Physio_Labexam_1

Polar hormones cannot pass through a plasma membrane so they must bind to receptors on the target cell. Lipophilic hormones including steroids and and thyroid hormones pass through the plasma membrane bind with receptors inside the cells cytosol or nucleus.

Also know which types bind to receptors on the target cell's pm and which ones cross the pm and enter the nucleus.

Sum of all chemical reactions in the body

Metabolism:

powerful tool; can measure the amount of material dissolved in a solution.

Spectrophotometer:

Concentration A = Concentration B Absorbance A Absorbance B Therefor: Concentration A = Absorbance A x Concentration B Absorbance B Standard Curve: plotting a concentration (on the X axis) vs. the absorbance (on the Y axis), then drawing a "best fit" line through the points of the graph.

Spectrophotometry Lab : Know the calculations for Beers Law and how to construct and read a standard curve

Powdered charcoal. It all gets stuck in filter/membrane, its too large.

TRANNSPORT: Which solute did not appear in the filtrate at all? Why?

Osmosis: the diffusion of water through a differentially permeable membrane. Simple Diffusion: the diffusion of solute particles in water through a selectively permeable membrane. Both are passment of water

TRANSPORT : Describe the similarities and differences between osmosis & simple diffusion

To increase the pressure, more solutes being pulled from left to right to decrease the pressure. Higher NaCl = higher osmotic pressure.

TRANSPORT : Explain the effect increasing [NaCl] had on osmotic pressure.

the simple diffusion rate is quicker when the molecule size is smaller surface area to volume ratio important here

TRANSPORT : What is the relationship between molecule size & simple diffusion rate in this lab?

Na+Cl- 10 mM, Glucose 8 mM, and Glucose 8 mM/Glucose 8 mM. Because osmotic librium was reached.

TRANSPORT : What three parts of this exercise showed no osmotic pressure generated?

occurs across capillary walls. Depends upon pressure gradient as its driving force. A selective process, depends upon the size of pores in the filter.

TRANSPORT : filtration

Increased the diffusion rate because there are more numbers of carrier proteins More protein carriers = increased facilitated diffusion rate - because there are more entry and exit points.

TRANSPORT : how did the # of carrier proteins affect facilitated diffusion rates? why?

process driven by concentration or pressure differences (gradient) between the interior and exterior of cell.

TRANSPORT : passive transport

This means water follows the solute.

TRANSPORT Explain the statement, "Water chases millimoles."

Can change number of protein carriers or change blood pressure

TRANSPORT How can the filtration rate through living membranes be increased?

Pressure Gradient and size of pores in filter (solute size) Or the size of the molecule and the rate of pressure

TRANSPORT What two factors (variables) affected the rate of filtration in this exp't?

Glucose reached equilibrium quicker (8 mins) But NaCl took much longer (33 mins) No competition, the channel was just specific to glucose compared to NaCl

TRANSPORT: Did adding NaCl affect the rate of glucose diffusion? why or why not?

[solutes] does not affect permeability, size of the filtrate does.

TRANSPORT: Why did increasing the pressure increase the filtration rate, but not the [solutes] in the filtrate?

net effects of this random molecular movement is that the molecules eventually become disturbed throughout environment - diffusion occurring. Process of molecules moving from an area of high # of molecules to an area of low # of molecules

TRANSPORT: concentration gradient

1. NaCl 2. Urea 3. Glucose 4. Albumin

TRANSPORT: place in order (smallest- largest) the molecules NaCL, UREA, albumin, and glucose

Diffusion: an important transport process of every cell in the body Simple diffusion: occurs without the assistance of membrane proteins Facilitated diffusion: requires a membrane bound carrier protein that assists in the transport. Filtration: usually occurs only across capillary walls. Depends upon a pressure gradient as its driving force. Not a selective process. Dependent upon size of pores in filter.

TRANSPORT: processes for passive transport

Active transport: uses a membrane bound carrier protein. Solutes move against their [gradient] and because ATP is used to power the transport. Vesicular Transport: includes phagocytosis endocytosis, pinocytosis, exocytosis.

TRANSPORT: processes of active transport

when molecules can no longer be absorbed, combined or added

TRANSPORT: saturation

pressure gradient and pore size

TRANSPORT: what other factor increase simple diffusion rate

Thyrotropin releasing hormone. Released by Hypothalamus. Stimulates anterior pituitary to release TSH.

TRH

1. Gamma waves: 32+ Hz, dominant during awake fearful situations, or complex mental activity involving multiple senses; Occurs with intense mental activity or when aggregation occurs. 2. Beta waves: 16-31 Hz, dominant in alert state, eyes open, mental activity; When awake and mentally alert. 3. Theta waves : 4-7 Hz, dominant in light sleep 4. Delta waves: <4 Hz, dominant in deep sleep, if seen in awake adults may indicate brain damage 5. Alpha waves: -15 Hz, dominant in awake, calm state, with eyes closed. Meditative state.

