Physical Anthropology Test 3

genus Apidium

(important genus found at Fayum) - represented by several dozen jaws or partial dentitions as well as many postcranial remains. it may lie near or even before evolutionary divergence of Old and New World anthropoids. most likely squirrel-sized primate that ate mostly fruits and some seeds, arboreal quadruped

genus Aegyptopithecus

(important genus found at Fayum) represented by several well preserved crania and abundant jaws and teeth the largest of the Fayum anthropoids, they are roughly the size of a modern howler monkey thought to have been a short-limbed, slow-moving arboreal quadruped important because it bridges the gap between the Eocene fossils and the succeeding Miocene hominoids nevertheless, they are primitive Old World anthropoids, with a small brain and a long snout and not showing any derived features of either Old World monkeys or hominoids. thus, it may be close to the ancestry of both major groups of living Old World anthropoids found in geological beds dating 35-33 mya, suggesting that the crucial evolutionary divergence of hominoids from other Old World anthropoids occurred after this time

Ardipithecus ramidus

- date: 4.4 mya - region: east africa - site: aramis - evolutionary significance: large collection of fossils, including partial skeletons; bipedal, but derived

Orrorin tugenensis

- date: ~6 mya - region: east africa - site: tugen hills - evolutionary significance: first hominin with postcranial remains, possibly bipedal

Sahelanthropuc tchadensis

- date: ~7-6 mya - region: central africa - site: toro-menalla - evolutionary significance: oldest potential hominin; well preserved cranium; very small-brained; bipedal?

Ardipithecus

- date:5.8-5.2 mya - region: east africa - site: middle awash - evolutionary significance: fragmentary, but possibly bipedal

Miocene hominoid groups

1. African forms (23-14 mya) 2. European forms (16-11 mya) 3. Asian forms (15-5 mya)

adaptive patterns in early african hominins

1. early hominin species (pre-australopiths, australopithecus, paranthropus, and early Homo) all had restricted ranges (so genetic drift could have led to rapid genetic divergence and eventual speciation) 2. most of these species appear to be at least partially tied to arboreal habitats 3. except for some early members of the genus Homo, there's very little in the way of an evolutionary trend of increased body size or of markedly greater encephalization 4. all show an accelerated growth and development pattern (similar to that seen in African apes), one quite different from the delayed growth and development pattern characteristics of Homo sapiens (and our immediate precursors)

early hominins from Africa groups

1. pre-australopiths (6+-4.4 mya) 2. autralopiths (4.2-1.2 mya) 3. early Homo (2+-1.4 mya)

steps between fossil location and classification

1. selecting and surveying sites 2. excavating sites and recovering fossil hominins 3. designating individual finds with specimen numbers for clear reference 4. cleaning, preparing, studying, and describing fossils 5. comparing with other fossil material - in a chronological framework if possible 6. comparing fossil variation with known ranges of variation in closely related groups of living primates and analyzing ancestral and derived characteristics 7. assigning taxonomic names to fossil material 8. publishing results and interpretations in peer-reviewed sources

Miocene hominoid fossil conclusions

1. these are hominoids - more closely related to the ape-human lineage than to Old World monkeys 2. they are mostly large-bodied hominoids, that is, more connected to the lineages of orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans than to smaller-bodied apes (for example, gibbons and siamangs) 3. most of the Miocene species thus far discovered are so derived that they are probably not link to any living form 4. one lineage that appears well established is Sivapithecus from Turkey and Pakistant. Sivapithecus shows some highly derived facial features similar to the modern orangutan, suggesting a fairly close evolutionary connection 5. evidence of definite hominins from the Miocene hasn't yet been indisputably confirmed. however, exciting recent finds from Kenya, Ethiopia, and Chad (the latter dating as far back as 7-6 mya) suggest that hominins diverged sometime in the late Miocene. recently discovered Miocene remains of the first fossils linked closely to gorillas provide further support for a late Miocene divergence (about 10-7 mya) of our closest ape cousins from the hominin line.

