Philosophy Exam 2 (Ch 4-6)

Explain what Aristotle means by the five "intellectual" virtues.

1) Science: studies unchanging being, the type of existence that is subject to neither generation nor corruption. 2) Art: is the skill of a craftsman that enables him to be productive. The craftsman needs a type of knowledge in order to build house or compose a song. 3) Prudence: is a kind of practical wisdom that enables one to choose the appropriate behavior for a given situation. 4) Intuitive reason: grasps first principles. The first principles of geometry are the axioms you begin by assuming. The axioms enable you to go on to prove all the theorems in the book. According to Aristotle, the first principle of motion is the Unmoved Movant. 5) Contemplation: is a combination of science and intuitive reason.

Name and explain the four causes of motion. Give an example.

1) The material cause is the thing that changes. 2) The formal cause is the unique characteristic that makes a thing what it is. 3) The efficient cause is the agency that actualizes the potentiality by imposing the form on the matter. 4) The final cause is the goal or purpose of the change. EXAMPLE: the growth of a tree. The material cause is the tiny acorn that develops into a huge tree. The formal cause is the kind of tree that develops from the acorn, in this case, a mighty oak. The efficient cause is rich soil, nourishing water, and life-giving rays of the sun that create photosynthesis. The final cause is actualization of the genetic code contained within the acorn.

Describe the three hypostases of Plotinus.

1) underlying principle: is the One which, by a process of emanation, produces the second hypostasis: 2) Mind (nous) that is the realm of the Platonic Forms, the archetypes of all existing things. Mind, by itself overflowing itself, produces the second emanation/3rd: 3) Corporality. With the help of the mind, soul interweaves with rationality of Form into corporality. Since corporality glows with rationality, Plotinus explicitly denies the Gnostic view that the corporeal world is evil.

Describe Plato's theory of Forms.

A Form can be thought but not seen. Since a Form is immaterial, it cannot be perceived by the senses. Examples of Forms are: Wisdom, Courage, Temperance, Justice, Goodness, Beauty, etc. Plato refers to Forms in this way because he wants to indicate that they are unmixed with matter. Everything that we perceive is mixed with matter. A painting is beautiful because it imitates or participates in the Form of Beauty. Visible things have real being only to the extent that they participate in the Forms. Consequently, Forms are independent of an prior to the material objects of the world. Forms are not merely ideas in my mind. Forms are not merely mental events; Forms are the first principle of nature.

What are the major differences between Greek philosophy and Hellenistic philosophy?

A major difference between the Greek philosophy and Hellenistic philosophy is the shift from political to personal. The Greek philosophy focused on how an individual can better their community. Focused on "What kind of virtue must be developed in order to create harmony in the city-state?" Hellenistic philosophy focused on how an individual can better themselves. The importance of the city state began to decline. Now focused on "How can a person achieve happiness in his private life?"

According to Dr. Albert Ellis, what is the only way we can change our feelings and emotions?

According to Dr. Albert Ellis, the only way we change our feelings and emotions is by changing our thinking. He does not advise his patients to go out and change the world; he advises them to change those silent sentences that we constantly repeat to ourselves (page 145).

Aristippus and Epicurus are both hedonists. How do their views differ?

Aristippus believed that the supreme good is sensual pleasure. Epicurus held that the supreme good is peace of mind (ataraxia). pg. 136 Aristippus: -a pupil of Socrates -believed that supreme good is sensual pleasure Epicurus: -believed that the supreme good is peace of mind -no need to fear God or death: it is just the absence of sensation -believed that the only reality is atoms in the void

What is the relationship between happiness and virtue?

Aristotle claims that happiness must be an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue, and if there is more than one virtue, then in accordance with the highest or best virtue. He insists happiness is an activity. Happiness is an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue.

How does Aristotle explain the process of change?

Aristotle declares that change is possible due to potentiality, which explains how a thing can change and yet remain the same.

What is happiness, according to Aristotle? In other words, what is the one activity that will make your life completely desirable and lacking in nothing? Explain what Aristotle means and why he holds this view.

Aristotle discovers that happiness is contemplation. It is a combination of science (a study of unchanging being) and intuitive reason which attempts to grasp first principles). It may include astronomy, cosmology, or metaphysics, or biology. Zygote example (125).

