hsin-yü - record of clever sayings and romantic activities of the famous men of age. Brief saying in the Confucian analects and in the philosophy of Lao Tzu are not simply conclusions from certain premises which have been lost. They are aphorisms full of suggestiveness that is attractive.
Main Components of Propriety
(1) The reification of names: language used in accordance with the truth of things. (2) The Doctrine of the Mean: so important that an entire book is dedicated to it in the Confucian canon: the proper action is the way between the extremes. (3) Respect for age: age gives all things their worth: objects, institutions, and individual lives.
4 Main Components of Propriety
(4) The Five Relationships: the way things should be done in social life; none of the relationships are transitive. (a) father and son (loving / reverential) (b) elder brother and younger brother (gentle / respectful) (c) husband and wife (good / listening) (d) older friend and younger friend (considerate / deferential) (e) ruler and subject (benevolent / loyal) (Note that 3 of the 5 relations involve family; the family is the basic unit of society).
BRIEFNESS AND DISCONNECTEDNESS
According to Chinese Philosophers: The study of philosophy is not a profession; everyone should study.
Sageliness within, Kingliness without
According to Fang, the leitmotif of Chinese philosophy is that of 'sageliness within' and 'kingliness without. "how it is that he will live: will he take care of the soul, or shall he take care of the city?"
Second Sense (principle of social order; ritual; ordering of life; conforming to the norms of jen)
A. Every action affects someone else--there are limits to individuality. B. Confucius sought to order an entire way of life. C. You shouldn't be left to improvise your responses because you are at a loss as to how to behave. D. A. N. Whitehead's quotation of a Cambridge vicar: "For well-conducted people, life presents no problems."
First Sense (the concrete guide to human relationships)
A. The way things should be done or propriety: positive rather than negative ("Do's rather than Don'ts). B. The main components of propriety emphasize the openness of people to each other.
LANGUAGE BARRIER
All philosophical writings that it is difficult for one to have a complete understanding and full appreciation of them if one cannot read them in the original A translation is only an interpretation. When one translates a sentence, one gives one's own interpretation of its meaning. The translation may convey only one idea when the original may contain many ideas. Original is suggestive but the translation is not and cannot be so it loses much of the richness inherent in the original.
Confucianism
An all-encompassing humanism that is compatible with other forms of religion; Sometimes viewed as a philosophy, sometimes as a religion;
Erh Ya
Ancestor worship developed. The ancestor worshipped was usually the first of family who had established himself and his descendants there on the land. He became the symbol of unity of the family, and such a symbol was indispensable for a large and complex organization. Chinese Family system was the outgrowth of certain economic conditions, and these conditions were again the product of their graphical surroundings, to the Chinese people both the system and its theoretical expression were very natural. Because of this, Confucianism naturally became the orthodox philosophy and remained so until the invasion of industrialization from modern Europe and America changed the economic basis of Chinese life.
Lun-yü (Analects)
Based primarily on the Master's sayings, preserved in both oral and written transmissions, it captures the Confucian spirit in the same way that the Platonic dialogues embody Socratic teachings.
Ren
Benevolence, is a moral category with infinite meanings in ancient China. It originally refers to endearment among people. Confucius regards "Ren" as the ultimate moral principle, standard and level. One shall fulfill his obligations in the society, the spirit of which is to love others, or "Ren"; one must be kind-hearted towards others so as to fulfill his social responsibilities. The "Ren" advocated by Confucius was especially aimed at officials and men of honor. He required the integration of morality, talent, salary and status and the complementary functions of virtue and wisdom as well as internal benevolence and external beauty, thus promoting the happiness of ordinary people and social stability. Confucius regarded benevolence as the most important character of human beings, and that it dwelled in the nature of everybody and could be reached by anyone who devoted himself to it. "A person of ren never harbors anger or nurses a grudge against a brother. All he does is to love him. Because he loves him, he wishes him to enjoy rank; because he loves him, he wishes him to enjoy wealth." It relies heavily on the relationships between two people, but at the same time encompasses much more than that. It represents an inner development towards an altruistic goal, while simultaneously realizing that one is never alone, and that everyone has these relationships to fall back on, being a member of a family, the state, and the world. Not a concept that is learned; it is innate, that is to say, everyone is born with the sense of ren. Confucius believed that the key to long-lasting integrity was to constantly think, since the world is continually changing at a rapid pace. There have been a variety of definitions for the term ren. Ren has been translated as "benevolence", "perfect virtue", "goodness" or even "human-heartedness". When asked, Confucius defined it by the ordinary Chinese word for love, ai, saying that it meant to "love others".