Asian forms of Miocene hominoids

15-5 mya the largest and most varied group of Miocene fossil hominoids was geographically dispersed from Turkey through India/Pakistan and east to Lufeng, in southern China. the best-known genus is Sivapithecus (from Turkey and Pakistan), and fossil evidence indicates that most of these hominoids were highly derived

European forms of Miocene hominoids

16-11 mya known from widely scattered localities in France, Spain, Italy, Greece, Austria, Germany, and Hungary, most of these forms are quite derived. however, this is a varied and not well-understood group. the best known of these are placed in the genus Dryopithecus; the Hungarian and Greek fossils are usually assigned to other genera. the greek fossils, called Ouranopithecus, date to 10-9 mya. Evolutionary relationships are uncertain; some researchers suggested a link with the African ape-hominin group, but most primatologists think these similarities result form homoplasy

African forms of Miocene hominoids

23-14 mya known especially from western Kenya, these include quite generalized, and in many ways primitive, hominoids. the best-known genus is Proconsul. Proconsul isn't much like an ape, and postcranially it more closely resembles a monkey, but there are some derived features of the teeth that link Proconsul to hominoids

australopiths

4.2-1.2 mya the best-known, most widely distributed, and most diverse of the early African hominins made up of two closely related genera, Australopithecus and Paranthropus they are the most completely studied they are the longest-enduring hominins yet documented, found in all the major geographical areas of Africa (south africa, central africa - chad, and east africa) major features they all share: 1. they are all clearly bipedal (although not necessarily linked to Homo in this regard) 2. they all have relatively small brains (compared with Homo) 3. they all have large teeth, particularly the back teeth, with thick to very thick enamel on the molars (in short, small-brained, large-toothed bipeds)

australopithecus anamensis

4.2-3 mya east africa, northern Kenya more primitive than all the later members of the genus Australopithecus it is a potential ancestor for many later australopiths as well as perhaps early members of the genus Homo

interpretations of Homo erectus

H. erectus had greater limb length and thus more efficient bipedalism; was the first species with a cranial capacity approaching the range of H. sapiens; became a more efficient scavenger and exploited a wider range of nutrients, including meat; and ranged across the Old World, form Spain to Indonesia it was H. erectus that transformed hominin evolution to human evolution

Other Chinese sites

Lantian County, Yunxian County, Hexian County Lantian - dated to 1.15 mya (older than the fossils at Zhoukoudian). site was recently redated to between 1.65 and 1.54 mya. Lantian sites - cranial remains of two adult H. erectus females found in association with fire-treated pebbles and flakes as well as ash. one of the specimens, an almost complete mandible containing several teeth, is quite similar to those from Zhoukoudian Yunxian County - two badly distorted crania found, average dating estimate of 800,000-580,000 ya (which would place it at a similar age to Zhoukoudian). these H. erectus inhabitants are thought to have had limited hunting capabilities, since they appear to have been restricted to the most vulnerable prey (the young and old animals) Hexian County - remains of several individuals resembling fossils form Zhoukoudian found, close relationship between the two sites has been posited, dating of Hexian remains is unclear but appear to be later than Zhoukoudian (perhaps by several hundred thousand years) the Asian crania from Java and China share many similarities, which could be explained by H. erectus migration from Java to China perhaps as early as 1.6 mya Asia has a much longer H. erectus habitation than Africa (1.8 mya-40,000 or 70,000 ya versus 1.7-1 mya)

mosaic evolution

a pattern of evolution in which the rate of evolution in one functional system varies form that in other systems. for example, in hominin evolution, the dental system, locomotor system, and neurological system (especially the brain) all evolved at markedly different rates

sagittal crest

a ridge of the bone that runs down the middle of the cranium like a short mohawk. this serves as the attachment for the large temporal muscles, indicating strong chewing

carbon-14

a well-known and commonly used chronometic technique involved carbon-14, with a half-life of 5,730 years this method is used to date organic material (such as wood, charcoal and plant fibers) as recent as a few hundred years old and can be extended as far back as 75,000 years (although the probability of error rises after 40,000 years) the basis for this dating is radiometric; it's tied to the measurement of radioactive decay of an isotope into another more stable form radiocarbon has proven especially relevant for calibrating the latter stages of human evolution, including the Neandertals and the appearance of modern Homo Sapiens