What is the first principle of nature according to Plato?

Consequently, Forms are independent of and prior to the material objects of the world. Forms are not merely ideas in [the] mind. Forms are not merely mental events; Forms are the first principles of nature" (Crowley 101).

Describe Plato's two-world theory.

Consists of the world of appearance and the world of reality. The world of appearance is the realm of material things that we perceive with our senses. Plato refers to the sensible realm as a world of "becoming" because it is characterized by generation and corruption. In a world of constant change, there is only opinion but no enduring knowledge because change eventually makes all theories obsolete. The world of reality is the realm of Forms (eidos) or Ideas (idea). This is a changeless world of eternal "being" (ousia). It cannot be perceived by the senses, but it can be grasped by the mind. Only in this changeless realm is knowledge possible.

What are the basic principles of Stoicism?

Detachment (apatheia) from pleasures and sorrows of life - (We should accept life as it is) The world is morally neutral - (evil and good are personal interpretation) Change things that are within our power and forget things outside that range Change personal thoughts/inner self rather than changing the world

What is the relationship between dialectic and recollection?

Dialectic is the question and answer method, it triggers a productive discussion where the opinions are clarified which create the path of truth. Socrates major thesis is learning is recollecting, a process of pulling out what is buried in the depths of our being. I believe the relationship between these two methods is that both make one discover something new which one was unaware of before, leading to enlightenment, or the truth.

In what two important ways does Epicurus think that science can contribute to our peace of mind?

Fear of the gods and fear of death, students could liberate themselves from these fears by a study of science. no need to fear the gods because you can study physics which maintains that nature operates by predicatble scientific principles rather then gods. He believed that the only reality is atoms in the void, when the body dies, the soul disintegrates and is no longer capable of sensation-so do not fear death as it is an absence of sensation.

How does Aristotle solve the problem of the one and the many?

First, he presents a theory that shows the inheritance of both reason and senses. He maintains the visible world that we apprehend with our sense is real. However, there is also an immaterial reality that we know solely by reason: the Unmoved Movant. Second, he demonstrates that there is both rest and motion. The Unmoved Movant is pure form with no potentiality to fulfill and, therefore, in a state of rest. Substance, composed of matter and form is constantly in motion, striving to actualize its potentiality. Third, he claims that reality is both changing and unchanging. Things chance because substance takes on new form; but in every change, something remains the same: matter. Fourth, the accounts for both the one and the many. The world of becoming consists of many things. However, there is also one perfect being that is the source of all becoming: the Unwanted Movant (page 118).

If one were to open a school dedicated to Socrates' theory of recollection, what would the educational process be like?

From what I can see, the school would operate with the teachers would guide the students through lessons without giving them answers. Instead, they show them visually their mistakes and the student would have to find another solution based on the mistakes

The Greek city-state ceased to be an important political unit with the rise of international super states like Macedonia and Rome who conquered other countries to create their empires. How did this change affect the development of moral philosophy?

Gave way to more practical consideration. Chief concern was no longer nature, metaphysics, and political theory but rather ethics and morality.

What question does Glaucon (Plato's older brother) ask Socrates (a question that will become the theme of Plato's Republic)?

Glaucon speaks up and declares that the common opinion that being just is burdensome and tiring, but that most people perform just action for the reward that it brings. Suppose, however that there were no reward for being just. Would justice be worth doing for its own sake?

Why does Aristotle say that happiness is not virtue?

Happiness cannot be virtue because a virtuos person might have to live with such great suffering that o one could call such an existance a life of happiness. Happiness cannot be virtue because virtue is a characteristic of the soul whereas happiness is an activity of the sou;l.

Describe Aristotle's conception of the human soul.

He claims that the human soul consists of two aspects: irrational and rational, each of which can be divided into two parts. So the human soul consists of four parts in all. The irrational aspect of the soul consists of 1) a vegetative part that is responsible for nutrition, growth, and reproduction, and 2) an appetitive part that is the seat of desire, sensation, and locomotion. The rational aspect consists of 3) a calculative part that apprehends things that can be other than they are, and 4) a scientific part that apprehends things that cannot be other than they are (122).