Li (Actions Leading to Social Harmony and Peace)
Bowing in greeting to someone, wearing certain colors of clothing on certain days, behaving in certain ways around those older than you, observing proper manners at a meal or meeting, and so much more - all these are examples of li in everyday life.
Five Conflicts of Western students on Chinese Philosophy
Briefness Disconnectedness of the sayings and writings of their authors Too many aphorisms, allusions and illustrations Suggestiveness Language Barrier
Hsüeh (learning)
Broad based term that describes the object of the knowing process: the acquisition of knowledge of the ways of the ancient founding figures of the Chou Dynasty
Symbols of Confucianism
Chinese characters for scholar and water, yin-yang, Confucius images
Too many aphorisms, allusions and illustrations
Chinese philosophers were accustomed to express themselves in the form of aphorisms, allusions and illustrations. Whole book of Lao Tzu and most of the chapters of Chuang-tzu and even writings of Mencius and Hsün Tzu - full of allusions and illustrations. Aphorisms must be very brief; Allusions and illustrations must be disconnected. Aphorisms, allusions and illustrations are not articulate enough.
Xiao
Filial piety
The Analects
Comprised of roughly 500 strips gathered into 20 'Books', generally referred to by roman numerals. Scholars also make a distinction between the 'upper text' (Books I - X) and the 'lower text' (Books XI - XX), since the 'upper text' shares a fair amount of characteristics in regards to structure, vocabulary and length. They always begin with "The Master says..." Books III through VII: written soon after the death of Confucius. Books III and IV: considered to contain the core teaching messages of Confucius. Book IV: oldest and least changed from its original form. Books XVI, XVII, XVIII and XX: have been written several centuries later and less authoritative than the rest.
Two Basic Meanings To Li
Concrete guide to human relationships or rules of proper action that genuinely embody Jen General principle of social order or the general ordering of life.
BRIEFNESS AND DISCONNECTEDNESS
Confucian Analects - each paragraph consists of only a few words and there is hardly any connection between one paragraph and the next. Philosophy of Lao Tzu - a whole book consists of about five thousand words yet in it one will find the whole of his philosophy.
THE ANALECTS OF CONFUCIUS
Confucius was a philosopher, scholar, politician, and teacher in the ancient Chinese state of Lu, (currently the Shangong Province) Following his death in 479 BC, followers of Confucius wrote about the important aspects of his life and teaching These writings continued the teaching of Confucian philosophy. This anthology of quotes from Confucius and his disciples, important events in his life, and descriptions of him are today called the The Analects of Confucius or just The Analects.
Li/Po-Yu
Confucius's son, who is believed to have died before his father. There is little mention of him in the text, though it is clear that his death greatly affected Confucius.
Li (Actions Leading to Social Harmony and Peace)
Consists of the norms of proper social behavior as taught to others by fathers, village elders and government officials. The teachings of li promoted ideals such as filial piety, brotherliness, righteousness, good faith and loyalty.
Li
Correct behavior, or propriety, good manners, politeness, ceremony, worship.
6th-5th cent. BCE
Date founded Confucianism
Confucianism
Deeply influenced spiritual and political life in China; its influence has also extended to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam
Ssu (thinking)
Describes a process of critical thinking necessary to incorporate or assimilate the knowledge acquired. Confucius emphasized the necessity of a balance of hsüeh and ssu. He stated one without the other leads to an imbalance in the knowledge acquired.