Homo erectus body size

adults weighed well over 100 lbs average adult height of about 5ft 6in quite sexually dimorphic increased height, esp leg length, and weight are associated with a dramatic increase in robusticity

most complete early primate fossil found

announced in 2009 and is called Darwinius masillae comes from the Messel site in Germany and dates to 47 mya (during the Eocene)

uranium-lead method

another method is measuring the decay of uranium into lead (the U/Pb method, with a half-life of 4.47 billion years) has been used in South Africa to date hominin sites

chronometric dating (or absolute dating)

based on radioactive decay radioactive isotopes of certain elements are unstable, and they decay to form an isotope variant of another element. because the rate of decay is known, the radioactive material serves as an accurate geological clock.

biostratigraphy

based on the fairly regular changes seen in the dentition and other anatomical structures in such groups as pigs, rodents, and baboons dating of sites is based on the presence of certain fossil species that also occur elsewhere in deposits whose dates have been determined helpful in cross-correlating the ages of various sites in the southern, central, and eastern regions of Africa

paleomagnetism

based on the shifting nature of the earth's geomagnetic pole. although now oriented northward, the earth's geomagnetic pole is known to have shifted several times in the past and at times was oriented to the south. by examining magnetically charged particles encased in rock, geologists can determine the orientation of these ancient "compasses". this technique doesn't provide exact dates but is used to double-check other techniques

Laetoli and Hadar fossils

because the Laetoli area was covered periodically by ash falls, accurate dating is possible and has provided dates of 3.7-3.5 mya dating from the Hadar region isn't as straightforward, but dating calibration using a variety of techniques has determined a range of 3.9-3 mya for the hominin discoveries from this area several hundred A. afarensis specimins, representing a minimum of 60 individuals (and perhaps as many as 100) have been excavated from Laetoli and Hadar they represent the largest well-studied collection of early hominins and are among the most significant of the hominins discussed in this chapter

East Turkana fossils

better preserved fossils from East Turkana have a nearly complete cranium with a cranial capacity of 775 cm, this individual is well outside the known range for australopiths and actually overlaps the lower boundary for later species of Homo (that is, homo erectus) generally contemporaneous with Olduvai remains the oldest fossils date to about 1.8 mya, but a recently discovered specimen dates to 1.44 mya, making it by far the latest surviving early Homo fossil yet found this discovery indicates that a species of early Homo coexisted in East Africa for several hundred thousand years with H. erectus, both living in the same exact area on the eastern side of Lake Turkana

habitual bipedalism

bipedal locomotion as the form of locomotion shown by hominins most of the time

obligate bipedalism

bipedalism is the only form of hominin terrestrial locomotion. major anatomical changes in the spine, pelvis, and lower limbs are required for bipedal locomotion, so once hominins adapted this mode of locomotion, other forms of locomotion on the ground became impossible

first early hominin discovery from Africa

came from the Taung site, discovered in 1924 they found a preserved child's skull when first discovered, scientists didn't believe hominins could have originated from Africa child was small-brained, with an adult cranial capacity of about 440cm, large-toothed, well-adapted bipeds, dated to 3.67 mya using radioisotope methods of the limestone deposits that encased the fossil (but more recent dating suggests A. africanus may extend further back than 3-2 mya). the skull and arm have been removed, but the rest of the body continues to be excavated

chronometric

chronos, meaning "time" and metric, meaning "measure" referring to a dating technique that gives an estimate in actual numbers of years

hominins

colloquial term for members of the tribe Hominini, which includes all bipedal hominoids back to the divergence with African great apes

australopithecus afarensis

come primarily from sites of Hadar (in Ethiopia) and Laetoli (in Tanzania) fossils have been very well studied the Lucy skeleton was discovered at Hadar in 1974 and the Laetoli footprints were first found in 1978 studies of the footprints found that afarensis was not bipedal in the same way as modern humans. estimates of stride length, cadence, and speed of walking have been ascertained, indicating that the Laetoli hominins moved in a slow-moving ("strolling") fashion with a rather shorter stride

