POLS 1602 Exam #2

First Party Sys:

Federalists and Jeffersonian Republicans (Antifederalists) 1790s Strong national gov & president vs weaker national gov with the states retaining power protection for individuals from govt interference Federalists were NE merchants and supported a program of protective tariffs to encourage manufacturing, forgiving states Revolutionary War debts, the creation of a national bank, and commercial ties with Britain Jeffersonionian led by southern agricultural interests, opposed these policies and instead favored free trade, the promotion of agricultural interests, and friendship with France Federalists tried to use Alien & Sedition Acts to outlaw criticism of the gov from Jeffersonians but couldn't enforce Over time federalists disappeared and Jeffersonian Republicans became known as Democrats - Throughout this period of one party politics there was intense conflict within the party

Guest Speaker is a campaign consultant

Primarily does media strategy & creative director of campaigning Also editing, shooting, graphic design, production, animation, editing

Automatic voter registration is controversial - Pro & Against

Pro - New sys may be more secure than traditional paper registration b/c rather than simply attesting to their eligibility with a signature, individuals have to submit proof of citizenship - Democrats Against - Makes states voter rolls more vulnerable to fraud - Rep b/c don't want more Democratic voters

Polls used in politics

- Baseline - Trend - Tracking - Exit

Electing the President steps (391)

- Formation of an exploratory committee - Fundraising - Campaigning - Primaries & Caucuses - The Convention - General ELection Campaign - Debates - General Election - Electoral COllege - Inauguration

Question bias

- How you ask the question can influence how someone responds - Social desirability/response bias: If society has view that something is good, people will answer in a way that conforms to that view but they may be lying/not agree with it

Sampling error

- Possibility poll drew a bad sample, does not represent reality

Hawthorne Effect

- Presence of researcher looking to gauge public opinion can actually create public opinion - Workers at Hawthorne factory were asked about their jobs and in survey before interviewed and survey after were different = Were most positive in second survey

Temporal limitations

- Public opinion is fluid, opinions change so survey only collect that opinion at one time = Particularly when events/conditions change = May not reflect public opinion over time - Ex. During times of war, presidential approval significantly changes - Public opinion is not monolithic, everyone has a different opinion = Subgroup variations are important to pay attention to * Certain ethnicities/races may feel differently than majority

Margin or error

- Range of sample answering survey gives results that don't match pop - + or - 3% - If estimate is 29% and actually get then 26,27,28,29,30,31,32 % estimates are okay = No statistical difference

Interviewer bias

- Subtle - Trying to appeal to higher power = Females responding differently to female vs male = Minority racial groups respond differently to white vs their own groups

Reasons why young people don't vote

- They lack interest in politics or have not been mobilized to participate - Less political campaigns often target older voters rather than young voters b/c older are more likely to vote = Changing tho

Allocation of delegates to states

2 types - Primary caucuses delegates - Super delegates Many rules, each state party has won process Proportional rep - % of delegates get is similar to % of votes get in primaries & caucuses in state = 15% minimum Proportional rep at congressional district - Get % based on what get in congressional district - Can get more through this process Bonus propor rep - For each majority won in congressional district get an extra delegate Winner takes all sys - Most votes in state menas get all of states delegates = Like electoral college Dems place greater emphasis on prop rep - Don't like winner take all Rep emphasize winner take all in some states - Can close primaries more quickly than dems

Nomination calendar

2/1 Iowa Caucuses - Lot of time & money - Outsized media coverage - Big deal to win b/c get more contributions & support you in later contest = Bandwagon effect - Weeds candidates out 2/9 NH Primary - Lot of time & money - Outsized media coverage - Big deal to win b/c get more contributions & support you in later contest = Bandwagon effect - Weeds candidates out 3/1 other states - Super Tuesday - Lot of southern states (OK, TX, Arkansas, Georgia, Wyoming, Virginia, Vermont, Alabama, American, Samoa, COlorido, Mass, Minnesota, Tennessee) = Reps pick over ⅓ of delegates = Dems pick over a ¼ of delegates National Convention - Dem July 25-28 Philadelphia = Need 2400 delegates to get majority - Reps July 18-21 Cleveland = Need 12000 delegates to get majority * Less people b/c don't care about prop rep - Delegates formally vote - Ratify platforms, proposed by lead candidates = VP choices - Fundraising campaigns (Congress & Presidential) = Lots of wealthy people go to this - Big party to officially kick off general election campaign = Gives you opportunity to express your opinions through speeches

Runoff election:

A "second round" election in which voters choose between the top two candidates from the first round

Incumbent:

A candidate running for re-election to a position that he or she already holds Have an advantage over the candidate challenging them Usually are already well known and have little difficulty attracting supporters and campaign contributors (unless they had damaging publicity in office)

Political ideology:

A cohesive set of beliefs that forms a general philosophy about the role of government Liberalism & conservatism = 2 most common ideologies in the US

Whip sys

A communication network for conveying the leaders wishes and plans to the members between 12-20 assistant & regional whips are selected to operate at the direction of the majority or minority leader and the whip - They poll all the members to learn their intentions on specific bills, enabling the leaders to know if they have enough to support to allow a vote as well as whether the vote is so close that they will need to put pressure on undecided members = In those instances the Speaker or a lieutenant will go to a few party members who have indicated they will switch if their vote is essential Helps maintain party unity in Congress but is critical in House b/c of the large # of legislators whose positions ad votes must be accounted for The majority & minority whips and their assistants must be adept at inducing compromise among legislators who hold widely differing viewpoints

Gender gap

A distinctive pattern of voting behavior reflecting the differences in views between women and men

Gender gap:

A distinctive pattern of voting behavior reflecting the differences in views between women and men WOmen vote & register at rates similar to or higher than men WOmen tend to be Dem, Men repu WOmen more likely to oppose military activities (especially war) and to support gun control as well as social spending for health care, public ed, & welfare In recent decades have had growing number of women in elective office = descriptive rep One key to increasing the number of women in political office is to encourage more women to run - Are just as likely to win as men but are less likely to run Important b/c female legislators are more supportive of women's rights, ed, and health care spending and are also more attentive to childrens and family issues - But not a gender thing, but a partisan thing b/c most Democrats support this too

Gender gap:

A distinctive pattern of voting behavior reflecting the differences in views between women and men - Following the election, men are more likely to say they have a lot of confidence in the future of the US than women Zaller argues that individuals learn about politics by converting info from the news, elected officials, & other sources into opinions, have 3 stages - Receive: Get info from different sources - Accept: Individual assesses info through the lens of her own political view & accepts messages that are only in line with their previous beliefs - Sample: Individual selects some of the accepted info & forms an opinion from it Thus citizens with more political knowledge can differentiate between info that fits or does not fit with their beliefs & then correctly accept or reject it - Low informed individuals are more susceptible to fake news, partisan news, & political propaganda from elites than more informed individuals - Means that the public opinions are often unstable & unreliable b/c these sources provide competing, changing information WHile social media has created new platforms for organizing and voter mobilization, discussing politics, & creating networks, it has been associated with increased misinformation Individuals rely on cues from trusted party elites, interest groups, and the media to aid in attitude formation - Ex. Tweets Polarized political environments change how citizens make decisions & form opinions The transformation of political info in the digital era has had a profound effect on the way the news is reported & how citizens learn about politics Political knowledge necessary for effective citizenship

Conference:

A gathering of House Reps every 2 years to elect their House leaders; House Democrats call their gathering the "caucus"

Voter turnout increased sharply in 2018

A majority of the nations voters saw the election as a referendum on President Trump's performance in office

What is an election?