Three possible types of intuition
Differentiated Aesthetic Continuum Indefinite or undifferentiated aesthetic continuum Differentiation
Hsüan Hsüeh (the dark or mystic learning)
During the third and fourth centuries A.D., the most influential philosophy was the Neo-Taoist School
Mohism
Founded by Mozi (c. 470 - 390 B.C.) It promotes universal love with the aim of mutual benefit, such that everyone must love each other equally and impartially to avoid conflict and war
Ming
From the idea of righteousness, the Confucianists derived the idea of "doing for nothing." One does what one ought to do, simply because it is morally right to do it, and not for only consideration external to this moral compulsion. In the Analects, we are told that Confucius was ridiculed by a certain recluse as "one who knows that he cannot succeed, yet keeps on trying to do it." (XIV, 41) And the other recluse was told by a disciple Confucius: "The reason why the superior man tries to go into politics, is because he holds this to be right, even though he is well aware that his principle cannot prevail." (XVIII, 7) Taoist taught the theory of "doing nothing," whereas the Confucianists taught that of "doing for nothing." A man cannot do anything, according to Confucianism, because for every man there is something which ought to do, Nevertheless, what he is doing is "for nothing" because the value of doing what he ought to do lies in the doing itself and not in external result. Confucius said: "If my principles are to prevail in the world, it is Ming. If they are to fall to the ground, it is also Ming." (Analects, XIV, 38) Often translated as Fate, Destiny or Decree. To Confucius , it meant the decree of Heaven or Will of Heaven; in other words, it is conceived of as a purposeful force. In later Confucianism, however, Ming simply means the total existent conditions and forces of the whole universe. To know Ming is an important requirement for being superior man in the Confucian sense of the term, so that Confucius said: "He does not know Ming cannot be a superior man." (Analects, XX, 2) Thus to know Ming is to acknowledge the inevitability of the world as it exists, and so to disregard one's external success or failure. If we can act in this way, we can, in a sense, never fail. If we do our duty, that duty through our very act is morally done, regardless of the external success or failure of our action. We always shall be free from anxiety as to success or fear as to failure, and shall be happy. This is why Confucius said: "The wise are free from doubts; the virtuous from anxiety; the brave from fear." (Analects, IX, 28) or again: "The superior man is always happy; the small man sad." (VII, 36. )
Chih (Wisdom, Knowledge, and Learning)
Hall and Ames have suggested that chih, may best be described as coming to a point of realizing or understanding the knowledge acquired The emphasis within chih on the active sense of understanding is sadly missed when the term is rendered as a noun for "knowledge" as it frequently is. Hsung Tzu to Neo Confucians like Ch'eng I, believed that chih is innate. Chih is an active process and implies that knowing is not just knowing about something but acting on the thing known A process of realizing directly contributes to the formation of the Chün-Tzu (noble person) because the knowledge to be realized is the moral learning of the sages. Thus, chih refers not only to the thought process, but also to moral cultivation
Epistemology
Has never developed in Chinese Philosophy Whether the table that you see before you is real or illusory, and whether it is only an idea in my mind or is occupying objective space, was never seriously considered by Chinese philosophers. Since epistemological problems arise only when a demarcation between the subject and the object is emphasized. And in the Aesthetic continuum there is no such demarcation. The knower and the known are whole. The language of Chinese philosophy is suggestive but not articulate. It is not articulate because it does not represent concepts in any deductive reasoning. The philosopher only tells us what he sees - what he tells is rich in content though terse in words.
Legalism
Is a pragmatic political philosophy, whose main motto is "set clear strict laws, or deliver harsh punishment", and its essential principle is one of jurisprudence. A ruler should govern his subjects according to Fa (law or principle), Shu (method, tactic, art, or statecraft) and Shi (legitimacy, power, or charisma).
Gongxi Chi/Kung-hsi Hua
It is believed he was chiefly responsible for the rituals conducted at Confucius's funeral.
Shi
Legitimacy, power, or charisma
Li (Actions Leading to Social Harmony and Peace)
Li is the mechanism by which all of life is ritualized and declared "sacred" in a sense. Although the concept of li existed in ancient ritualized ancestor worship in a limited and narrowly religious form, Confucius broadened it to apply to all activities in life so that all of life takes on the air of religiousness or seriousness.
Zhong
Loyalty
Shu
Method, tactic, art, or statecraft
Erh Ya
Oldest dictionary of the Chinese language before the Christian era There are more than 100 terms for various family relationships. Most of it have no equivalent in the English language.
Kumarajiva
One of the greatest translators of the Buddhist texts into Chinese.
Achieved by intuition
One which denotes, and the complete meaning of which is given by, something which is immediately apprehended. Example: 'Blue' in the sense of sensed color.
Sincerity
Sincerity contributes to a close connection between Heaven and human. This guideline was demonstrated in the 23rd chapter: "It is only he who is possessed of the most complete sincerity that can exist under heaven, who can give its full development to his nature. Able to give its full development to his own nature, he can do the same to the nature of other men. Able to give its full development to the nature of other men, he can give their full development to the natures of animals and things. Able to give their full development to the natures of creatures and things, he can assist the transforming and nourishing powers of Heaven and Earth. Able to assist the transforming and nourishing powers of Heaven and Earth, he may with Heaven and Earth form a ternion."
Master Tseng
Sometimes called "Zengzi" or "Zeng Shen", this disciple is credited with a number of sayings.
Five traditional social relationships
Sovereign and subject - can be conceived of in terms of that between father and son. Father and son Elder and young brother Husband and wife Friend and friend - can be conceived of in terms of that between elder and young brother.
Chün-Tzu
Symbolizes a person of nobility who had earned his or her nobility not through birth but through the pursuit of learning and self-cultivation.
Confucianism
Teachings of Confucius, the Latinized form of K'ung-fu-tzu.