earliest African emigrants

current evidence shows H. erectus in East Africa about 1.7 mya, while similar hominins were living in the Caucausus region of southeastern Europe event a little earlier - about 1.8 mya hominins made it all the way to the island of Java, Indonesia by 1.6 mya (it took H. erectus less than 200,000 years to travel from East Africa to Southeast Asia)

earliest possible primates

date to the Paleocene (65-56-mya) and belong to a large and diverse group of primitive mammals called plesiadapiforms these early primates have been controversial, with opinions varying on whether or not they are primates

Homo erectus

discoveries from east Africa have established the clear presence of Homo erectus by 1.7 mya anatomical differences exist between AFrican representations of H. erectus and their Asian cousins H. erectus differs from its more ancient African ancestors in its: increase in body size and robustness, changes in limb proportions (especially longer lower limbs), and an increase in brain size (that is, greater encephalization)

early hominin tools

earliest definite tools discovered in Ethiopia date to about 2.6 mya and are made of stone other types of tools made of perishable materials were very likely used long before this time (stick for digging, stones to crush nuts, etc.) - but only rocks that have been altered according to a regular pattern are identifiable to use as real artifacts

Homo erectus brain size

early Homo had cranial capacities ranging from as small as 500cm to as large as 800cm, H. erectus on the other hand shows a cranial capacity of about 700cm to 1250cm brain size is closely linked to overall body size, so H. erectus was also considerably larger than earlier members of the genus Homo

Eocene primates

eocene epoch (56-33 mya) 200 recognized species have been found from fossils they display for clearly derived primate features fossils found at many sites in North America and Europe (they were still connected at the time), and recent finds show the radiation of Eocene primates to Asia and Africa what we know for sure about Eocene fossils: 1) they were primates 2) the were widely distributed 3) they were mostly extinct by the end of the Eocene what is less certain is how any of them might be related to living primates

Lucy skeleton

found eroding out of a hillside by Don Johanson scientifically designated as Afar Locality one of the most complete individuals from anywhere in the world for the entire period before about 100,000 years ago

earliest east African H. erectus fossils

found in East Turkana (same area where the earlier australopith and early Homo fossils have been found) 2-1.8 mya, some form of early Homo evolved into H. erectus complete skull of H. erectus found in East Turkana, dates at 1.7 mya, it is the oldest known member of this species from Africa, cranial capacity is 848cm second skull of H. erectus found, smallest cranium of any H. erectus specimen from anywhere in Africa, dates to 1.5 mya, cranial capacity of 691cm (proposed that this is a female and that the variation in cranial capacity indicates a high degree of sexual dimorphism)

Later homo erectus from Europe

found in Spain and Italy caves in the Atapuerca region in Spain have yielded hominin fossils contemporaneous with H. erectus (but little agreement on the taxonomic status of these fossils). the earliest find from Atapuerca dates to 1.2 mya (the oldest hominin found in western Europe) - partial jaw, a few teeth were found along with tools and animal bones because all of the remains found at Atapuerca are fragmentary, assigning these fossils to a particular species poses a problem. Spanish paleoanthropologists have placed these hominins into another species, one they call Homo antecessor Ceprano site in Italy: best evidence yet of H. erectus in Europe dated to 450,000 ya cranial morphology places this specimen quite close to H. erectus Italian researchers have proposed a different interpretation - classifies the hominin has a separate species from H. erectus. for the moment, the relationship of the Ceprano find to H. erectus has yet to be fully discovered after about 400,000 years, the European hominin fossil record becomes increasingly abundant. several of these later "premodern" specimens have been regarded either as early representatives of H. sapiens or as a separate species, one immediately preceding H. sapiens