A means for conferring power - Associated with values but there are others Oldest means was hand to hand combat to death - Associated with tribal societies - One left is strongest who could lead warriors to battle and help tribe survive - Strength, leadership, cunning, endurance values Then get inheritance - Associated with monarchies & aristocracies - Monarch has divine right so can do whatever he wants - Value blood lines, societal stability (knowing your place), class sys, no social mobility = Can improve within the cast but can't go up too much Selection by elites - People picking peers - Values of coptation by elites, nepotism, repression (keep others down) - Ex. The Pope, picked by Cardinals Cou de ta - Revolution, peaceful or violent - Rejection of current society and its values = Aspiration for new values Foreign country intervention - Destabilizes country, installs puppet leader

Delegate:

A member of Congress can interpret her job as a delegate or trustee A representative who votes according to the preferences of his or her constituency Appears to be more democratic bc it forces rep to heed the desires of their constituents But this requires the rep to be in constant touch with constituents & also requires constituents to follow each policy issue very closely Problem is that most people do not follow every issue carefully instead they focus only on the issue or issues of particular interest to them Many people are too busy to get the info necessary to make informed judgements even on issues they care about Adhering to this rep runs the risk that the voices of only a few active and informed constituents get heard - May actually open Congress up to even more influence by special interests

Simple random sample/probability sample:

A method used by pollsters to select a representative sample in which every individual in the pop has an equal probability of being selected as a respondent One way to obtain a representative sample that is also unbiased

Dealignment:

A movement away from the major political parties; a decline in partisan attachment A product of growing social diversity and educational attainment, which made voters less reliant on parties to guide their political decision making Growth of mass media also had a big influence While they often lean toward one of the two parties and vote for the Republicans or Democrats in national elections, independents have unique views and are more supportive of third parties and election reform efforts that create opportunities for groups outside of gov to have a voice in gv - Has grown to 40% of Americans = Party loyalty in America are in a state of flux

Proportional representation:

A multiple member district sys that allows each political party representation in proportion to its % of the total vote Competing political parties are awarded legislative seats in rough proportion to the % of pop votes that each party wins Benefits smaller groups & 3rd parties b/c win legislative seats with fewer votes than would be required under a majority or plurality sys Tends to reduce the # of political parties that can hold power

527 committee (Super PAC):

A nonprofit independent political action committee that may raise unlimited sums of money from corporations, unions, and individuals but is not permitted to contribute to or coordinate directly with parties or candidates A group established specifically for the purpose of political advocacy and is required to report to the IRS

Caucus (political):

A normally closed political party business meeting of citizens or lawmakers to select candidates, elect officers, plan strategy, or make decisions regarding legislative matters

Caucus (political):

A normally closed political party business meeting of citizens or lawmakers to select candidates, elect officers, plan strategy, or make decisions regarding legislative matters Party elites play an outsized role in selecting the candidates who will compete to hold office due to the low turnout in primary elections - Also political parties provide money & endorsements, which narrows the field of candidates who can win in the primaries General election begins after the nominations conclude - Time of intense partisanship, when popular support for parties is high Steps of party workers - Voter registration - Turning out the vote = Convincing voters to actually show up on Election Day Use computer databases to predict who you will vote for - Use this data through microtargeting = The idea behind micro targeting is to send different campaign ads or messages to different demographic groups of voters and potential voters

Party platform:

A party document, written at a national convention, that contains party philosophy, principles, and policy positions

Platform:

A party document, written at a national convention, that contains party philosophy, principles, and positions on issues Often dismissed as documents filled with promises that voters seldom read A contract in which the various party groups attending the convention state their terms for supporting the ticket

Whip:

A party member in the House or Senate responsible for coordinating the party's legislative strategy, building support for key issues, and counting votes Lines up party members on important votes and relays voting info to the leaders

Ballot initiative:

A proposed law or policy change that is place on the ballot by citizens or interest groups for a popular vote Allow citizens to circulate petitions to place policy change of proposed laws directly on the ballot for a popular vote - If it receives major support it becomes a law Usually controversial topics Leads to higher voter turnout bc propositions offer voters the opportunity to directly make public policy and change gov laws which may have an educative effect on people

Standing committee:

A permanent committee with the power to propose and write legislation that covers a particular subject, such as finance or agriculture Most important arenas of congressional policy making Committees remain in existence from one session of Congress to the next They have the power to propose and write legislation The jurisdiction of each covers a particular subject matter, which in most cases parallels a major department or agency in the executive branch Among the most important are those in charge of finances - The House Ways and Means committee and the Senate Finance Committee are powerful b/c of their jurisdiction over taxes, trade, & expensive entitlement programs such as Social Security and Medicare - The Senate & House Appropriations committees also play important ongoing roles b/c they decide how much funding various programs will actually receive = They also determine exactly how the money will be spent = A seat on the appropriations committee allows a members the opportunity to direct funds to a favored program, perhaps one in his home district Except for the House Rules committee, all standing committees receive proposals for legislation and process them into official bills - The House RUles committee decides the order in which bill come up for a vote on the House floor and determines the specific rules that govern the length of debate and opportunity for amendments - The Senate which has less formal org and fewer rules does not have a rules committee

Factors that help explain voting in elections

A person's social and demographic characteristics and attitudes about politics The political environment in which elections take place - Campaigns that seek to mobilize voters and whether an election is contested among 2 political candidates The state electoral laws that shape the electoral process

Two-party system:

A political system in which only two parties have a realistic opportunity to compete effectively for control First two were in late 1780s Federalists and Jeffersonian Republicans In US its winner takes all, person with most votes gets seat in Congress US also first past the post b/c the candidate with the most votes wins the election, even if she did not win a majority of the popular vote Spoiler effect/strategic voting - Not voting for a third party candidate for fear that vote will be wasted since only one party can win the election

Random digit dialing:

A polling method in which respondents are selected at random from a list of 10 digit telephone numbers, with every effort made to avoid bias in the construction of the sample ANother method of drawing samples of the national pop Fairly accurate, cost effective, & flexible in the type of questions that can be asked but many people refuse to answer them

Push poll:

A polling technique in which the questions are designed to shape the respondent's opinion Not scientific

National Security Council (NSC):

A presidential foreign policy advisory council composed of the president, the vice president, the secretary of state, the secretary of defense, and other officials invited by the president

Pocket veto

A presidential veto that is automatically triggered if the president does not act on a given piece of legislation passed during the final 10 days of a legislative session

Pocket veto:

A presidential veto that is automatically triggered if the president does not act on a given piece of legislation passed during the final 10 days of a legislative session

Open primary:

A primary election in which the voter can wait until the day of the primary to choose which party to enroll in to select candidates for the general election All registered voters, including independents, to choose which party's primary they will participate in

Closed primary:

A primary election in which voters can participate in the nomination of candidates but only of the party in which they are enrolled for a period of time prior to primary day Only registered members of a political party may vote to select that party's candidates

Political action committee (PAC):