EEG: DIFFERENT KIND OF WAVES FOUND IN AN EEG

It was easier to maintain the temperature with both the ice & hot plate. These two effectors worked as antagonistic effector. They created a push/ pull effect and helped us prevent an overshooting of the desired homeostatic value.

EFFECTORS LAB: Was it easier to maintain the temperature with ice & hot plate or just the hot plate? Why do you think this is so?

it helps us determine reliability During some of our experiment out temperature at each "time point" varied a lot. During times when an experiment is uncertain on the reliability of the results, standard deviation is important-- the lesser the standard deviation, the lesser this uncertainty and this created more confidence in the experiment, and thus higher the reliability of the experiment.

EFFECTORS LAB: What does calculating standard deviations tell you about your data?

1. sensor: the thermometer 2: integrating center: us 3: effectors : exercise 1 (hot plate) exercise 2 ( the hot plate and ice)

EFFECTORS LAB: in the experiment, who/what acted as the 1. sensor 2. integrating center 3. effectors

Soda lime absorbed the CO2 the rats were exhaling, therefore we could measure just the oxygen levels in the tubes the rats were in.

ENDOCRINE What was the purpose of the soda lime in the chamber? Think about what process is occurring and what that process produces.

The nervous system (neurons) require a certain amount of glucose in the blood at all times. We are discontinuous feeders which means we do not have a constant intake of glucose. Therefore the storage of glucose as glycogen will ensure the body will always be able to maintain its blood sugar therefore maintaining nerve cells in between meals.

ENDOCRINE : Our body must maintain certain levels of blood glucose between meals. Why?

So that you have a point of reference for converting the optical density readings into glucose readings.

ENDOCRINE : Why did you need to establish a glucose standard curve for this experiment. Be specific.

When a hormone or steroid is given as a pharmaceutical it often is way more concentrated than what the body would make for itself. Chronic high levels of cortisol in the blood will lead to Cushing's Syndrome.

ENDOCRINE How can Cushing's syndrome be iatrogenic (physician induced)?

The end product hormone acts as a negative feedback. In the adrenal glands cortex when enough cortisol (end product hormone) is detected in the blood, the hypothalamus will stop stimulating the anterior pituitary with CRH, and the adrenal cortex will stop releasing cortisol into the blood until stimulated again by the anterior pituitary. Hypothalamus (Corticotropic Releasing Hormone CRH)--> Anterior Pituitary (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone ACTH) --> Adrenal Cortex (cortisol).

ENDOCRINE Understand the hormone flow chart you created in this portion of the lab and for each hormone know where it is produced and what it's target & effect are. Know the feedback flow (what inhibits what).

Diabetes ≥126mg/dL (greater than) Pre-diabetes 110-126mg/dL normal values ≤ 110mg/dL (less than

ENDOCRINE What fasting glucose llevels associate with diabetes, pre diabetes , normal

Both surgically altered rats experienced hyperthyroidism when T4 was given to them. TSH: Had no effect on BMR of the thyroidectomized rat, as it has no thyroid to be stimulated by TSH hormone. Hypophysectomized rat experienced hyperthyroidism. PTH: No effect on both surgically altered rats. PTH inhibits thyroxine which cannot increase or affect metabolism

ENDOCRINE the effects of the administration of T4 to both surgically altered rats TSH & PTH?

When glucose is not available the body will digest proteins. This can result in protein depletion and tissue loss. This makes it very hard for the body to heal wounds.

ENDOCRINE: what other molecule is typicalaly used when we dont have glucose for fuel

CHEMICAL MESSENGERS THAT ARE created by ductless endocrine glands, travel in blood to target endocrine organ/tissue

Hormones:

work together to counteract changes in the system. Two effectors working opposite of each other with the same goal. This works as a "push/pull" effect. This helps prevent overshooting the set point.

antagonistic effectors

produces the response in lab: hot plate

effector

Refers to what you can observe in the X & Y plans. The lower the magnification chosen, the greater the field of view will be.

field of view

the distance from the center of the lends to the center of the area in the space that is in focus. This is important to use: it means that once you have the lowest power objective, all the other objectives are now also focused.

focal length

the ability of an organism to maintain certain internal characteristics as desired set point (within normal range)

homeostasis

A tentative answer to question portion of a lab. A prediction; A proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation.

hypothesis

decides how to respond in labe example: us

integrating center

is when bones become porous and brittle. This is common in women going through menopause as they don't produce enough estrogen to maintain osteoblast growth, as a certain level is necessary to maintain bone growth.

