Philosopy 101 Exam 3
What is Kant's 1st formulation of the Categorical Imperative (universalizability principle)? What four examples does he give to illustrate the application of this principle?
Kant's 1st formulation of the categorical imperative is a general criterion or test that determines which moral principles are correct "act only according to that maxim (rule that guides action) whereby you can at the same time will that it should become universal law" First example - suicide Contradiction - self-love seeks to preserve life and self-love seeks to destroy life Second example - false promises Contradiction - you can't "promise" something when "promises" no longer exist Third example - waste talent Contradiction - one's rational nature seeks to develop gifts and talent is a gift so how can you waste it. Fourth example - refuse help Contradiction - can you will that everyone not help anyone when some day you may be the one in need of help
How does Kant's ethics differ from utilitarianism? What is the difference between act and rule utilitarianism?
Kant's ethics differ from utilitarianism because Utilitarian is a consequentialist or teleological theory - only the consequences of an action are morally relevant. People should aim for the greatest good for the greatest number. Kant's ethics view actions as right or wrong without respect to the consequences, while utilitarianism decides whether an action is right or wrong based on the consequences Act Utilitarianism = right action leads to the greatest good for the greatest number Rule Utilitarianism = right action follows best rule. The best rule leads good for the greatest number if followed
What is Kant's 2nd formulation of the Categorical Imperative (respect for persons or the formula of humanity)? How does Kant apply this principle to the case of being lazy and wasting one's talents? How does he apply it to false promises? Would prostitution violate the 2nd formulation of the Categorical Imperative?
Kant's second formulation of the categorical imperative is the formula of humanity "act so you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end, and never as a mere means (use it only for your own benefit)" In Kant's view you should not be lazy and waste your talents and you should never make a lying promise The 2nd formulation states that people use one another with respect Obtain informed consent Be aware of people's goals/ends Promote rationality/autonomy (independence)
Does Manning think that we are obligated to help starving people in Africa? For Manning what are the different objects of care? Besides persons, what else can be an object of care?
Manning thinks that we are obligated to help starving people in Africa. For Manning, the different objects of care are characteristics. Besides persons, animals can also be objects of care.
Does Marquis offer a personhood theory about abortion? Why or why not? Is his theory founded on religious views?
Marquis argues that his theory is consistent with beliefs that many people hold: Wrong to kill infants That other non-humans have the right to life Euthanasia is morally acceptable Contraception is morally permissible These beliefs are: Does not lead to infanticide Some personhood theories claim that X does not have moral rights until X has cognition Consistent with euthanasia Okay to end life when: No future of value Likelihood of pain, suffering, death Consistent with contraception (condoms/birth control) Not depriving X of future of value because there is no arbitrary identifiable X
What does Marquis conclude about abortion? What does it mean to be "prima facie" wrong? What hard cases does he not explore in his essay?
Marquis concludes the following about abortion: Abortion is, except in rare cases (pregnancy: prior to implantation, that is result of rape, that endanger a woman's life) seriously immoral. "prima facie" wrong = usually or generally wrong until proved otherwise Marquis does not explore the following hard cases in his essay: Rare cases: Pregnancy: Prior to implantation That is result of rape That endanger a woman's life
How does he defend that his theory is superior to other theories on abortion?
Marquis defends that his theory is superior to other theories on abortion because: Does not lead to speciesism Not founded on religious claims Some personhood theories kill infants Sanctity of life theories - euthanasia and contraception are wrong
Why does Marquis think it is wrong to kill beings like us? What does he identify as the wrong-making feature of killing a fetus? That is, does he make claims about the fetus being a person or not?
Marquis thinks it is wrong to kill beings like us because when someone kills you or me, we miss out on everything we could have done in the future (get married, travel) so when someone kills a fetus it is no different than someone killing us, they miss out on their future too. It is the loss of one's future that makes it wrong The wrong-making feature of killing a fetus is depriving one from its future
Kant states the only good without qualification is the "good will." What does he mean by this? What should motivate us if our actions are to be morally worthy? Are sympathy and love good motives?
