POL 2040 Midterm

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (QUICK NOTE)

(1712-1778) Swiss philosopher in France, interested in common good, believed people were inherently good, but corrupted by civilization and society. Private property=selfishness. General will of the people should be the absolute authority, should make the laws themselves directly --> Characteristics that made people good and equal. -People can be both ruled and free if they rule themselves -Wrote the Social Contract

John Locke (PROPERTY)

- Argues that government should support the accumulation of property. -Private ownership is essential to living a good life. -Locke believed the earth and everything on it belongs to all of us. We all have the same right to make use of whatever we find and can use. By mixing our labor with them, provides a clear means for appropriating them as an extension of our own personal property. Since our bodies are our own, whenever we use our own effort to improve the natural world—the resulting products belong to us as well. Individuals who pour themselves into the land—improving its productivity by spending their own time and effort on its cultivation—acquire a property as the result.

David Hume (CONTRACT/CONSENT ANOTHER VALID POINT)

- Dismisses the idea of express consent and argues that tacit consent cannot be a real choice: 1. Refutes Locke's principles that you are free to leave if you disagree. 2. Points out the absurdity of this position, such that poor, minority people are not going to just pick up and leave. 3. People have no real say in reality

John Locke (RELIGION)

-Believed that religion should be separate from the state because it has different concerns. (1)State- creating and economy and protecting private property. (2) Religion-protecting the souls. -Argued that state should be tolerant or religion with two exceptions.(1)Atheist who cannot be counted on to keep their promises. (2)Roman Catholics who possess beliefs that affect the functioning of government

Machiavelli (Religion)

-Believes that religion is beneficiary in the formation of political authority, and political leaders must support and endorse religion in order to retain power. - Believes that the "fear of God" is a fear that keeps man disciplined and obedient. -He criticizes corrupt religious institutions that become involved in politics and in turn corrupt citizens and cause division among the state.

Machiavelli (MAIN PRINCIPLES)

-It is better to be feared then loved...ex. as a ruler, your people will respect you more and they won't take advantage of you if they fear you, but they are quicker to betray you if they love you because they won't be afraid. -The ends justifies the means - The book was written primarily as a guide for the prince to maintain his power and only secondarily as a guide for maintaining the principality. The theories expressed in The Prince describe methods that an aspiring prince can use to acquire the throne, or an existing prince can use to maintain his reign. According to Machiavelli, the greatest moral good is a virtuous and stable state, and actions to protect the country are therefore justified even if they are cruel. He suggests, however, that the prince must not be hated. He states, "...a wise prince should establish himself on that which is his own control and not in that of others; he must endeavor to avoid hatred, as is noted.

John Locke (IMPACT/WORKS)

-Locke's ideas about unalienable rights can be seen in several founding documents of the United States including the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights. -wrote Two treatises of Government

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (MORALITY)

-Morality is preservation of self without causing harm -Morality is natural dislike at seeing other humans suffer

Thomas Hobbs (SOVEREIGNTY)

-People consent to the sovereign because it in their best interest. The sovereign is created when each individual surrenders his private strength to a single entity, which has the means to keep everyone obedient. -The sovereign receives the obedience freely in their hope that he will see to their safety. The sovereign makes no promises in order to win their submission. He does not transfer his right of self-government to anyone, he retains the total liberty that his subjects trade for safety. He is not bound by law, including his own laws. -Hobbes realizes that the sovereign may behave badly. Subjects who are in fear of their lives lose their obligations to obey and, with that, deprive the sovereign of his power

Machiavelli (MORALITY)

-Proposes Dual morality for rulers. -He says that Prince morality is different than that of common man's. While a common man could sacrifice self interest for religion ,a Prince cannot sacrifice national interest at any cost . His morality as a person can be whatever ,but as a prince, it should only be inclined for national interest. -Example - even if a prince hates church, he should still donate and praise it openly as a ruler if it strengthens his national unity.