osteoporosis

this means all objectives have the same focal lengths

parafocal

Detects change away from the set point example- thermometer

sensor

desired homeostatic value

set point

Thyroidectomized: Surgical removal of thyroid Hypophysectomized: Surgical removal of the pituitary gland

thyroidectomized vs hypophysectomized

is the result of the magnification of the objective lens multiplies by the magnification of the ocular lense.

total magnification

Thyroid stimulating hormone. Produced by anterior pituitary gland. Stimulates thyroid gland to produce T3 & T4

tsh

Refers to the amount of space you have between the tip of the objective and your slide. A lower power objective is relatively short and thus, you have a larger working distance. A higher power objective s relatively long and, thus, you have a very small working space.

working distance

Tropic hormone released by the anterior pituitary; this stimulates the adrenal gland to release 3 corticosteroid steroids including: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids (including cortisol) and gonadocorticoids.

ACTH

Otherwise known as "primary adrenal insufficiency"- low cortisol levels directly caused by gradual destruction of the adrenal cortex, and ACTH levels are then typically elevated to compensate. (cortisol decreased, ACTH increased.)

ADDISONS DISEASE

Cushing's syndrome: signs and symptoms of too much cortisol in the blood. Cushing's disease: Cushing's disease is the form of Cushing's syndrome that is specifically caused by a pituitary tumor that causes excessive secretion of ACTH

CUSHINGS SYNDROME VS CUSHINGS DISEASE

refers to the energy used during resting state. AKA resting metabolic rate.

BMR: Basal Metabolic Rate

states that the concentration of a substance in solution is directly proportional to the amount of light absorbed by the solution (and inversely proportional to the logarithmic f the amount of light transmitted). Used to determine the unknown concentration of a solute.

Beers Law

75% of glucose is stored as glycogen

HOWMOST GLUCOSE IS STROED AS GLYCOGEN?

a normal heart rate recovery (HRR) is 15-25 beats per minute

Heart recovery rate (HRR)

Too much light Too much magnification

MICROSCOPY : what are the tradeoffs that come with increased magnification

Lowest power objective - because it has many advantages like it has the greatest field of view, you can locate your specimen more easily, you can focus on the slide easily, and won't smash into the slide while you are adjusting the focus.

MICROSCOPY You should always start scanning your slide with the ________ objective in place. Why?

Use two hands to carry or move microscope Be gentle with the scope and never force anything Use a coverslip with your specimen Start at 4X Use coarse focus only with the 4X objective Use only the fine focus with 10x, 40x and 100x Only use lens paper moistened with lens cleaner to clean objective or oculars

MICROSCOPY: "Always" care rules for using a microscope

Let objectives tough fluid Rotate ocular head (no.2 in diagram) Use Kimwipes to clean scope optics Touch any optic glass parts with your fingers Use coarse focus on any objective higher than 4x

MICROSCOPY: "Never" care rules for using a microscope

Base: contains the light source. Use this (along with the arm) to carry the microscope. Condenser lens: the lense you place your slide over; projects light for you while viewing slide. Iris diaphragm: sits below the substage condenser and is the only way of controlling the amount of light that hits your specimen. Nosepiece: holds all 4 of the magnification lenses, allows you to switch magnifications to see slide at different focuses. Objective lenses: allows you to view slides at different magnifications Ocular lenses: have their own magnification of 10x Stage: the slide containing your specimen sits on the stage Stage control knobs: they are used to move your slide in the x direction (left or right) and the Y direction (away from or towards you) Coarse focus knob: the larger knob that moves the stage in larger increments in the Z plane (up & down). Moving the knob forward (away from you) moves the stage lower and vice versa. Fine focus knob: the smaller knob that moves the stage in small increments in the Z plane.

MICROSCOPY: Identify and know the function of the following part of the microscope base condenser lens iris diaphragm nosepiece objective lens ocular lenses stage stage control knobs course focus know fine focus knob

An increase in magnification comes with a corresponding decrease in the field of view and in the depth of focus.

MICROSCOPY: what is the relationship between magnification and depth of focus?

Oxytocin.

Only one hormone is regulated by positive feedback, which one is it?

Yes it did. This could be due to my body using antagonist effectors to help regulate my heartbeat. Sympathetic increases HR; Parasympathetic decreases HR

PULSE RATE ACTIVITY : did your data indicate that your own pulse rate is regulated homeostatically? explain clearly in detail

the heart

PULSE RATE ACTIVITY : pulse rate is an indirect measure of the rhythm of what internal organ?

No there was not. This could be due to the students being a similar age. - also because we are all young the effects of exercising has not shown a positive outcome yet

PULSE RATE ACTIVITY : was there an obvious distribution in the class data between those that exercise regularly and those who do not? Why or why not?