"Good will" = to be rational a being who consistently does her duty, and has intention Duty to follow rules
According to Marquis, what do many people believe with regards to these issues: a) infanticide, b) euthanasia, and c) contraception. Is Marquis's theory consistent with these popular beliefs?
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In what ways is a newborn baby similar to a late-term fetus? How are they different? Does Warren consider abortion or killing a newborn infant as murder? According to Warren, under what conditions is infanticide morally right or wrong?
A newborn baby is similar to a late-term fetus in these following ways: Intrinsic properties (cognition is the same) A newborn baby is different to a late-term fetus in these following ways: Birth changes extrinsic (out of the woman's body, social and independent) properties Warren does not consider abortion or killing a newborn infant (infanticide) as murder According to Warren, under the condition of someone else in society wanting to care for the baby (adoption) is infanticide morally wrong
What does Aristotle mean by "happiness"? Besides moral virtues, what other conditions are necessary for someone to be happy? What is the function of a human being? What is a person's "telos"?
A person's "telos" (end) is eudaimonia (happiness) The aim of all other goods OR "eudaimonia" Meaning long-term well-being or human flourishing Besides moral virtues, what else is necessary for someone's happiness is: Health Wealth Luck NOT just to live, to move, etc We are rational animals The function is uniquely human -> reason To use reason in pursuit of a good life
At what stage of pregnancy was abortion ruled legal during the Roe v. Wade case? What is a gradient view of personhood?
Abortion was ruled legal before viability (fetus is able to survive independent of the woman's body) A gradient view of personhood is that the fetus should be given more moral consideration the more it develops
According to Aristotle, would a moral ideal have to fight off temptation and struggle to be good?
According to Aristotle, a moral ideal would not have to fight off temptation and struggle to be good. The temptation of St. Anthony A truly moral person would not even face temptation
Under what conditions can you morally use others? Is it morally permissible to lie in order to save another person's life? What is the difference between ends-in-themselves and mere means? Why is lying in conflict with other people's autonomy?
According to Kant's 2nd formulation, you are allowed to use a person as a means to your end The 2nd formulation states that people use one another with respect Obtain informed consent Be aware of people's goals/ends Promote rationality/autonomy (independence) Ends-in-themselves are means to an end (humans have value) and mere means is to use it only for your own benefit, with no thought to the interests or benefit of the thing you're using (humans don't have value) No, it is not permissible to lie in order to save another person's life Lying conflicts with another person's autonomy because it takes away from the other person
According to Manning, is taking a moral philosophy course the best way to become sensitive and moral individuals? Why or why not?
According to Manning, take a moral philosophy course is not the best way to become sensitive and moral individuals. It seemed to me that a better way would be to have students work in soup kitchens or shelters for the homeless. Taking care of my children has made me more open to moral concerns. In taking care of the hungry, homeless, and helpless, we are engaged in caring for. In the standard case, caring for is immediate; it admits of no surrogates. When we directly care for some creature, we are in physical contact. Our eyes meet, our hands touch.
For Rita Manning, what is the central priority of ethics? How do our duties to others arise? Do we have equal responsibilities to all? Must we strive to be as giving as someone like Mother Theresa?
According to Rita Manning, the central priority of ethics are relationships with other human beings Not the concept of individual rights Our duties to others arise by unchosen responsibilities Not always social contract We do not have equal responsibilities to all people We are allowed to prioritize We can limit our obligation to care for others by First, having a prima facie obligation to care for when we come across a creature in need who is unable to meet that need without help, when our caring is called upon as a part of a reciprocal relationship, or when caring is indicated as part of our role responsibility. Actual obligations rest upon the seriousness of the need, the assessment of the appropriateness of filling the need, and the ability to do something about filling it.
According to Warren, what gives people the moral status of personhood? What characteristics of a fetus are morally irrelevant in deciding personhood?
According to Warren, the things that give people the moral status of personhood are: gene soul sentience viability Birth The following characteristics are morally irrelevant in deciding personhood: Consciousness Reasoning Self-motivated activity Self-awareness Communication "the moral community consists of all and only people, rather than all and only human beings"
In the Nicomachean Ethics, how does Aristotle describe the virtue of courage, liberality, temperance, modesty and friendliness? What vice of deficiency and excess correspond to each virtue?