John Locke (CONTRACT/CONSENT)

-Since the State of Nature lacks civil authority, once war begins it is likely to continue. This is one of the strongest reasons that people should abandon the State of Nature and come together to form civil government. -In other words, by making a compact to leave the State of Nature and form society, they make one government and submit themselves to the will of that government. One joins such a body, either from its beginnings, or after it has already been established by others, only by consent. Having created a political society and government through by consent, you gain three things which they lacked in the State of Nature: laws, judges to pass on judicially laws, and the executive power needed to enforce these laws. Each person gives over the power to protect himself and punish people who break the Law of Nature to the government that was created through the compact. -According to Locke this contract could be broken by the people if they are ruling unfairly and taking away rights.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (FORMS OF GOVERNMENT)

A democracy is the best form of government, based on the "general will" of the people, who give up some liberties to maintain the most and to accept as much as possible from the state of nature

John Locke (RIGHTS)

All men are born equal under the law. Everyone is entitled to protection of his/her life, liberty and property, with freedom of speech a critical freedom for all. An authority or state cannot take any of these away from an individual; they are considered unalienable rights

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (ORIGIN OF SOCIETY)

Argued that society was born in a social contract. In Rousseau's case, however, sovereignty is vested in the entire populace, who enter into the contract directly with one another. "The problem", he explained, "is to find a form of association which will defend and protect with the whole common force the person and goods of each associate, and in which each, while uniting himself with all, may still obey himself alone, and remain as free as before." This is the fundamental problem of which the Social Contract provides the solution. The contract's clauses, Rousseau continued, may be reduced to one — "the total alienation of each associate, together with all his rights, to the whole community. Each man, in giving himself to all, gives himself to nobody; and as there is no associate over whom he does not acquire the same right as he yields others over himself, he gains an equivalent for everything he loses, and an increase of force for the preservation of what he has". In other words: "Each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will, and, in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole."

David Hume (MORALITY)

Based on how our actions affect others, not on reason; sympathy is the foundation for morality. Believed that religion cannot be the foundation of morality.

Thomas Hobbs (FORMS OF GOVERNMENT)

Believed that an absolute monarchy is the most effective government to keep humanity natural brutality in check. Ruling for the good of the group is best

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (CONTRACT/CONSENT)

Believed that prior to the social contract life in the state of nature was happy and there was equality among men. Over time people formed communities and began to compare themselves to others. This led to public values, shame, envy, and contempt. Invention of private property moved people from a pure simple state to one of greed, competition, and inequality. He believed that humanity's fall from grace was private property. For this purpose, people surrendered there right not to a single individual but to the community as a whole which was called the general will. People should do what's best for the community. agreement among free individuals to create a government that responds to people's will = consent of the governed.

David Hume (CONTRACT/CONSENT)

Didn't buy into the social contract theory of Hobbs or Locke. Believed that social contracts were not needed because everyone was born equal. Social contracts came to exist only because governments (kings, conquerors, emperors, and so on) attempted to subjugate people. In other words, only in cases when greedy and power-hungry rulers wanted even more power, did they need to justify their control over others. He pointed out that there are many people that never consented to there own government. Hume points out that many groups of people have experienced conquest, rather than a social contract.

Thomas Hobbs (EQUALITY)

Everyone is equal in rights and the ability to survive in the state of nature. Although everyone is equal in the state of nature, the state of nature is a bad condition to be in, people should be willing to suffer domination under a tyrant, in order to escape it. Inequality comes from leaving the state of nature. Inequality is artificial, but it is part of the package with a decent life.

David Hume (FORMS OF GOVERNMENT)

Favored limited decentralized government. No form of government preferred across all societies. Entirely possible for different societies to settle on different forms. Obedience can be created under any form of government.

Machiavelli (HUMAN NATURE)

Had a negative view on human nature: people are interested only in themselves, but their affections for others can be won and lost; they are trustworthy when times are good, but turn selfish, deceitful, and driven by profit when times are bad. He believes that the common people are only interested in their own well-being, and that they will only support their prince if he supports and benefits their happiness and rules the state well

Machiavelli (SOVEREIGNTY)

He believes that the well-being of the state is the responsibility of the ruler and should be achieved by any means possible, even by deceptions, treacheries, and intrigues. The ruler's personal morality is much less important than the good of the state for he will be judged by the results of his reign rather than the means he used. In short, a prudent ruler cannot and must not honor his words.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (STATE OF NATURE)

He said that people were neither good nor bad, but were born as a blank slate, and later society and the environment influence which way we lean. In Rousseau's state of nature, people did not know each other enough to come into serious conflict, and they did have normal values. The modern society, and the ownership it entails, is blamed for the disruption of the state of nature which he sees as true freedom.