A private group that raises and distributes funds for use in election campaigns Orgs established by corporations, labor unions, or interest or advocacy groups to channel the contributions of their members and employees into political campaigns Are permitted to make larger contributions to any given candidate than individuals are allowed to make

Recall:

A procedure to allow voters to remove state officials from office before their terms expire by circulating petitions to call a vote Federal officials (congress & president) are not subject to recall

Private bill:

A proposal in Congress to provide a specific person with some kind of relief. Such as a special exemption from immigration quotas Proposes to grant some kind of relief, special privileged, or exemption to the person named in the bill About 75% of all private bills introduced and ⅓ passed are concerned with obtaining citizenship for foreign nationals who do not have resident status in the US Other bills address a diverse set of issues involving a claim against the fed gov, such as problems with veterans benefits or taxation Can be abused but it is impossible to imagine members of Congress completely giving up one of the easiest, cheapest, and most effective forms of patronage valuable to them It can be defended as an indispensable part of the process by which members of Congress see to fulfill their role as reps - And can help reps win re-election

Bill:

A proposed law that has been sponsored by a member of COngress and submitted to the clerk of the House or Senate Can originate in the House or Senate but only the House can introduce money bills, those that spend or raise revenues - The framers inserted this provision in the Constitution b/c they believed that the CHamber closest to the people should exercise greater authority over taxing and spending The bill is then officially submitted by a senator or rep to the clerk of the House or Senate and referred to the appropriate committee for deliberation During the course of its deliberations the committee typically refers the bill to one of its subcommittees which may hold hearing, listen to expert testimony, and amend the proposed legislation before referring it to the full committee for consideration The full committee may then accept the recommendation of the subcommittee or hold its own hearing and prepare its own amendments Next step in the process is the committee markup sessions

Open rule:

A provision by the House Rules COmmittee that permits floor debate and the addition of new amendments to a bill What bill opposers generally prefer Permits potentially damaging floor debate and makes it easier to add amendments that may cripple the bill or weaken its chances for passage

Closed rule:

A provision by the House Rules Committee limiting or prohibiting the introduction of amendments during debate What bill supporters generally prefer Puts severe limits on floor debate and amendments

General election:

A regularly scheduled election involving most districts in the nation or state, in which voters select officeholders In the US general elections for national office and most state and local offices are held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November in even numbered years - Every 4 years for presidential elections The winner of the general election is elected to office for a specified term

Delegate:

A rep who votes according to the preferences of his or her constituency - Determined by result of the presidential primary or caucus Superdelegates are party elites who are not bound to the voting results in their state primaries and can vote as they wish

Trustee:

A representative who votes based on what he or she thinks is best for his or her constituency Congressional members may not pay sufficient attention to the wishes of their constituents The only way the public can exercise influence is by voting every 2 years for reps and every 6 years for Senators Members of Congress try to anticipate the wishes of their constituents even when they don't know exactly what those wishes are b/c they know that unpopular decisions can be used against them in the coming election

Party unity vote:

A roll call vote in the House or Senate in which at least 50% of the members of one party take a particular position and are opposed by at least 50% of the members of the other party

Cloture:

A rule or process in a legislative body aimed at ending debate on a given bill; in the US Senate, 60 Senators (3/5ths) must agree in order to impose a time limit and end debate

Executive Order:

A rule or regulation issued by the president that has the effect and formal status of legislation

Bandwagon effect:

A shift in electoral support to the candidate whom public opinion polls report as the front runner Especially true in the presidential nomination process where they may be multiple candidates within one party vying to be the party's nominee

Sample:

A small group selected by researchers to represent the most important characteristics of an entire pop Used to make inferences about the preferences of the pop as a whole

Attitude/opinion:

A specific preference on a particular issue SOme can change & others stay forever Not just rationale for self interests reasons but also emotional - Will hold onto beliefs even if disproven or will change political habits if threatened by recent political events = Ex. Students walking out of schools after high school shootings, motivation to fight for change in gov policy

Retail politics:

A style of campaigning where candidates connect to voters at intimate gatherings and local events Iowa caucuses (first state to select presidential candidates in the calendar year) and New Hampshire primary (second election in the presidential nomination process) rely heavily on this - Are important b/c can help candidates gain momentum bys ecuring national media attention, money in the form of campaign contributions, and higher ratings in public-opinion polls = If successful sends message that he/she can win Where presidential candidates spend a great deal of time in the state to meet with voters face to face

Filibuster:

A tactic used by members of the Senate to prevent action on legislation they oppose by continuously holding the floor and speaking until the majority backs down; once given the floor, senators have unlimited time to speak, and it requires a vote of 3/5ths of the Senate to end a filibuster Small minorities or even one individual in the Senate can force the majority to give in Can be ended by cloture The threat of a filibuster ensures that in crafting legislation and proposing judicial appointments, the majority takes into account the viewpoint of the political minority Many want to end it

Majority System:

A type of electoral sys in which to win a seat in the parliament or other representative body, a candidate must receive a majority of all the votes cast in the relevant district Includes runoff election Tends to reduce the # of political parties that can hold power

Plurality system:

A type of electoral sys in which to win a seat in the parliament or other representative body, a candidate need only receive the most votes in the election, not necessarily a majority of the votes cast Is used in most US elections Need to win the most of the votes cast in the election

Agency representation:

A type of representation in which a rep is held accountable to a a constituency if he or she fails to represent that constituency properly This is incentive for the rp to provide good rep when his or her personal backgrounds, views, and interests differ from those of his or her constituency takes place when constituents have the power to hire and fire their rep

Sociological representation:

A type of representation in which reps have the same racial, gender, ethnic, religious, or educational backgrounds as their constituents It is based on the principle that if 2 individuals are similar in background, character, interests, and perspectives, then one can correctly represent the other's views Sociological similarity helps to promote good rep thus the composition of a properly constituted rep assembly should mirror the composition of society

Roll call vote:

A vote in which each legislator's yes or no vote is recorded as the clerk calls the names of the members alphabetically

Equality of opportunity:

A widely shared American ideal that all people should have the freedom to use whatever talents and wealth they have to reach their fullest potential American belief that all individuals should be allowed to seek personal and economic success - Result of individual effort & ability, not family connections/special privileges Also believe in democracy & rule of law - Every citizen has the opportunity to take part in the nation's gov and policy making processes (including voting) & have a say in how they are governed Don't always practice these beliefs as seen with AAs Even when there is broad agreement over principles, practical interpretations of principles can differ - Affirmative action = controversial

African Americans are more likely to vote when that state legislature has black reps

AAs represented by a black member of Congress are more likely to vote in elections, have a sense of efficacy, and higher levels of political knowledge

Linked fate:

AAs who feel a shared sense of collective identity are more likely to vote and participate politically Measure the degree to which AAs believe their own self interests are linked to the interests of the race Due to slavery and racism history Black civic, community, religious, & political orgs are also important in increasing political participation for this group

Traditional political participation:

Activities designed to influence gov, politics, & policy, including voting, campaign contributions and face to face activities such as volunteering for a campaign or working on behalf of a candidate or political org - Protests, demonstrations, & strikes too = More common than voting - Think digital politics a new way of engaging in traditional politics

Digital political participation:

Activities designed to influence politics using the internet, including visiting a candidate;s website, organizing events online, and signing an online petition Rapidly changing the way Americans experience politics The internet & social media gives citizens greater access to info about candidates and campaigns and a greater role in politics than ever before Makes activities easier and more immediate, giving citizens greater potential for community building and networked participation Also get two way form of communication with feedback Includes activities like - Discussing issues or mobilizing supporters - Emailing & text messaging - Reading blogs and online news stories - Viewing Youtube & campaign ad videos - Contributing money to candidates and political orgs Online mobilization works through emotional appeals, immediacy, personal networks and social pressure Social media can efficiently coordinate the actions of millions of people required for political campaigns and winning elections Small acts of political participation (sharing, following a candidate or org, like a post, commenting) made possible by social media may give those uninterested in politics or who are rarely engaged a way of getting involved easily, which can then encourage them to do more Some of dismissed social media as clicktivism: Forms of participation that require little effort and may or may not convert to offline acts of participation in politics - Other ague its the building block for sustained participation in politics Combines content of traditional media with interpersonal participation The ease of making monetary contributions online has led to a dramatic increase in the form of political participation Obama's campaign ushered in the modern era of digital politics, building comprehensive online strategies to mobilize supporters, and citizens made unprecedented use of digital media to learn about candidates and to participate in campaigns CItizens like following political figures on social media b/c they feel more emotionally connected to the candidates Social media also allows users to avoid exposure to info that challenges their pre existing views Political news available 24/day, spreads rapidly, & is free Community takes on a different meaning in an online social network Has allowed for more expression than ever before - May force elected officials to better represent the people But can also lead to silos, echo chambers, & filter bubbles where individuals with shared views communicate to the exclusion of others, leading to increased ideological party polarization and eventually hyper partisanship - People may dismiss info from new sources they dislike - Can lead to extreme or biased views that get worse over time, creating a world of alternative facts where individuals cannot agree on basic principles Think it has exacerbated partisan conflict, social divisions, culture wars, intolerance based on race, ethnicity, gender, or religion - Has created forums that allow racism & hate speech, terrorist appeals, sexual harassment - See a lack of civility in public discourse Democratic elections may also be increasingly vulnerable to manipulation by foreign govs and other extremists b/c of open networks and unregulated political advertising on social media - Unlike traditional media (radio, tc, print media) online political ads on Google and social media sites are not regulated - Honest Ads Act is aimed at preventing foreign influence on elections by subjecting political ads sold online to the same rules and transparency that apply to Tv and radio - Tech companies have also taken steps to crack down on fake accounts Has potential to foster innovation, free expression, social connections, info seeking, & political participation - Could also cause misinfo, intolerance, a lack of civility, & breaches of privacy and even demobilization A barrier is the digital divide, defined as the gap between those with and those without home internet or mobile access - Growing inequalities online replicate existing societal inequalities based on race and economic class that threaten to widen gaps in who is informed about politics and who participates Running for office can be incredibly expensive, but social media may help level that playing field by reducing candidate reliance on money from corporations, special interests & wealthy donors

Current Events 2

Ads - Kennedy super catchy = Strong party ID, signs for different issues - Bernie beautiful, showed common man - Neither one spoke in ads Trump & Kim Jong Un meeting in Vietnam, for nuclear summit - Puts them at the center of attention = Dems voting on legislation to block his emergency border wall - May give NK more legitimacy and they won't follow through Robert Kraft being charged with solicitation of prostitutes Special election in West Hartford - Trying to get Senate chair - As long as organize can have a huge success

Where did the money go in 2012?

Advertising Fundraising Payroll Administration Polling Consultants Lists (how target voters, get volunteers, etc)

Results

Al sys did pretty well - But more confidence with touchscreen & resulted in greater accuracy = Paper ballots did not Fewer requests for help with office bloc ballots than straight party option and party row ballots Frequent computer users preferred touch screens Elderly dislike mechanical and zoomable interfaces Previous voting experience with a similar voting sys = less need for help with some electronic sys - But doesnt mean voted accurately

Framework for Understanding Elections

All frameworks rest on assumptions - Frameworks don't always work - Assumptions aren't always true Caveats Components - Actors - Strategic environment - Strategies

The initiative & the referendum (Both referred to as ballot measures) are examples of direct democracy

Allow voters to govern directly and make laws without intervention by gov officials or the political parties Often involve high spending by proponents and opponents, and mass media campaigns that can rival those of congressional & presidential candidates within a state The validity however is subject to judicial action - If a court finds that an initiative violates the state or national constitution, it can overturn the result Measures concerning controversial policy issues generate their own campaigns with TV, newspaper, and digital media & rely on volunteers for mobilization drives that contact potential voters Can help shape both the national agenda and evaluations of candidates - Placing issues on the ballot as part of an effort to influence candidate elections is an important strategy for political campaigns attempting to shape the political agenda

Political culture

Ambivalence/distrust to political parties - Scared of factions taking over - Associate political parties with corruption Very broad, we all embrace common values so can't really run against each other or get rid of political parties Mass media reinforces weaknesses in parties - Tech very capitalistic, used to help campaigns or hurt them

Voting Facts

Americans under 35 constitute a larger share of the electorate than baby boomers and older Americans In the US citizens must actively register to vote and in some states, do it in advance of the election Voting is just one form of political participation & voter registration requirements are just one factor that affects who participates in American politics

Executive agreement:

An agreement, made between the president and another country, that has the force of a treaty but does not require the Senate's "advice and consent"

Executive agreement

An agreement, made between the president and another country, that has the force of a treaty but does not require the Senate's "advice and consent" Supreme court has held that such agreements are equivalent to treaties In the past presidents sometimes concluded secret agreements without informing Congress of the agreement contents or even their existence But new law called the Case Act requires the president to inform COngress of any executive agreement within 60 days of its having been reached - This provides congress with the opportunity to cancel agreements it opposes - Congress can limit the president's ability to conduct foreign policy through executive agreement by refusing to appropriate the funds needed to implement an agreement = Congress can modify or even cancel executive agreements to provide American economic or military assistance to foreign govs

Campaign:

An effort by political candidates and their supporters to win the backing of donors, political activists, and voters in their quest for political office Precede every primary & general election - 2 years before presidential election, 12 months before congressional; campaigns Candidates often form an exploratory committee consisting of supporters who will help them raise funds and bring their names to the attention of the media, potential donors, and voters - Money from corporations and affluent citizens is an important component of US elections since public funding is limited

Majority-minority district:

An electoral district such as a congressional district, in which the majority of the constituents belong to racial or ethnic minorities From 1993 Shaw v Reno Supreme Court has generally opposed efforts to force the creation of these districts - The Court has asserted that districting based exclusively on race/ethnicity is unlawful = However most majority-minority districts in the US occur naturally in states and geographic areas with large minority pops

Responsible parties recruit candidates who are loyal to the party's philosophy and policy agenda, with the goal of controlling gov and adopting laws that are consistent with the part's platform

An ideal candidate will have a strong leadership record and the capacity to raise enough money to mount a serious campaign But candidate recruitment is problematic in an era when politicians must assume that their personal lives will be intensely scrutinized on social media, in the press, and in negative campaign ads run by their opponents Other issues are the extremely high cost of political campaigns, extensive time devoted to fundraising, and the numerous gerrymandered congressional and legislative districts

Party identification:

An individual voter's psychological ties to one party or another Important b/c individuals tend to develop party identification with one of the major political parties, eventually hand that off to children Colors voters understanding of politics in general and are the more important cue in how to vote in elections Can create info bubbles and filters where citizens follow news media and candidates on social media that are of the same partisan leaning Democrats have outnumbered republicans for a long time Strong Party identifiers are more likely to go to the polls, to be contacted by political campaigns, and to support the party with which they identify

Avante Vote Trakker

Automatic advance navigation - Immediately takes you to next category Paper printout for verification Impossible to overvote Highlights undervotes

Policy entrepreneur:

An individual who identifies a problem as a political issue and brings a policy proposal into the political agenda Role of party leaders, developing ideas and programs that will expand their party's base of support while eroding that of the opposition Seek to identify and develop programs and policies that will appeal to the public

Town hall meeting:

An informal public meeting in which candidates meet with ordinary citizens Allows candidates to deliver messages without the presence of journalists or commentators Showcases the candidates concern with the views and needs of the voters

White House staff:

Analysts and advisers to the president, each of whom is often given the title "special assistant"

Signing Statements:

Announcements made by the president when signing bills into law, often presenting the president's interpretation of the law

Pork barrel or pork:

Appropriations made by legislative bodies for local projects that are often not needed but that are created so that local reps can win reelection in their home districts Many argue that pork-barrel bills are the only ones that some members are serious about moving toward actual passage b/c they are seen as so important to members' re-election bids Common form is the earmark by which members of Congress insert into bill's language that provides special benefits for their own constituents - But are being limited b/c can be connected to congressional scandals - The House passed a new rule requiring that those rep supporting each earmark identify themselves and guarantee that they have no personal financial stake in the requested project = A new ethics laws applied similar provisions to the Senate - Some claim the lack of earmarks contributes to congressional gridlock = They argue that earmarks provide congressional leaders with incentives to promote compromise among members = Contend that earmarks are not inherently an abuse of power and note that they often support legitimate district projects, such as transportation and parks

Younger voters tend to care more about economic inequality, student debt, stronger environmental laws, funding for public ed & college, & more tolerance for personal freedom, community service

As a result of growing up in an era of hyper partisanship and scandal, most see the political sys as ineffective and broken & would not consider running for office Higher levels of participation by this group could significantly alter gov policy & politics

AA, Latinos, Women, & Asian Americans have increased their congressional rep in the past 2 decades but the rep of minorities in COngress is still not comparable to their proportions in the general pop

As the US has become more diverse though Congress has lagged behind in sociological rep Since many important contemporary issues cut along racial and gender lines, pressure for reform in the rep process is likely to continue until all groups are fully represented

Caucuses (congressional):

Associations of members of COngress based on party, interests, or social group, such as gender or race Unofficial organizational structure of Congress Groups of senator or reps who share certain opinions, interests, or social characteristics Large number are composed of legislators representing particular economic or policy interests such as the Travel and Tourism Caucus, the Steel Caucus, and Concerned Senators for The Arts Legislators who share common backgrounds have organized caucuses such as the Congressional Black Caucus, the Congressional Caucus for Women's Issues, and the Congressional Hispanic Caucus All these caucuses seek to advance the interests of the groups they represent by promoting legislating, encouraging Congress to hold hearings, and pressing administrative agencies for favorable treatment In recent years some caucuses have evolved into powerful lobbying orgs, well funded by interest groups

Candidates

Assume to be white, male, protestant, middle age, wealthy, lawyers/business - Has changed recently People person - Love meeting new people & making connections - Love attention Are power hungry

Candidate strategies to win states holding primaries are very different than for states using caucuses

B/c voter turnout in caucuses tends to be much lower than in primary election TV and mass media campaigns are typically used to campaign in primary states while face to face and retail politics are more common in caucus states

2018 was different

Base was angry, anxious, cynical, divided, motivate-able Didn't have to distinguish between turnout and persuasion messaging Build out from the core of the movement Build relationships with voters early for the general Disprove the doubters Interest builded after the year went on - About 2/3rds so knew wave was gonna happen People saw ads from both side - Mostly TV and mail - There was ton of communication & they were receiving it

Value/beliefs:

Basic principles that shape a person's opinions about political issues and events Also includes deep rooted morals, ethics, aspirations, and ideals that shape an individual's perceptions of society, gov, & the economy

How to Influence Congress

Be rich or represent a huge group Represent group that is important group for the district Show up with helpful info Write email, call, write real letters, visit member of Congress - Invite him/her to visit you - Volunteer as an intern

AN individual is likely to vote in an election only if the benefits outweigh the costs

Benefits - Favorable policies might result from having one's preferred candidate or party in office, which the potential voter weighs against the slim likelihood of her vote actually influencing the outcome of the election - The sense of pride gained from fulfilling one's civic duty Costs - The time and resources need to become informed and to cast a ballot, which may help explain why the poor and less educated are less likely to vote and participate in politics in other ways

Current events

Bernie sanders got $5 million in campaign money in 24 hours Congress has power to control membership - Can call another election for North Carolina rep thought to have tampered with votes

Trends of election

Both Clinton & Trump were disliked, many Americans felt disgusted More women supported Hillary than men - She was the first female presidential candidate representing a major party Trump received most of the media attention - Idea of fake news created with many believing news biasly supported Clinton Money didn't matter bc Hillary raised 2x but lost

Modern Congress

Broad powers, but difficult to act - Levy taxes, declare war, impeach president - Make laws necessary and proper

Cases that tip the scale in favor of speech

Buckley v Valeo 1976 - Struck down limits on candidate spending, use of personal funds, & independent expenditures - Introduced the idea that money counts as speech under the 1st Amendment - However left limits on individuals campaign contributions Citizens United v FEC 2010 - Said gov could not restrict independent expenditures by corporation or unions in support of candidates = Corporations and unions can spend unlimited sums SpeechNow v FEC 2010 - Allowed wealthy individuals & organizations to form committees called Super PACS - Can raise unlimited amounts of money to run advertising for and against candidates so long as their efforts are not coordinated with those of the candidates Opponents raise concerns that unlimited spending by wealthy donors, corporations, and other orgs could worse existing corruption in AMerican politics - New studies finding that members of COngress make decisions that represent the interests of wealthy campaign donors, not average voters - Creates an unfair advantage for certain candidates - Increase the importance and influence of large campaign donors - Undermines the quality of democracy

Reps can serve as the agents of their constituents even if they do not precisely mirror their sociological attributes

But the social composition of a rep assembly is important for symbolic purposes, to demonstrate to groups in the pop that the gov takes them seriously If Congress is not rep symbolically then its own authority and that of the entire gov is reduced A good deal of evidence indicates that whether or not members of Congress share their constituents sociological characteristics, they do work very hard to speak for their constituents views and to serve their constituents interests

Ballot Designs Matter

Butterfly ballot used in Florida - Messed up 2000 election Confusing punches, don't know who you are voting for

Executive branch establishment

Cabinet - Experts, represent certain constituencies White House Staff - Used to be super small but now in the 400s - Don't need congressional approval, inner circle Executive Office of President - Created in 1930s to help manage growing responsibilities Independent Agencies - Federal Reserve Board, Federal Emergency administration

Current Event Ads- Negative Campaigning, talking about soviet union in both

Called a Daisy Ad - Girl gets blown up by nuclear missile - Johnson says stakes are too high Be as strong as the bear b/c don't know its powers - Reagan possible of peace