How does Aristotle describe the "moral" virtues?

He defines moral virtue is a mean lying between two extremes-the vice of deficiency and the vice of excess. It is hard to be virtuous because it is difficult to hit the mean. It is much easier to err in the direction of excess or in the direction deficiency. Aristotle also distinguished between the absolute mean and the relative mean. The absolute mean, being equally distant from both extremes, is the same for everyone. The relative mean, being neither too much nor too little for a particular individual, is different for each person (120).

What does Aristotle mean by "motion"?

He is not talking about locomotion (the movement from one place to another) but rather about the process of coming into existence and going out of existence.

What is the difference between hedonism and Stoicism?

Hedonism: Pleasure & happiness should be the most important pursuit of mankind Stoicism: Development of self control to overcome envy and fear

How does Plato solve the problem of relativism?

His Theory of Forms is not only intended to combat relativism of the Sophists; (page 107).

Why does Aristotle say that happiness is not honor?

Honor is given to us by others. If others give it, then they can also take it away. Aristotle thinks that happiness is a person's own possession and can be taken away by no one.

Many newspapers have a column that reviews local restaurants. Sometimes when the reviewer really likes the food, he may refer to it as an Epicurean delight. Is this fair to Epicurus? Why?

In my opinion I don't think this is fair for Epicurus. Food brings people sensual pleasure not really peace of mind which was Epicurus view.

What does Thrasymachus mean when he says, "Justice is the interest of the stronger"?

In other words, laws are made by the powerful for the powerful. The strongest get to define what is right and they define it as whatever is to their own advantage. Socrates argues that it like politicians are elected to serve citizens. Thrasymachus replies politicians are like cattlemen, as they do not tend to the herd for the sake of the cattle, they tend the herd for their own profit. He claims that injustice is profitable and the just man always loses. The greater the injustice, the more it is admired. (EX: A person robs a bank is called a thief, a person who steals a whole country is called a liberator).

What analogy does Plato draw between the sun and the Form of the Good?

In the visible world, the sun brings life into existence by photosynthesis. If there were no sun, there would be no plants. If there were no plants, there would be no animals. Similarly, in the intelligible world, the Form of the Good brings the other Forms into existence. Just as Christians will later say that the first principle is God, Plato implies that the first principle is the Form of the Good.

How does Socrates define justice in the state and how does he define it in the soul?

Justice is characteristic of the individual soul when each part performs its own proper function. Justice brings a state of harmony to the soul. By ending internal conflict, it enables the individual to live at peace with himself. So justice is worthwhile pursuing for its own sake even if it brings no external rewards.

Was Aristophanes correct to portray Socrates as a Sophist? Explain.

No he was not. Socrates believed that ignorance is valuable. Second, he did not ask for any payment from his students because he never claimed to have wisdom. Finally, Socrates was not dealing in rhetoric (the art of persuasion that tries to prove a thing true that is actually false) but in dialectic (Socrates' question and answer method that stimulates a productive discussion in which opinions are clarified & then perfected by criticism until finally both parties to the discussion discover something new about which they were previously unaware). page 90-91.

How does the soul of the gods order the universe? What practical lesson does Plato hope we will apply to our own lives?

On the bottom of page 104, Socrates talks about the soul being "similar to a pair of winged horses and a charioteer." The souls of Mercury and Venus flew upward and ordered the solar system.

What is the denotation and the connotation of the word sophist?

Originally, sophist meant "wise man", but it eventually became a derogatory term. From it we derive our word, "sophomore": someone who has a little bit of knowledge but thinks he knows everything. Due to Socrates' criticism, the name "sophist" no longer refers to "wise man", but to a "know it all."

The Greeks invented philosophy and physics, drama and the theater, democracy and trial by jury, logic, the university, and atomic theory. What were the factors that enabled them to accomplish so much?

Partly due to geographical reasons. There was no Church, orthodoxy, and therefore no doctrinal intolerance either. There was a flowering of individualism.

Contrast Aristotle's view of virtue with the view expressed by Socrates that "virtue is knowledge". Do you find any point of agreement between Plato and Aristotle?

Plato argued that since virtue is knowledge, virtue can be taught. Aristotle agrees with Plato as far as the intellectual virtues are concerned, but he insists that the moral virtues can be acquired only by habit (123).