Machiavelli (FORMS OF GOVERNMENT)

He strongly advocated republicanism rather than any form of monarchy or oligarchy. He modeled the Roman Republic as ideal with mixed constitution and participation by citizens who are protected by properly constituted citizens' army instead of a militia of hired mercenaries.

David Hume (STATE OF NATURE)

He suggested that human beings are possessed of natural moral feelings that are then developed within the family and by society.

Machiavelli (VIEW OF GOOD GOVERNMENT)

His concern was with the quality of the head of government that determined what good governance is and it is defined by the virtues, qualities and characteristics of the Prince/leader/candidate.

Thomas Hobbs (RIGHTS)

Hobbes does not respect individual rights, in fact, the rights of the group (of society) outweigh the rights of the individual.

Thomas Hobbs (RELIGION)

Hobbes insists the sovereign must possess the authority to determine the public observance of religion. He believes religion can be one of the threats to public peace, since it can validate authorities other than those designated by the sovereign. Hobbes is concerned both with Church authorities who make spiritual or moral claims with political intent, and also with the appeal to private conscience

What are the limits on Political Authority?

Limits on political authority happen when they violate someone's liberty, human rights, life. Even though Hobbs advocated for an absolute monarchy he also placed a limit on Political authority. He said when a ruler threatens your life you have the right to deprive the sovereign of power. Locke also says that when the government is ruling unfairly and depriving you of rights you have the right to revoke consent.

David Hume (ORIGIN OF GOVERNMENT)

MAN, born in a family, is compelled to maintain society, from necessity, from natural inclination, and from habit. The same creature, in his farther progress, is engaged to establish political society, in order to administer justice; without which there can be no peace among them, nor safety. We are, therefore, to look upon government, as having ultimately no other purpose but the distribution of justice, or, in other words, the support of the twelve judges. Kings and parliaments, fleets and armies, officers of the court and revenue, ambassadors, ministers, and privy-counsellors, are all subordinate in their end to this part of administration.

John Locke (EQUALITY)

Men are free and equal

Thomas Hobbs (PROPERTY)

People are only permitted to own private property so long as the State says its ok or finds it useful. The State is the real, ultimate owner of everything in the country, and ordinary people only enjoy ownership so long as the State finds it practical or convenient that they should do so.

When and how does Political Authority change?

Political Authority changes when it no longer has legitimacy. Political authority is embodied in individuals and pre-exists in the state of nature. The social contract transfers the authority they each enjoy in the state of nature to a particular political body. While political authority exists in the state of nature, legitimacy is a concept that is specific to the civil state. Because the criterion of legitimacy that Locke proposes is historical, however, what counts as legitimate authority remains connected to the state of nature. The legitimacy of political authority in the civil state depends, according to Locke, on whether the transfer of authority has happened in the right way. It depends on individuals' consent. When a political authority oversteps the boundaries of the natural law, it ceases to be legitimate and, therefore, there is no longer an obligation to obey its commands.

Why do we need Political Authority?

Political authority can be used to provide order and security in people's lives. Authority can be used to manage conflict peacefully and fairly. Authority can be used to protect important rights and freedoms. Political thinkers such as (Hobbs) believed since humans are cruel, greedy, and selfish that we need political authority to keep humanities natural brutality in check for the sake of peace. )(Locke) also believed a political authority was necessary to protect one's life, liberty, and property. (Rousseau) believe in the need Political authority because the creation of property moved people into greed and competition. People thus needed political authority for mutual preservation. (Machiavelli) believed it was a bad world out there that someone must be in charge. Sometime must make the choices between the lessor of two evils. Humans are selfish and only interested in their own well being.

Thomas Hobbs (CONTRACT/CONSENT)

Prior to the social contract man lived in the state of nature. Man's life was one of fear and selfishness. Life in the state of nature was poor, nasty, brutish, and short. Man, had desire for security and order. To secure protection and self- preservation man entered a contract. They voluntary surrender all their rights/freedoms to some authority.. This led to the creation of a leader/ monarchy. Subjects have no rights against the absolute authority and must be obedient.