Aristotle describes the virtue of courage, liberality, temperance, modesty, and friendliness as: Courage: Rash - Courage - Cowardice Liberality: prodigality - liberality - stinginess Temperance: Temperance consists of not giving in too easily to the pleasures of physical sensation Modesty: prudish - modest - shameless Friendliness: flatterer - friendly - quarrelsome
One philosopher of feminist ethics is Nel Noddings. How does Noddings define a "caring person"? How does she distinguish between "caring-about" and "caring-for"?
Caring involves connection between the carer and the cared-for and a degree of reciprocity (both gain from the encounter in different ways and both give) caring encounter is categorized by (1)A cares for B, (2)A performs some act in accordance with (1) (3) B recognizes that A cares for B Noddings defines a "caring person" as one who fairly regularly establishes caring relations and, when appropriate maintains them over time. Noddings distinguishes "caring about" as something more general; takes us more into the public realm - we may be concerned about the suffering of those in poor countries and wish to do something about it and "caring for" as face to face encounters in which one person cares directly for another
What does the prefix "deon" mean? How are deontological ethics? Do we need religion to determine what is right or wrong? Why or why not?
Deon = Duty Consequences do not matter Doing one's duty Deontological ethics is when consequences do not matter, what matters is doing one's duty or having a good will For Kant, we are able to discover the moral rules by use of reason, you do not need religion to determine what is right and wrong, because what is right and wrong is totally knowable just by using your intellect. God gave humans reason.
For Kant, is it morally wrong to sacrifice some people for any reason? What happened during the 1842 lifeboat dilemma? Would Kant support the captain's decision?
For Kant, it is NOT morally justified to sacrifice some persons for the sake of making the majority happy It is morally wrong to sacrifice some people for any reason Wrong to sacrifice because it is using them as a means to some end. Humans can't be sacrificed for greater good. In the 1842 lifeboat dilemma A ship struck an iceberg, 30 survivors on a lifeboat that can only hold 7, Weak people sacrificed Kant would not agree because it is never okay to sacrifice some people.
What did the Supreme Court rule on abortion in the Roe v. Wade case? Who was "Jane Roe"?
In the Roe v Wade case, the supreme court ruled that abortion is a fundamental right to privacy protected by the constitution Jane Roe was a judge, that was her pseudonym, Norma McCorvey
How does Aristotle distinguish between intellectual and moral virtues? What sorts of intellectual virtues are there, and how do people come to acquire them?
Intellectual virtues are excellences of the mind. Moral virtues are the contrast of intellectual virtues. Courage, modesty, justice, friendliness The 2 intellectual virtues are Philosophical wisdom Understanding the nature of reality Practical wisdom Knowing how to live life and to achieve goals Acquired by inheritance and education From parents Strengthen through education
Is Kant an egalitarian or absolutist? Should we ever make exceptions of ourselves? To whom do moral laws apply? What is the difference between hypothetical and categorical imperatives? What is a maxim and a universal law?
Kant is an egalitarian because he believed that every human being is equal in worth Kant was an absolutist because he believed that for morality to be valid, it must apply to all rational beings A Hypothetical Imperative is "if I want x, then I should do y." One who wishes for a specific end, must will the means needed to reach the end Only obligate the one who wishes for that particular goal Relative to each person Conditional Categorical Imperatives are moral rules that apply to everyone obligate everyone no matter the circumstances or consequences universal to all persons unconditional
Nel Noddings claims that "variation is to be expected if the one claiming to care really cares." According to Feminist Ethics, should one always follow fixed rules? Why or why not? How does physical contact and affection fit into caring for others?
Nel Noddings statement reflects feminist ethics because they focus on relationships with other human beings and not individual rights. Nel Noddings statement follows fixed rules because the goal of ethics of care is giving and receiving of care appropriate to specific persons and their situations.
How does Kant view the moral worth of persons as opposed to things/animals? How is a person different from a coffee mug?
People have unconditional worth People are autonomous, self- ruling, law-making Animals have conditional worth Are objects Can be bought and sold A person is different from a coffee mug because humans have unconditional worth
How does she use the terms "people/persons and "human beings"? For Warren, what examples of human beings are not people, and what non humans are persons with moral rights?