What is Plato's solution to the problem of the one and the many?

Plato is more sympathetic to the Eleatic view than to the Ionian. Like Parmenides, Plato believes that we apprehend reality with our mind rather than senses. Unlike the Eleatics, Plato accounts for plurality (he is a pluralist). His theory of Forms is also a pluralization of the Eleatic position. The one being of Parmenides is broken up into manu Forms, each of which has the characteristics of Parmenides' One-unbegotten, imperishable, and changeless. Plato holds that reality is both one and many. Although there are many Forms, the Form of the Good is a principle of unity that brings all the other forms into existence.

Compare Plato's concept of the soul to Freud's view of the personality.

Plato's concept of the soul is that the individual soul has three parts: rational, spirited, and appetitive. The rational part os the center of reflection and knowledge, it also rules the other two. The spirited part craves honor and glory, it enforces the mandates of rational. The appetitive part is the seat of desire and appetitive it has instinctual drives. Personality comprises of three parts: Id, Superego and Ego. The Id is the most primitive where it is concerned with instant gratification. The Superego is concerned with a person's morals. The Ego acts as the rational and pragmatic portion of the mind which balances the Superego and the Id. The Id closely resembles the Appetitive because both use primitive thought processes due to instinctual desires. The Superego resembles the Spirited part since both search for what is morally correct. Lastly, the Ego resembles the rational where both make executive decisions through internal reflection and knowledge. Both Plato and Freud believed that all three parts must work together to create a balanced emotional/mental state or bring harmony to the soul. "By ending internal conflict, it enables the individual to live at peace with himself" much like Freud used psychoanalysis for treatment.

Why does Aristotle say that happiness is not pleasure?

Pleasure may be the highest good for animals; but Aristotle thinks that for human beings, there is something even better.

Describe the parallel that Socrates draws between the state and the soul.

Since the state has been created by human beings, the human soul reflects the structure of the state. The individual soul has three parts: rational, spirited, and appetitive. The rational part is the center of reflection and knowledge. Since it is the ruling part of the soul, its virtue is wisdom. The spirited part craves honor and glory. It sides with the rational against the appetitve. To do so, it needs the virtue of courage. The appetitive part is the seat of desire and appetite. Although the appetitive has no unique virtue, all three parts of the soul should practice the virtues of temperance and justice. Temperance is an agreement among all three parts that the rational is to rule.

What did Socrates mean when he called himself a midwife?

Socrates sees himself as a midwife, who by dialectic gives birth to the truth. Dialectic is the path to truth. It is the give-and-take of conversation that leads to enlightenment (page 91).

How would stoics argue against hedonists?

Stoic: "The pleasures and sorrows of life are fleeting. It is an exhausting waste of time and energy to pursue these pleasures, while mourning over the sorrows could cause emotional discord. To be detached from these feelings with a peaceful mind and a life of stability is happiness."

What social and political conditions are likely to produce stoicism?

Stoicism was very popular with the Roman Legions because it is so conducive to the rigors of a military life. Among all the Greek philosophies, this was most successful. Seneca was an aristocrat, Epictetus was a slave, Marcus Aurelius was an emperor. Stoicism appealed to everyone (138).

What do you think is the value of Stoicism?

Stoics believe that happiness is not feeling at all. They advocate detachment (apatheia) from both the pleasures and the sorrows that life may bring us. Good and bad times should be received in exactly the same way. Regard success as a fraud and failure as a sham. -declares that we should accept our life as it is.

Name the four greatest schools of Athens.

The Painted Porch, The Garden, The Lyceum, and The Academy.

In the allegory of the cave, who does the freed prisoner generally represent? Who does the freed prisoner specifically represent?

The cave represents our world, the world of appearance. The prisoners represent us, the unenlightened who have never seen the world of reality. The ascent out of the cave represents the path to enlightenment or "dialectic", which enables us to journey deep within ourselves and thereby recall the truth. The objects in the real world outside the cave represent the Forms. The sun, the author of life, represents the Form of the Good.

What is the cause of causes? Explain why it is the cause of causes.