David Hume (PROPERTY)

Puts great emphasis on distribution of property in society. Hume believes that only the conception of property gives society such social virtue as justice. -Argues that there is nothing natural about the right to property

John Locke (ORIGINS OF SOCIETY AND GOVERNMENT)

Puts on the bonds of civil society is by agreeing with others to join and unite into a community for comfortable, safe, and peaceable living among each other. By doing so secure enjoyment of their properties, and a greater security against any that are not of it. This any number men may do, because it injures not the freedom of the rest; they are left as they were in the liberty of the state of nature. When any number of men have so consented to make one community or government, they are thereby presently incorporated, and make one body politic, wherein the majority have a right to act and conclude the rest

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (RELIGON)

Rousseau suggests that the state also require all citizens to observe a public religion that encourages good citizenship

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (PROPERTY)

Saw property rights as made by humans - not a naturally occurring right. He felt having possessions was natural and when one joins a community they givetheir possessions to that community who then may convert them into property.

John Locke's View of (the State of Nature)

Saw the state of nature as fairly peaceful and ideal for personal freedoms. However, since conflict is inevitable, people give power to a governing body that protects them.

Thomas Hobbs (MORALITY)

So for Hobbes, morality is a type of personal desire for order and safety, arranged as a social convention

John Locke (FORMS OF GOVERNMENT)

The best form of government to protect natural rights is a government of limited powers (constitutionalism)

What is the best form of political Authority?

The best form of political authority is arguably the kind that is established under law and subject to the consent of the governed. In this way, a person who abuses that power can be removed. The form of government advocated by Rousseau which was a democracy would be the best political authority. The general will of the people.

John Locke (SOVEREIGNTY)

The government has no sovereignty of its own--it exists to serve the people.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (HUMAN NATURE)

To Rousseau, human nature is basically good. One of his more famous sayings is "man is born free and everywhere he is in chains." One of the main ideas of Rousseau is his belief that human beings are good by nature, but are made corrupt by society. Nearly all his works focus on this belief. He believed that all creatures have an instinct toward self-preservation, including humans, but that humans also have compassion, which makes them unique and naturally good

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (FREEDOM)

man in the state of nature is blessed with an enviable total freedom. This freedom is total for two reasons. First, natural man is physically free because he is not constrained by a repressive state apparatus or dominated by his fellow men. Second, he is psychologically and spiritually free because he is not enslaved to any of the artificial needs that characterize modern society.Rousseau believed modern man's enslavement to his own needs was responsible for all sorts of societal ills, from exploitation and domination of others to poor self-esteem and depression.

David Hume (HUMAN NATURE)

self love, natural virtues (benevolence for those close to you), sympathy (basis for all art. virtues)

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (SOVEREIGNTY)

sovereignty is said to reside in all the people of the society as a collective. The people, as a sovereign entity, express their sovereignty through their general will and must never have their sovereignty abrogated by anyone or anything outside their collective self. In this regard, sovereignty is not identified with the government but is instead opposed against it. The government's function is thus only to enforce and respect the sovereign will of the people and in no way, seek to repress or dominate the general will.

Machiavelli (CONTRIBUTIONS TO POLITICS)

with formulating for the first time the "modern concept of the state,"

Thomas Hobbs (ORIGINS OF STATE)

without strong government, society would collapse into "the war of all against all": it follows that society could not have emerged prior to the state. "In such condition, there is no place for industry; no culture of the earth; no navigation, no knowledge of the face of the earth; no account of time; no arts; no letters; no society; and which is worst of all, continual fear, and danger of violent death; and the life of man,

comparing Thomas Hobbs vs. John Locke

• Both agree on original state of human kind which is the state of nature • Both reject the idea of divine right and believe in the social contract

Contrasting Thomas Hobbs vs. John Locke

• Why Government? 1. Hobbs says to protect us from ourselves 2. Locke says to protect natural rights • Where does sovereignty lie? 1. Hobbs says the Monarchy and cannot be taken back 2. Locke says people maintain sovereignty that created government to protect them. If government fails to do so the people have the right to overthrow the government and start over. • Can power be limited? 1. Hobbs-no 2. Locke- yes • Right to revolution 1. Hobbs - no 2. Locke- yes,