People/persons = in a moral sense, has moral rights Human beings = in a genetic sense, has human DNA For Warren, some human beings that are not people are: Defective humans Fetuses For Warren, some nonhumans that are people with moral rights are: Self-aware robots Intelligent UFOs
What is the difference between perfect duties (necessary) versus imperfect (contingent, meritorious) duties for Kant? Which of his four examples are perfect and which imperfect duties?
Perfect duties include duties not to commit suicide and not break promises Imperfect duties include duties not to waste talent and not to refuse help
What is the Heinz Dilemma? According to psychological studies, how do boys tend to respond to this dilemma as opposed to girls? What is Carol Gilligan's interpretation of the differences between a male's and female's response to moral dilemmas?
The Heinz Dilemma is Heinz cannot afford to pay for medicine that his wife needs to survive. Should he steal the meds to keep his wife alive? According to this dilemma, boys tend to respond like: Steal the drugs because life is worth more than the money Definitive Answer Rational Calculation Neutral Standpoint Moral Principles According to this dilemma girls tend to respond like: If we spoke with the pharmacist, they would understand and give the meds willingly no definite answer empathy and compassion seek more info to understand situation Carol Gilligan's interpretation of the differences between a male's and female's response to the moral dilemmas is that men and women have different approaches to moral problems Women refuse to apply abstract principles
What characteristics did Aristotle recognize as virtues? How are these virtues generally characteristic of and valued by certain groups of people?
The characteristics that Aristotle recognized as virtues were: Courage, justice, friendliness, modesty, aspiration, pride, liberality, temperance, wittiness These virtues are generally characteristics of and valued by certain groups of people: Aristocratic, wealthy males during war times
What is the Golden Mean? What conditional statement of the form "If..., then..." best expresses the Golden Mean?
The golden mean is: Should not be expressed as: If x lies in the middle of two vices, x is a virtue *the middle of 2 vices may not be a virtue The best conditional statement is: If x is a virtue, then x lies between two vices
Why does Warren view a fetus to have no more a right to life than a newborn guppy? What rights does a woman have in comparison with the right to life of a fetus?
The reason that Warren views a fetus to have no more of a right to life than a newborn guppy is because a fetus cannot be said to have more right to life than a newborn guppy, which also capable of feeling pain The rights that a woman has in comparison with the right to life of a fetus are: To life To body To health To happiness To freedom
What is the difference between action-based versus virtue-based ethical theories?
Virtue based ethics are not what we ought to do, but how we ought to be Inner character rather than actions Action based ethics action-based theories emphasize the need to act according to moral rules, such as the utilitarian principle or the categorical imperative, and the central moral question for this approach is "What should I do?" Virtues (done naturally and easily) = excellence, a good trait = habit, a disposition to act a certain way
What is Warren's extreme pro-choice view on abortion? When is abortion morally permissible?
Warren's extreme pro-choice view on abortion is that abortion is morally permissible at any stage of pregnancy Abortion is morally permissible at any stage of pregnancy
"Men come to be builders, for instance, by building; harp-players, by playing on the harp." What does Aristotle mean by this quote? How do people cultivate moral virtues?
What Aristotle meant by the quote was the more you practice, the more likely you are likely to succeed in becoming virtuous. People cultivate moral virtues by constantly working and practicing them.
Does a woman have the right to a late-term abortion? Does sentience or viability matter for Warren when it comes to deciding the moral permissibility of abortion?
When it comes to a late-term abortion, a woman has the right to abortion Sentience or viability do not matter for Warren when it comes to deciding the moral permissibility of abortion
What problems do feminist ethicists see in moral dilemmas such as the Heinz question or the runaway trolley problems? In contrast to male-oriented ethics, what does feminist ethics value?
the problems that feminist ethicists see in moral dilemmas such as the Heinz question or the runaway trolley problem are that women reject unrealistic situations/dilemmas. Women prefer relationships and not abstract principles In contrast to male-oriented ethics, feminist ethics value unchosen responsibilities, personal/concrete (subjects of story), and inner circles.