Candidates wage 2 campaigns

Campaign for resources Campaign for votes

Low income, racial minorities, elderly, & people with disabilities often lack gov ID so can't vote in some states

Can be difficult to obtain even if free b/c need to pay for a birth certificate Travel to DMV can also be difficult

2010 citizens United allowed corporations, unions, & interest groups to spend unlimited amounts of their own money to advocate for political candidates

Can form super PAcs and run unlimited campaign ads for or against candidates as long as the organizations are independent of the candidates campaign

Actors

Candidates Political Parties Interest/advocacy groups Mass media

Modern campaigns require a great deal of money

Candidates with the most campaign dollars often win The US has extensive rules regarding campaign contributions for candidates but has few spending limits

Primaries and caucuses

Caucuses are meetings - Go to place, doors are closed, listen to whatever party wants to talk about - Then break into groups & rep of group votes for candidate = Can disband and join other groups if get less than 15% of votes - Activists participate the most Primaries just show up and vote Closed Primary: Only party members - CT on APril 26 Open: Anybody

Poor design can lead to big problems

Chad is piece of paper that comes out from voting ballot once punched - Some pushed harder than others, does that mean that person intended to vote? = Some still attached to paper, didnt fall of

Presidency Roles and responsibilities

Chief of state - Ritual position - Draw on patriotism and loyalty Chief executive - Executes & enforces laws made by Congress - Signing statements for ex - But there a lots of limits Commander in chief - Leader of armed forces - Responsible for survival of the nation - Grown due to technology Chief diplomat - President appoints & recognizes ambassadors, negotiates treaties (need to approved by Senate), recognize other countries - Executive agreement Chief legislator - Sets political stage for legislative agenda through state of the union speech - Power to veto things Head of political party - Is the party leader - Helps members of the party = Recognition, fundraising - Offered high level positions Voice of the people - Only fully elected person - Only one who can claim position - Central focus of gov

Public opinion:

Citizens' attitudes about political issues, leaders, institutions, and events Has a significant impact on public policy but is the public sufficiently informed about politics & do elected officials represent the interests of all Americans or only some? To measure on an issue have to study the individual opinions of thousands/millions of people aggregated together Americans usually differ with partisanship, economic status, social & demographic characteristics (race & ethnicity, gender, income, ed, age, religion, region)

3rd Party Sys:

Civil War & Post Civil War President Lincoln depended heavily on Republican governors & state legislatures to raise troops, provide funding, and maintain pop support for a long and bloody military conflict With the defeat of the COnfederacy in 1865, some Republicans sought to use Reconstruction to grant the right to vote to newly freed slaves thus creating a large pro-Republican voting block - Failed b/c of KKK violence From the end of the Civil War to the 1890s, the Republican party remained the party of the North, with strong business and middle class support, while the Democrats were the party of the South, with support also from working class and immigrant groups

Tons of personal attacks, & scandals in election

Clinton untrustworthy for leaked emails Trump sexist, racist, & xenophobic

Congress and Policymaking

Common techniques for members of Congress when comes to trying to pass bills - Oversight & Hearings - Threat of budget cut or budget cut - Propose new legislation - Reorganize parts of the executive branch

US allows candidates to raise unlimited sums of money to spend on their campaigns with no time restrictions of when the money can be spent

Concerns of corruption - In an attempt to limit the influence of money in politics, the fed gov has adopted a number of laws to limit & regulate contributions to political campaigns but they have recently been dismantled

6th Party Sys:

Contemporary (Today) Republican Party became more popular in second half of 20th century Ideas of reduced levels of taxation and spending, less gov reg of economy, elimination of many fed social programs became major themes of Rep party Added white southerners, religious conservatives, and white working class Reagan's term seen as golden era in which many industries were deregulated, govt intervention in the economy was reduced, & had huge economic growth Democrats maintained support among unionized workers & upper middle class professionals - And racial/ethnic minorities Conflict between republicans with members of religious rights and more traditional fiscal ones who were concerned about economic matters like taxes & fed reg of business Obama united racial/ethnic minorities, youth, & other liberals with older white moderate in a powerful national coalition - Helped nation recover from global economic recession, reformed national health care, financial sector, immigration, promoted clean energy & environmental protection, labor policy, & LGBTQ rights Republicans though it was too much fed gov involvement

Presidency Relationships with other political acts

Congress - Constant tension & disagreement - Separation of powers but compete - Different constituencies = President = nation = Congress = local/state - Have different serving terms - Have different # of times can serve = President only twice - Goals = President = long term = Congress = usually short term - Congress reacts to agenda of PResident = Usually disposes - President has unlimited info = Congress doesn't - President has more power in foreign affairs than Congress Courts - President appoints fed justices as long as ⅔ Senate agrees = Can try to get people that support your views - President can criticize justices = But that's pretty much it - President can try to get special prosecutors for cases - But President cannot withhold info from courts in criminal cases Media - Presidents want to dominate media to make them look great & reinforce their power = Can create announcement to overshadow something else - Press want to know President's secrets and mistakes - But President needs Media & Media needs President = Recognizing and collecting of info necessary for both - Leaks are intentional = If want to weaken opponent do this = If want to build relationship with journalist do this - Press conferences allow for media to interact and for President to release agenda = Social media most important today - Can be very aggressive and lead to the downfall of a President

Current Eventt

Congress 113th criticized for being inactive - External pressures that keep members from doing some things = Financial, constituents wishes, interest groups = Many have their own opinions and will exercise their judgement if constituents wishes could be hurtful - Internal pressures AOC's New Green Deal didn't pass - Doesn't know why in congress if choosing big bank & oil companies when should be protecting urban farmers & families - Environment is not a left elitist issue, its scientific evidence and an american issue b/c people (especially kids) are dying - Super passionate, chiding other side for backing down right before vote - Southern Republicans think it's up to the state gov and not the fed, shouldn't be involved in environment issues Betsy DeVos trying to cut funding from Special Olympics

Internal Structures of Congress

Congress can override veto & can pass different laws to fix law ruled as unconstitutional House Senate Committees and Subcommittees Caucuses Party Leadership

Congress Theory

Congress is a representative institution - People's branch Symbolic/descriptive - Is representation necessary? = Congress not very representative * White, male, religious, middle age = Yes but complicated * More than just having someone like you demographically, but having someone in the institution that you can identify with is very important - Just presence of a person reminds others in the room that their issues are important = Ex. Women's Health, treatment in the workplace, etc not discussed until recently * Getting more money & attention = People don't feel shut out & can have a voice - Problem: Won't ever have perfect demographic representation in Congress Delegate - Rep should ascertain of his or her constituents = Find out what they care about - Should insert those opinions into the policymaking process - Problem: Not enough freedom = Can't compromise & build coalitions Trustee - Rep elected b/c his/her judgement and think will work hard to advance issues - People don't have enough knowledge about issues or don't care - Stands for the people & should advance their interests but do what he/she thinks best - Problem: Too much freedom = Could ignore constituents and do what they want & what helps them - Want to maximize the leeway you have = Inform constituents on your positions, money you are bringing in, help them deal with fed gov issues Politico - Combo - Requires member of Congress to be skilled = Need to be educated & have good communication - Behave like trustee when constituents don't care or policy could hurt community = Or won't make decision b/c will hurt their reelection campaign - Behave like delegate when constituents do care