Analects
Texts of Confucianism
Influence
The Analects have greatly influenced the moral and philosophical values of China and other countries in Eastern Asia. The text has remained a fundamental course of study for any would-be Chinese scholar for over two thousand years. During the Sui Dynasty, an imperial examination was initiated to test a candidate's ability to apply Confucian philosophy and logic.
BASIC FACTS AND INFORMATION
The Analects of Confucius , Lun Yu, or simply, The Analects, were written about 500 BC and are traditionally attributed to Confucius. The Analects are a collection of the teachings and thoughts of Confucius; they also contain fragments of dialogues between the great Chinese philosopher and his disciples. The Analects are believed to have been collected by the disciples of Confucius and not by the sage himself. The name in English is derived from the word "analect" which means a fragment or extract of literature, or a collection of teachings. In Chinese, the book is literally called "discussion on the words [of Confucius]." The Analects has been successfully translated into many languages, most notably into English (James Legge, Arthur Waley, etc) and other languages. The Analects were probably written over a period of 30-50 years. Started during the Spring and Autumn Period, the work of collection and organization of Confucian teachings was probably completed during the Warring States Period, although the precise date of publication of the complete work is unknown. The Analects are considered among the most representative works of Confucian thought, and still have a great influence on Chinese culture and East Asia.
STRUCTURE
The Analects were written in a manner common to that time: thin strips of bamboo had 20-25 characters written on them with brush and ink. Each strip had a hole drilled through it, and bundles of strips were held together with a string.
Western Philosophy
The Being and the limited are distinct. The Non-being and the unlimited are indistinct. The concept of the differentiated aesthetic continuum and that of differentiation, is the concept of the farmers. What the farmers have to deal with, such as farm and crops, are all things which they immediately apprehend. It is no wonder them, that their philosophers likewise take the immediate apprehension of things as starting point of their philosophy.
I Ching
The Book of Changes /a collection of Western Chou (Zhou) divine concepts
Mean (Centeredness & Equilibrium)
The Doctrine of the Mean is a text rich with symbolism and guidance to perfecting oneself. The mean is also described as the ["unswerving pivot"] 'unwobbling pivot' or zhongyong. Zhong means bent neither one way or another, and yong represents unchanging. In James Legge's translation of the text, the goal of the mean is to maintain balance and harmony from directing the mind to a state of constant equilibrium. The Doctrine of the Mean represents moderation, rectitude, objectivity, sincerity, honesty and propriety. The guiding principle is that one should never act in excess. The Doctrine of the Mean is divided into three parts: The Axis - Confucian Metaphysics The Process - Politics The Perfect Word/Sincerity - Ethics (The Great Digest and Unwobbling Pivot, 1951). Doctrine of the Mean instructed three guidelines—Self-watchfulness, Leniency and Sincerity—on how to pursue Doctrine of the Mean, and those who follow these guidelines can be called superior man. According to Zhong-ni, "The superior man embodies the course of the Mean; the mean man acts contrary to the course of the Mean."
Duke Ai
The Duke of Lu from 494-468
CHAPTERS
The chapters are grouped by themes of the Analects. The sequence of chapters seems entirely random, dealing with topics that are in no way connected. Some central themes are repeated in various chapters, sometimes in the same wording and sometimes with slight variations. This has led some scholars to conclude that the book was not written by a single author, but is the collective work of several people. It is likely that the editors end of the Analects were probably the disciples of Confucius or of Zengzi, one of his most influential students.