Australopithecus sediba

found in the Malapa Cave in South Africa several skeletons found dating to a little less than 2 mya they show a mosaic of more primitive australopith characteristics along with a few derived features more suggestive of Homo the dentition and jaws show shape and size differences with other hominins their australopith-like characteristics include: small brain, long arms with curved fingers, and several primitive traits in the feet (in these respects A. sediba most resembles its potential immediate South African predecessor, A. africanus) analysis of lower limb anatomy suggests A. sediba would have swayed side to side while walking, an unusual form of bipedal locomotion evidence of powerful upper limbs, the orientation of the shoulder, and other anatomical features suggest it likely retained adaptations to arboreal habitats characteristics that resemble homo: short fingers, more flexible lower spine (as well as five lumber vertebrae), and possible indication of brain reorganization

Homo erectus cranial shape

highly distinctive shape thick cranial bone, large browridges (supraorbital tori) above the eyes, and a projecting nuchal torus at the back of the skull the braincase is low and long, the cranium is wider at the base compared with earlier and later species of Homo, most also have a sagittal heel running along with midline of the skill (the keel is a small ridge that runs front to back along with sagittal suture)

Fayum of Egypt

in Egypt where fossil remains of several different early anthropoid species (most being Old World anthropoids) from the Oligocene (33-23 mya) were found by early Oligocene, continental drift had separated new world from old world

Dmanisi site

in the Republic of Georgia several individuals found age of this site has been radiometrically dated to 1.81 mya the crania are similar to those of H. erectus (the long, low braincase, wide base, and sagittal keeling) they differ from other hominins outside Africa in: less robust and thinner browridge, a projecting lower face, and a relatively large upper cannin (from the front, the skull is more reminiscent of the smaller early Homo specimens from East Africa than it is of H. erectus). the specimen's cranial capacity is only 600cm (all four Dmanisi crania have been small - 550cm, 630cm, 650cm, 780cm) recently discovered complete skull - the most complete skull of early Homo: skull shows primitive traits (small cranial vault and massive, prognathic face) skull has the smallest cranial capacity of all Dmanisi finds (~550cm) specimen is especially important because of its completeness and lack of distortion (providing a clear idea of what it looked like and exactly how the face and vault fit together) discovery of a nearly complete cranium of an older adult male (he died with only one tooth remaining in his jaws) stone tools also discovered at Dmanisi (similar to the Oldowan industry from Africa) - as would be expected for a site dates earlier than the beginning of the Acheulian industry postcranial bones found (which allow for comparisons with what is known of H. erectus from other areas) - Dmanisi weren't tall (avg height beign 4ft 9in - 5ft 5in), but their body proportions (such as leg length) are like that of H. erectus (and H. sapiens) and quite different from that seen in earlier hominins from the evidence from Dmanisi, we can assume that Homo erectus was the first hominin to leave Africa. Dmanisi findings suggest that the first hominins to leave Africa were quite possibly small-brained early form of H. erectus, and carrying with them a typical African Oldowan stone tool culture because none of the Dmanisi have adaptations hypothesized to be essential to hominin migration (large brains and being tall), another explanation may be that there were two migrations out of Africa at this time: one of the small-brained, short-statured Dmanisi hominins and an almost immediate second migration that founded the well-recognized H. erectus populations of Java and China

sites

locations of discoveries. in paleoanthropology and archeology, a site may refer to a region where a number of discoveries have been made

Miocene fossils

many more kinds of hominoids from the Miocene than there are today. Miocene could be called the "golden age of hominoids". many thousands of fossils have been found from dozens of sites scattered in East Africa, southern Africa, southwest Asia, into western and southern Europe, and extending into southern Asia and China by 23 mya major continental locations approximated those of today