Midterm elections:

Congressional elections that do not coincide with a presidential election Also called off-year elections Localities & states can choose when to hold their elections Elections are administered by state, country, and city election boards that are responsible for establishing and staffing polling places, processing mail in ballots, and verifying the eligibility of voters

As the nation's chief legislative body, Congress affects Americans every day with its decisions

Congressional inaction affects Americans as well

Actual work

Connect with voters Target key audience segments without alienating base or energizing opposition Break through the clutter of politics and commercial advertising

Delegated powers:

Constitutional powers that are assigned to one gov agency but that are exercised by another agency with the express permission of the first

National convention:

Convened by the Republican National Committee or the Democratic National Committee to nominate official candidates for president and vice president in the upcoming election, establish party rules, and adopt the party's platform Party's most important institution at the national level Held every 4 years and attended by delegates from each state 3 formal tasks but the most important is to nominate the party's presidential and vice presidential candidates - In recent years presidential candidates have been chosen by winning enough delegates in state primary election and caucuses Today the convention serves as a media event to promote the party's candidates, not as a forum to decide which presidential candidate will represent the party Also approves party's platform Mostly raise money for party candidates and minimize disputes within the party and work to enhance the party's media image The conventions other 2 formal tasks are determining the party's rules and its platform

2nd Party Sys:

Democrats and Whigs 1830s Groups opposing jackson (democrat) united to form a new political force - Diverse group united more by opposition to the Democrats than by agreements on programs Both increased the number of white eligible voters through the elimination of the requirement of property ownership Whigs had more support from Northeast and merchants - South, West & small farmers did not support Whig campaign carefully avoided issues (since the party could almost agree on none) and emphasized the personal qualities and heroism of the candidate - Also invested heavily in campaign rallies & entertainment to win the heart of the voters Late 1840s- early 1850s conflicts over slavery broke up the Whigs, many of WHig politicians and antislavery Democrats joined the new Republican party which pledged to ban slavery from the western territories

Democrats & Republicans both over 150 years old but have evolved over time

Democrats usually are younger votes, ethnic & racial minorities Republicans usually are white, older people

Blue wave took over House & rep expanded in senate

Dems also won governor races, gained control of a handful of state legislatures, & won 4 state attorney general offices Got highest voter turnout since 1966 - Youth voter turnout soarded 10% Now have all time record for women reps & senators - Including first 2 Muslim & Native American women ever

State of the art analytics and targeting software empower us to segment media on a wide range of demographic, geographic & psychographic criteria

Develop a media mix based on strengths of each medium Broadcast TV Addressable satellite/cable, radio - Narrow down demographic and geographic targets Digital - Individualized engagement

Setting strategy

Develop strategic roadmap - Polling, qualitative research to determine path to victory = Do benchmark poll asap to get better feel of candidates standings and hot topics - Set message architecture = Show candidate how people feel & how are talking about issues Top notch advertising - Creative development - Production

Reasons why people don't vote

Didn't like candidates/campaign issues Not interested in politics Too busy/and conflicting schedules Illness/disability prevents them from voting

Campaigns spent 60-80% of budget on paid media

Digital has really taken off Also have tons of money going into local broadcast TV His work has changed fundamentally

Incumbency Advantages

District composition - People inclined to support you b/c of who you are & they have before Job and perks of office - Fancy office in capital, budget for many offices in the district, lots of travel - Staff (communication directors, press people, mail respondents, etc.) - Members of congress make policy (legislation (bills), oversight of other branches, represent American ideals, educate constituents on risks or pros of certain bills = Town hall meetings Visibility and popularity - Members know its important to build relationships - Send out newsletters to market themselves off - Media coverage (Do radio shows, TV interviews) Expectations - Member of congress supposed to win b/c of reasons in jobs - Affects media coverage, fundraising, etc. Retirements - If tired & old - Or caught up in scandal - Or lose power within party - Go to lobbying to make more money Quality of opposition - Incumbent has upper hand - If same party wait till someone retires to run - Newer members have less experience, less ability to raise money, etc. The cycle - Incumbent 90+% success rate for House incumbents = Senate is 80% Challengers- the flip side - Everything good for incumbent hurts challenger

Party Stances: Domestic Low taxes Econ regulation Social Reg Redistribution of wealth International affairs =

Domestic = Rep & Dem agree gov shouldn't regulate Low taxes = Dem higher on wealth, Rep lower for wealth Econ regulation = More for Dem, low for Rep Social Reg = rep more, less for dem Redistribution of wealth = more for Dem, less for Rep International affairs = military for rep, aid/partnerships for Dem

Tracking Polls

Done during last few months of campaign Goal to see how public opinion in target groups respond to your advertisements 3 way cycle- what do they think about a candidate on certain issues - Interview 200 people first, estimate = Add another 200, estimates = Another 200 people - Then put ads about what they've done - Then sample again but drop out = Creating rolling averages to see whether ads have changed public opinion

Under Senate ulres members have virtually unlimited ability to propose amendments to a pending bill

Each amendment must be voted on before the bill can come to a final vote The intro of new amendments can be stopped only by unanimous consent - This in effect can permit a determined minority to filibuster by amendment, indefinitely delaying the passage of a bill Senators can also place holds or stalling devices on bills to delay the debate - Senators do so when they fear that openly opposing bills will be unpopular - b/c holds are kept secret the senators place them do not have to take public responsibility for their actions New lad states that senators who impose a hold have to identify themselves in the COngressional Record after 6 days and state the reasons for the hold

The building blocks of congressional org incluse the political parties, the committee sys, congressional staff, the caucuses, and the parliamentary rules of the House & senate

Each plays a role in the org of Congress and in the process through which COngress formulates and enacts laws

Primary elections:

Elections held to select a party's candidate for the general election

Primary elections:

Elections held to select a party's candidate for the general election Used in races for offices at the national, state, and local level Used to select the best candidate to represent the political party in the general election Were introduced in 20th century by reformers who hoped to weaken the power of party leaders - Enabled voters rather than party elites, to pick the candidates to compete in the general election

Political Ads

Elissa Slotkin - Mom lost job b/c of cancer = Died from it - Hated Bishop for canceling medical treatment for preexisting conditions - Persuading women, democrats, - Memorable ad - Mentioned CIA experience - Showed wedding - Sad music Donnelly - People fighting around him - Shows military family - Country ahead of party - Mediator between both

Voting Sys Requirements

Enable voters to accurately register their voting intentions Accurately record votes Accurately count votes Prevent others from influencing or tampering with voters But election adminsitrators and the public should consider usability, accuracy, and other factors

The congressional institution second in importance only to the committee sys is the staff esys

Every member employs many staff members whose tasks include handling constituent requests and to a large extent, dealing with legislative details and the activities of administrative agencies

Voting tech is not uniform across or within the states

Everywhere was using different techniques

Presidential nominations

Evolution & contemporary sys Strategic environment Actors Strategies

Election outcomes are affected by a variety of forces that candidates for office cannot fully control

Ex. the economy If voters are satisfied with their economic conditions they tend to support the party in power, while concern about the economy tends to favor the opposition

Why Incumbents win

Experienced organization Tried and true fundraising pitch and list Money is drawn to power Expectations - Start early Dynamic Challenger disadvantages - Opposite situation - Catch 22