Yes it does. Out body has many different systems working together to help keep our body within desire homeostatic values for all of the processes that occur in our body. ExL Antagonist effectors to help regulate my heartbeat. Sympathetic increases HR; Parasympathetic decreases HR.

PULSE RATE ACTIVITY Do you think your body uses antagonistic effectors to regulate pulse rate? Explain. (offer evidence & logical reasoning)

A normal HRR is 15-25 beats per minute. A normal HRR is calculated by (BPM immediately after exercise - BPM after 2 minutes)/2 A HRR of 12 beats per minute or less correlates to an increased risk of heart disease (about 3-5% per year, instead of the usual . 5%)

PULSE RATE ACTIVITY What is the normal range for HRR in a healthy individual and how is it calculated? What information was given in the lab pertaining to abnormal HRR values and the risk for disease.

Yes they had a faster recovery than those who did not exercise regularly. Regular exercise makes your heart is stronger, it can pump more blood per beat, and as a result your heart rate, both at rest and during exertions will decrease. Your heart will also acquire the ability to recover from the stress of exercise more quickly.

PULSE RATE ACTIVITY: Did people who exercised regularly have a lower HRR (faster recovery) than those people who don't exercise regularly? Explain the class data trends (if any).

When light passes through a solution, some of the light is absorbed (by both the solution and the particles dissolved in the solution), while the rest of it is transmitted and becomes what your eye can perceive. It exploits the difference to measure solutions, such as blood plasma, and determine the concentration of solutes (like proteins, glucose, or cholesterol) the plasma contains.

SPECTROPHOTOMETRY LAB Explain basically how a spectrophotometer works

Albumin - allows fluid and nutrients to flow from your capillaries into all the tissues of your body (and vise versa). Also involved in transporting many other molecule through the blood. It is the most abundant plasma protein and makes up about half of your plasma proteins. Your liver is the source of the albumin.

SPECTROPHOTOMETRY LAB What specific protein (that is important to osmosis) is specifically mentioned in the lab book & where is it produced in the body?

The manual pipette not disposing correct amounts of solutions when dispensing solution into various tubes for testing Contamination from pipette dropping on table, touching other objects, etc. while adding solutions and such. Age of machine having effect on the test results. Graphing backwards, unevenly spaced grids when graphing results for standard curve. Inaccurate data while graphing, causing the standard curve to be completely wrong.

SPECTROPHOTOMETRY LAB: Describe several potential sources of error or bias in this lab.

no

SPECTROPHOTOMETRY LAB: did the data indicate that or stanrd or unknown was within this normal range?

3.5-5.0 g/dL

SPECTROPHOTOMETRY LAB: what is the normal fasting albumin protein level for an adult?

Crohn's disease, Celiac disease, Whipple disease, or low protein diets. Can also be a sign of kidney or liver diseases - hepatitis or cirrhosis.

SPECTROPHOTOMETRY LAB: what type of organ damage can low protein levels be associated with ?

Beer's law is more trustworthy. Beer's law requires us to complete a calculation. Whereas the standard curve does not require use to use exact set points or values. This allows us to manipulate the curve and will give us skewed results.

SPECTROPHOTOMETRY LAB: which method is more accurate and trustworthy (beers law vs graph)

Cushing's Syndrome: high levels of cortisol and low levels of ACTH will be seen in those with Cushing's Syndrome. Cushing's Disease: High levels of cortisol and high levels of ACTH are seen in those with Cushing's Disease. Addison's disease: Will have low levels of Cortisol in their blood and high levels of ACTH. This is because the anterior pituitary will continue to stimulate the adrenal cortex with ACTH, but in Addison's the adrenal cortex is damaged and incapable of making cortisol, so levels of cortisol remain low.

Which general values of Cortisol & ACTH would be used to diagnose CUSHINGS SYNDROME, CUSHINGS DISEASE, ADDISONS DISEASE

Catabolism: breaker larger molecules down into smaller molecules Anabolism: Building larger molecules from smaller ones

catabolism vs anabolism

A type of bright field microscope. It shines visible light through a thin specimen and magnifies the image before it hits the retinas of your eyes. It uses a series of lenses. Brightfield microscopes also include dissecting microscopes & phasemicroscops. Phase microscopes are used in research.

compound microscope

One of 3 corticosteroid hormones (glucocorticoid) and is secreted by the adrenal cortex; important in our stress response, also increases metabolism and glucose levels.

cortisol

refers to what you can observe in the Z plane (in other words as you move us and down through the specimen). It represents the area in the place below the objective that is in focus with a particular objective. The lower the magnification, the greater the depth of focus will be.

depth of focus/ depth of field