A. afarensis

more primitive than any of the other later australopith fossils from South or East Africa. it retains more ancestral features compared with later-occurring hominin species (shares more primitive features with Miocene apes and with living great apes than do other hominins - they display more derived characteristics) ex. the teeth of A. afarensis are quite primitive (canines are large and pointed, lower first premolar provides shearing surface for upper canine, and tooth rows are parallel) from fossils, A. afarensis was sexually dimorphic (Lucy being 3-4ft tall and males being just under 5ft tall), mixed pattern of locomotion 3 year old child found in Ethiopia - first example of a very well-preserved immature hominin prior to about 100,000 years ago A. afarensis is a hominin because they walked bipedally on the ground, and were clearly obligate bipedals (but still allowed for their arboreal behavior) it is a crucial hominin group because it is an evolutionary bridge, and there are many well-preserved and well studied fossils consensus is that they are the ancestor of all later hominins

cultural remains from Zhoukoudian

more than 100,000 artifacts have been recovered common artifacts tat the site are referred to as choppers and chopping tools way of life has been described as hunter-gatheres who killed deer, horses and other animals hominins also supplemented their diet of meat by gathering herbs, wild fruits, tubers, and eggs layers of what has long been thought to be ash in the cave (over 18 feet deep at one point) have been interpreted as indicating the use of fire by H. erectus Boaz and colleagues have challenged this idea: by comparing the types of bones and the damage to the bones with that seen in contemporary carnivore dens, Boaz and Ciochen suggest that much of the material in the cave likely accumulated through the activities of extinct giant hyenas. they hypothesize that most of the H. erectus remains are the leftovers of hyena meals previously was assumed that the first definite evidence of hominin fire use comes from Zhoukoudian, but now this has been challenged: analysis shows that burned bone was only rarely found in association with tools - in most cases the burning appeared to have taken place after fossilization (that is the bones weren't cooked while fresh). in fact, it turns out that the ash layers aren't actually ash but naturally accumulated organic sediment (no sign of wood having been burned inside the cave) the cave could also only have been accessed through a vertical shaft, so it was a trap not a shelter Boaz and Ciochon conclude that Zhoukoudian cave was neither hearth nor home

the first Homo erectus: homo erectus from Africa

most likely, the species initially evolved in Africa evidence for this: all of the earlier hominins prior to the appearance of H. erectus come from Africa, there are also well-dated fossils of this species at East Turkana and other sites in East Africa discoveries in southeastern Europe and Indonesia show that most likely H. erectus first arose in East Africa and then quickly migrated to other continents

Daka locale in Ethiopia

mostly complete cranium discovered dated at approximately 1 mya more like Asian H. erectus than most of the earlier East African remains the suggestions that East African fossils are a different species from Asian H. erectus isn't supported by the morphology of the Daka cranium

Gona area in Ethiopia

nearly complete female H. erectus pelvis found, dated to approximately 1.3 mya first H. erectus female pelvis yet found reflects considerable sexual dimorphism pelvis has very wide birth canal, indicating that quite large-brained infants could have developed in utero (possible that an H. erectus newborn could have had a brain almost as large as what's typical for modern human babies)

nuchal torus

nucha, meaning neck a projection of bone in the back of the cranium where the neck muscles attach. these muscles hold up the head

artifacts

objects or materials made or modified for use by hominins. the earliest artifacts tend to be made of stone or occasionally bone

conclusion of early Homo

on the basis of Olduvai, East Turkana, and Hadar, at least one species of early Homo was present in East Africa perhaps a little prior to 2 mya, developing in parallel with an australopith species. these hominin lived contemporaneously for a minimum of 1 million years, after which time the australopiths apparently disappeared forever. one lineage of early Homo likely evolved into H. erectus about 1.8 mya. any other species of early Homo became extinct sometime after 1.4 mya

Acheulian

pertaining to a stone tool industry from the Early and Middle Pleistocene; characterized by a large proportion of bifacial tools (flaked on both sides). Acheulian tool kits are common in Africa, Southwest Asia, and western Europe, but they're thought to be less common elsewhere this tool industy is first found associated with African H. erectus after 1.6 mya

multidisciplinary

pertaining to research involving mutual contributions and cooperation of experts from various scientific fields