Achieved by postulation
The complete meaning of which is designated by postulates of the deductive theory in which it occurs Example: 'Blue' in the sense of number of wave-length in electro-magnetic theory
Family systems of China
The farmers have to live on their land - which is immovable and the same is true of the scholar landlords. Unless one has special talent, or is especially lucky, one has to live where one's father or grandfather lived, and where one's children will continue to live. The family must live together for economic reasons. Chinese Family system was developed. One of the most complex and well- organized in the world. Rational justification or theoretical expression in this social system - great deal on Confucianism Social system of China
Yi
The moral disposition to do good (also a necessary condition for jen or for the superior man). Confucian ethics is characterized by the promotion of virtues, encompassed by the Five Constants. Another translation in English can be "conscientious acts," which means "done according to one‟s conscience." Mencius (11.6) says, "Yi is a sense of shame in doing wrongs." Further, Yi implies that we have the obligation to help others. In the act of Yi, people place others ahead of themselves without thinking about the fruit of action. Yi further means people do not take more than what they deserve but offer to give more to others rather than themselves. Yi connotes a moral sense: the ability to recognize what is right and good; the ability to feel, under the circumstances what is the right thing to do. a. Not Chih, moral wisdom per se, but intuition. b. Most of us live under the sway of different kinds of "I's." In this case, the identification is with an impersonal ego. (In Freudian terms, almost like the super-ego.) c. The impersonal ego is the assimilated or appropriated values of our culture--the Confucian true self. 2. Some actions ought to be performed for the sole reason that they are right--regardless of what they produce; not for the sake of something else. a. The value in the act is the rightness of the action regardless of the intention or the consequences of the act. b. Hence, Yi is a different way than either stoicism (intention with soft determinism) or utilitarianism (consequences with free will). c. Confucianism is similar to Kant's ethics of duty: the action is done as a good-in-itself, not as a means to an end. Yi represents moral acumen which goes beyond simple rule following, and involves a balanced understanding of a situation, and the "creative insights" necessary to apply virtues "with no loss of sight of the total good. Yi represents this ideal of totality as well as a decision-generating ability to apply a virtue properly and appropriately in a situation." In application, Yi is a "complex principle" which includes: Skill in crafting actions which have moral fitness according to a given concrete situation the wise recognition of such fitness the intrinsic satisfaction that comes from that recognition The Chinese character Yi is composed of an upper and lower combination of symbols. The character's lower component part "Wo" is associated with the self. The lower character is interpreted with the process of self-realization. The character's upper component yang or sheep symbolizes reminiscent of two other Chinese characters composed of the graph "sheep," namely, Shan (goodness) and Mei, or beautiful. One can interpret the upper portion to mean goodness. This combination brings together the two meanings of the character by suggesting that the term may best be described as the revelation of the meaning of the self. Confucius, during his lifetime, referred to Yi in terms of Chih: the basic principles of a Chün-Tzu. This indicates the importance of Yi to the development of a proper Chün-Tzu.
Suggestiveness
The more an expression is articulate, the less it is suggestive. The sayings and writings of Chinese philosophers are so inarticulate that their suggestiveness is boundless. It is the ideal of all Chinese art, whether it be poetry, painting or anything else. In poetry, what the poet intends to communicate is not what is directly said in the poetry, but what is not said in it. According to Chinese literary tradition: "The number of words is limited but the ideas it suggests is limitless."
Master Yu/You Ruo
This character appears almost entirely in Book I and may have had disciples of his own
Self-watchfulness
This guideline requires self-education, self-questioning and self-discipline during the process of self-cultivation. This principle was demonstrated in the first chapter of Doctrine of the Mean "The superior man does not wait till he sees things to be cautious, nor till he hears things to be apprehensive. There is nothing more visible than what is secret, and nothing more manifest than what is minute. Therefore the superior man is watchful over himself, when he is alone."
Leniency
This guideline requires understanding, concern and tolerance towards one another. Leniency was demonstrated in the 13th chapter "When one cultivates to the utmost the principles of his nature, and exercises them on the principle of reciprocity, he is not far from the path. What you do not like when done to yourself, do not do to others." In this chapter, Confucius explained this guideline with four examples: "to serve my father, as I would require my son to serve me" "to serve my prince as I would require my minister to serve me" "to serve my elder brother as I would require my younger brother to serve me" "to set the example in behaving to a friend, as I would require him to behave to me"
Purpose of the study of philosophy
To enable a man, as a man, to be a man, not some particular kind of man.
LANGUAGE BARRIER
Translation is bound to be poorer than the original. It needs the combination of all the translations already made and many others not yet made, to reveal the richness of the Lao-tzu and the Confucian Analects in their original form.
Kuo Hsiang
Turned the allusions and metaphors of Chuang Tzu into a form of reasoning and argument and translated his poems into prose of his own. His writing is much more articulate than that of Chuang Tzu.
The Methodology of Chinese Philosophy
Two major types of concepts: (according to Professor Northrop) Achieved by intuition Achieved by postulation
Difference between Western Philosophy and Chinese Philosophy
Western Philosophy - Greek philosophers made the distinction between being and non-being, the limited and the unlimited. Nonbeing and Unlimited are inferior to being and the limited. Chinese Philosophy - opposite of Western Philosophy.
Chih
Wisdom, Knowledge, and Learning It puts emphasis on the act of knowing Rather than being a static body of knowledge, it is a process of experiencing. Chih is part of the growing maturation of the individual as a changing body of experience. The term chih composes the dynamics of the thinking process which is composed of the two parts known as hsüeh (learning) and ssu (thinking).
...
Work of translation is just like chewing food that is to be fed to others. If one cannot chew the food oneself, one has to be given food that has already been chewed. The food is bound to be poorer in taste and flavor than the original.