The final cause is the ultimate cause, the cause of causes. Change continues as long as potentiality exists. Everything has a desire for fulfillment; everything wants to become actually what is potentially. Only one thing is completely actualized: the Unmoved Movant (nous), which contains no potentiality because it has no matter whatsoever. The Unmoved Movant is pure form. Everything wants to imitate the Unmoved Movant and become completely actualized. This love/erotic movement toward actualizing potentiality is what perpetuates the process of change in nature. The Unmoved Mocant is the first principle of motion. Although is is the source of motion, is it motionless because having no potentiality it is completely actual. It does nothing to initiate motion; but just by existing in a state of perfection, it motivates everything else to pursue completion.

Who did the oracle of Delphi proclaim the wisest of all? How did Socrates interpret the oracle?

The oracle's reply was Socrates. This puzzled Socrates because he never claimed to have any wisdom. He interprets the oracle as meaning that he is wise because he is aware of his own ignorance. Socrates never claimed to be wise; he claimed only to be a "philosopher." This word comes from two Greek terms: philos (friend or lover) and sophia (wisdom). So a philosopher is "lover of wisdom". A lover desires the object of his love. We do not desire what we posses; we desire what we lack. Although Socrates may not have possessed it, her nevertheless desired wisdom.

The Eleatics reject the notion of change; Aristotle does not. Nevertheless, he agrees with the Eleatics when they say it is impossible to get something from nothing. What is Aristotle's great discovery that allows him to account for change?

The principle of potentiality.

Compare the view of the soul presented in the Phaedrus to the view presented in the Republic.

The republic's conception of the soul is where the spirited joins with the rational (nous: mind) to try to gain control over the appetitive.

According to Plotinus, what is the third emanation? What lies beyond the third emanation?

The third emanation is Corporality it is the last glow of existence before total darkness of the void (matter) with the help of the Mind, Soul interweaves the rationality of Form into corporality denies Gnostic view that the corporeal world is evil the power of One is completely extended Farther from One we go, the closer we get to nothingness. Evil is the formlessness of matter. Just as the farther we go from the sun, the nearer we are to darkness. Farther from the One, the nearer we are to nothingness.

What did Protagoras mean by his famous saying, "Man is the measure of all things"? What was Socrates' reaction?

The usual interpretation of this saying is that what you think true is true for you; what I think true is true for me. It is precisely this relativism that Socrates abhorred. Not only is it a symptom of decadence, but it is also naive and silly. Suppose what you think true is the exact opposite of what I think true. Then, according to Protagoras' saying, truth is contradictory to itself.

Why does Socrates believe that "virtue is knowledge"?

There is an exchange on page 92 that explains how evil actions are due to ignorance of the true repercussions of a decision. Socrates puts forth, then, good decisions are made when these repercussions are well known. This is the reasoning that virtue comes from knowledge. Socrates claims that "virtue is knowledge" . If virtue is knowledge, then virtue can be taught. (page 93).

According to Epictetus, what is within our power to change? What is beyond our power?

Things within our power are opinion, desire, and aversion. Things beyond our power are office, property, reputation, sickness, and death" (page 139).

Describe the difference between our modern view of morality and the view of ethics shared by the ancient Greeks.

Today, we associate morality with right action. What is morality right is often independent of what is profitable. Morality and self interest are frequently at odds. Modern moralists urge us to choose virtue rather than happiness, as a list of do's and don'ts. Ancient morality was defined as any condition of human well being. Virtue (arete) was seen as the thriving condition of human well being. Morality was defined as any action that is conducive to well being; immorality was defined as any action that hinders well being (135).

Why does Aristotle say that happiness is not wealth?

Wealth is useful only if you can turn it into something like an automobile or a journey around the world. While wealth is a means to something else, happiness is an end in itself.

In what ways does Aristotle disagree with Plato?

While Plato sided with the Eleatic school, Aristotle's sympathy lies with the views of the Ionians. He developed an empirical scientific mentality. Rejecting Plato's theory of recollection, Aristotle claims that knowledge begins with sensory experience. He also rejects Plato's two- world theory. Plato speaks of the real world of the Forms that is prior to and independent of the visible World, Aristotle thinks that Plato has slipped off the deep end into Fantasy Land. For Aristotle,the visible world is the real world.