Plio-Pleistocene

pertaining to the Pliocene and first half of the Pleistocene, a time range of 5-1 mya. for this time period, numerous fossil hominins have been found in Africa

biocultural

pertaining to the concept that biology makes culture possible and that culture influences biology

hominins use of fire

recent evidence of the use of fire by hominins during the Pleistocene comes from Wonderwerk Cave in South Africa, dated to 1 mya evidence of cooking includes ash deposits and burned bones found in association with Acheulian tools these deposits were located 30 m within the cave, ruling out lighting as the source of fire these findings suggest that hominins were adept at cooking and using fire much earlier than previously thought

postcranial

referring to all or part of the skeleton not including the skull. the term originates form the fact that in quadrupeds, the body is in back of the head; the term literally means "behind the head"

faunal

referring to animal remains; in archeology, specifically refers to the fossil (skeletonized) remains of aniamsl

uranium series dating

relies on radioactive decay of short-lived uranium isotopes used to date sites from the latter phases of hominin evolution (like TL)

electron spin resonance (ESR)

similar to TL because it's based on measuring trapped electrons. however, ESR is used on the tooth enamel of animals used to date sites from the latter phases of hominin evolution (like TL)

Olduvai Gorge

site where other important H. erectus finds have come from very robust skull discovered in 1960, dated to 1.4 mya, well-preserved cranial vault, estimated at 1067cm, cranial capacity is the largest of all the African H. erectus specimens, browridge is massive (largest known for any hominin), walls of the cranial vault are thin (this characteristic is most in east African H. erectus species - different from Asian H. erectus where cranial vault bones are thick)

Nariokotome

site where the most complete H. erectus skeleton was found (known formally as WT 15000) inclused facial bones, a pelvis, and most of the limb bones, ribs, and vertebrae dated to about 1.6 mya the skeleton is of a juvenile about 8 years of age, height of about 5ft 3in (estimates that adult height could have been about 6ft), recent examinations (with growth pattern assumed to be more apelike than modern human) estimate that max height would have been completed around 12 years of age, therefore adult height would have ben between 5ft and 5ft 7in cranial capacity is 880cm, brain growth was nearly complete, adult cranial capacity would have been 909cm skeleton believed to be male

Homo erectus from Indonesia

so far, all Homo erectus fossil remains have come from six sites located in eastern Java dates to the Early to Middle Pleistocene (between 1.6 and 1 million years old) there was also a very late surviving H. erectus group in Java that managed to survive there until less than 100,000 years ago (and possibly as recent as 25,000 years ago) - this Ngandong site produced 11 mostly complete hominin skulls. further evidence has established a very late survival in Java (apx. 70,000-40,000 ya) - so these individuals would be contemporary with H. sapiens (who by this time had expanded widely throughout the Old World and into Australia around 60,000-40,000 ya)

Asian and African Homo erectus: A comparison

some African cranial specimens aren't as strongly buttressed at the browridge and nuchal torus, and their cranial bones aren't as thick some argue that these differences show that the two are different species the very early dates now postulated for the dispersal of H. erectus into Asia (Java) would argue that Asian and African populations were separate (distinct) for more than 1 million years because of the Daka cranium in Ethiopia, this species division has not been fully accepted

stratigraphy

study of the sequential layering of geological deposits one of the first techniques used by scholars working with the vast expanses of geological time it is based on the law of superposition, which states that a lower stratum (layer) is older than a higher one problems: earth disturbances may shift the strata or materials in them. also the widely different rates of accumulation, the elapsed time of any stratum cannot be determined with much accuracy

thermoluminescence (TL)

technique for dating certain archeological materials that were heated in the past (such as stone tools) and that release stored energy of radioactive decay as light upon reheating to determine the age of a sample, the researcher must heat the sample to 500 degrees C used especially by archeologists to date ceramic pots from recent sites, TL can also be used to date burned flint tools from earlier hominin sites

relative dating

tell you that something is older or younger than something else, but not by how much. ex. a fossil cranium is found at a depth of 50 ft and another one at 70 ft at the same site - we usually assume that the cranium is 70 ft older. we may not know the date in years of either one, but we would be able to infer a relative sequence. this method of dating is based on stratigraphy and is called stratigraphic dating

pre-australopiths

the earliest and most primitive (possible) hominins (6+-4.4 mya) key discoveries: Ardipithecus ramidus, Ardipithecus, Orrorin tugenensis, Sahelanthropuc tchadensis

Oldowan industry

the earliest recognized stone tool culture, including very simple tools, mostly small flakes in Tanzania this area has provided the most detailed information from anywhere in the world about early hominin tool use

Pleistocene

the epoch of the Cenozoic from 1.8 mya until 10,000 ya. Frequently referred to as the Ice Age, this epoch is associated with continental glaciations in northern latitudes

Olduvai fossils

the homo habilis material found dates to about 1.8 mya most immediately obvious feature distinguishing H. habilis material from autralopiths is the cranial size (avg. Homo skulls are 631cm v. 520cm for Paranthropus and 442cm for Australopithecus) early members of genus Homo also show larger front teeth and narrower premolar

Homo erectus from China - Zhoukoudian Homo erectus

the largest collection of H. erectus material found anywhere 14 skullcaps, other cranial pieces, and more than 100 isolated teeth, but only a scattering of postcranial elements interpretations of this unusual preservation range from ritualistic treatment or cannabilism to the mundane suggestion that the H. erectus remains are simply the leftovers of the meals of giant hyenas remains belong to upward of 40 adults and children they have typical H. erectus features, a large browridge and nuchal torus. skull also has thick bones, a sagittal keel, and a protruding face and is broadest near the bottom radiometric dating technique estimates the site is apx. 780,000 ya

Paranthropus

the most derived australopiths they have the largest teeth of all (huge premolars and molars), large deep lower jaws and large attachments for muscles associate with chewing their face is flatter than any other australopith, their broad cheekbones flare out, and ridge develops on the top of the skull (sagittal crest) adapted for a diet emphasizing rough vegetable foods (recent chemical analysis shows their diet was quite varied)

potassium-argon method

the most important chronometric technique used to date early hominins involves potassium-40, which has a half-life of 1.25 billion years and produces argon-40. the K/Ar, or potassium-argon, method has been extensively used in dating materials in the 5-1 mya range, especially in East Africa. organic material, such as bone, cannot be measured, but the rock matrix that contains fossilized bone can be strata that provide the best samples for K/Ar dating are those that have been heated to an extremely high temperature, such as that generated by volcanic activity

honing complex

the shearing of a large upper canine with the first lower premolar, with the wear of leading to honing of the surfaces of both teeth. this anatomical pattern is typical of most Old World anthropoids, but is mostly absent in hominins the lack of such shearing is viewed by many researchers has an important derived characteristic of early hominins

paleoanthropology

the study of early humans, seeks to reconstruct every bit of information concerning the dating, anatomy, behavior, and ecology of our hominin ancestors it is multidisciplinary

technological trends during the time of Homo erectus

two different stone tool industries, one of which was probably first developed by H. erectus earlier finds indicate that H. erectus started out using Oldowan tool technology, which the H. erectus emigrants took with them to Dmanisi, Java, and Spain the newer industry was invented (about 1.6 mya) after these early African emigrants left their original homeland for other parts of the Old World (Acheulian). the important change in this kit was a core worked on both sides, called a biface (known commonly as a hand axe or cleaver). the biface had a flatter shape than seen in the rounder earlier Oldowan cores beginning with Acheulian culture, we find first evidence that raw materials were being transported more consistently and for longer distances (ex. when Acheulian tool users would transport a suitable piece of stone from one place to another - this behavior suggests foresight: they knew they might need to use a stone tool in the future) - this is a major change from the Oldowan, where all stone tools are found very close to their raw-material sources recent excavations from many sites in southern China have forced reevaluations of the theory that Acheulain technology was only used in African, the Middle East, and parts of Europe cultural traditions relating to stone tool technology were largely equivalent over the full geographical range of H. erectus and its contemporaries

bipedial locomotion

walking on two feet. walking on two legs is the single most distinctive feature of the hominins skeletal evidence of bipedal locomotion is the only true reliable indicator that these fossils were indeed hominins