Campaigns rely on number of communication tools to reach the voters they want to target for support including social media, massive computerized database, nad micro targeting

Extensive use of the broadcast media, TV in particular, is the hallmark of the modern political campaign - Spend millions of dollars - Used to establish candidate name recognition, create a favorable image of the candidate and a negative image of the opponent, link the candidate with desirable groups in the community, & communicate the candidates stands on selected issues Often in the later stages of a campaign candidates & their support groups will go negative, airing ads that criticize their opponents policy positions, qualifications, or character - Even if misleading or false they are more memorable since elicit emotional responses like fear, anxiety, or anger

The process of creating a legislative agenda, drawing up a list of possible measures, and decided among them is influenced by inside & outside the gov

External Influences - include a legislators constituency and various interest groups Internal Influences - include party leadership, congressional colleagues, & the president

Lever Sys

First voted yay or nay Then did ballots but many people were illiterate, people cheated and voted more than once, and bribed people for votes (got fod, money, etc) Go to machine and would pull levers to vote - Could be hacked - Needed to physically copy tallies Ess, Automark DRE, Paper Ballot - No longer used - Touch screen monitor - Originally was for disabled people - Records vote and prints out paper copy

Election laws

Fixed Elections: First week of November have elections for Congress & President & local reps - Regulated, predictable, constitution says election on this day Winner take all Elections: Singular member, simple plurality - One person gets elected, one with most votes - Get nothing if second place, still lose - Proportional rep Campaign Finance: Campaigns spend a lot but political parties don't b/c don't get much help - Raise your own

The President has the power to make treaties and to appoint top executive officers, ambassadors, and federal judges but he needs advice & consent of the Senate

For treaties need ⅔ of those present to concur For appointments need a simple majority

Liberty:

Freedom from gov control Common American value along with equality & democracy Really tied to the birth of our nation (Puritans, Founders, etc)

Getting a bill out of committee and through both houses of Congress is no guarantee that the bill will be enacted into law, it must be considered by a conference committee

Frequently bills that begin with similar provisions in both chambers emerge with little resemblance to each other Alternatively a bill may be passed by one chamber but undergo substantial revision in the other chamber - In such cases a conference committee composed of the senior members of the committees or subcommittee that initiated the bill may be required to iron out differences between the 2 now dissimilar pieces of legislation

Nedap Liberty Vote

Full face voting sys Membrane buttons to select candidates Blue lights indicate selections Impossible to overvote Warning for undervotes

Today presidential & vice presidential candidates hold debates, as do candidates for statewide and even local offices

Give voters the opportunity to see how the candidates far in direct, face to face exchanges outside the campaign bubble of stage managed public appearances and carefully scripted speeches Candidates can make or break their campaigns with the strength of their debate performances, including high profile gaffes during the debates and even unconscious gestures and the nuances of their facial expression - Usually involve civilized disagreement about substantive policy issues

Presidential Elections: Electoral College

Goal: Framers wanted to get someone who was admired by votes & respected by politicians How it works - In reading - Votes are distributed Strategy - People in positions of power trying to get things done - Figure out which states you need to win majority of electoral college votes - How many resources to put into each state - Develop message for all states - Geo-demographics = What groups do you need to win & where are they located, how big are they, what's the turnout rate, elasticity (how loyal is the group) * Ex. Jews are super loyal to Dems, can shift balance b/c high turnout ** Same with Blacks but turnout is low - Win majority The electoral college is one election rule that influences the campaign strategy of presidential candidates by forcing them to campaign heavily in a dozen battleground/swing states while ignoring the rest of the country

Mixed Strategies

Goals: Part ideology part access - Maximize number of sets but also access to powerful people who share their view Strategies: Mainly support one party's members and support the powerful one - Also support those in close races Activities: Contributions ($), campaign help, help fundraising, get out the vote, etc. Exs: Labor Unions

Ideological/election oriented

Goals: Use elections to try to influence who holds office & policy - Pick candidates with same view and get them into office Strategies: to maximize seats Activities: Get involved in close races & primaries, recruitment, contributions, independent expenditures, campaign support, voter mobilization activities Same as political party just not on the ballot Exs: Emily's list, Crossroads GPS

Pragmatic/Access oriented

Goals: Using elections to create or reinforce relationships with powerful incumbents - Lobbying - Access so can put member of congress in an area/bill that matters to them Strategies: Work with incumbents even if disagree, target resources to powerful incumbents, give money when asked or at time of important vote - Many don't even face opponents - Show themselves as members' of congress re election team - Don't spend against or involved in primaries - View contribution as a way to buy access = Member of congress doesn't need the money but in order to tsya in power need support Activities: Exs: American Medical Association

Trump's stances more closely mirrored those of European nationalist and radical right populist candidates than the views of mainstream conservatives in the US

Got free media attention from provocative statements

Two types of general election campaigns in the US today

Grassroots Mass media

Trump's presidency has cause thousands of democrats (mostly women and young) who had never been much involved in politics to enter the political area to oppose him

Grassroots campaigns - Dems have gotten millions of dollars from ordinary individuals who were mostly women & first time contributors Hav signed petitions, attended rallies and protests, and contacted public officials & run for office - March for our Lives & #MeToo

Congress

Hard to get stuff done b/c - Gridlock - So many people to represent - Unpopular, people don't trust them

Political Partys

Hard to have strong parties Have had many sys (need to know them) Parties change and evolve Should be responsible - Form policy at national level & enact it in office Responsible parties theory - Goal: Form policy at national level & enact it in office - Do so by = Have strong national party platform = Recruit candidates who support that platform = Once in office, vote/introduce bills that support platform = Intra Party democracy: all working together * Is inconsistent though Pragmatic Parties theory - Goal: Winning office, parties exist to elect candidates, take power = Recruit strong candidates, so spend less money = Agree to policy to get more voters/support = Maximize number of seats they hold = Transaction assistance: Giving candidtes money, doing research for them, & helping them get resources from donors, PACs, etc. * Develop infrastructure, money, political expertise so their candidates win ** Have strong networks = Coordinated get out the vote campaigns: get candidates together to work together = Outside spending: Independent party expenditures made without candidate knowing * Can go outside of limit * Can run more neg ads

Con of Primaries and caucuses

Harder for people to vote (Photo ID, register days before an election) Not representative b/c people who show up are activists/extremists Peer review - Idea that politicians can evaluate each other to see who can get things done, prevent abusers from getting too much power - People argue that political parties should be open to having politicians involved in process b/c they know the system

Incumbent Campaign Dynamics

Have a big lead Ideological strength helps Scandal hurts Incumbent spending ? - Unrelated or negatively related = Might not need a lot of money in order to win = If spend a lot maybe b/c close race & in trouble Challenger spending hurts Media coverage and endorsements helps National partisan tide helps If all goes poorly, mots win

Asians are smaller group than whites, latinos, or AAs

Have ed & income levels close to whites but voter turnout rates similar to latinos The diversity of them has impeded the development of group based political power - Have different political concerns stemming from their different national backgrounds & experiences in the US Historically have united most effectively around issues of ethnic discrimination or anti-Asian violence, federal immigration policies, and discriminatory mortgage loan practices

Bicameral:

Having a legislative assembly composed of two chambers or houses The framers of the Constitution intended each chamber (House + Senate) to serve a different constituency - Members of the senate, appointed by state legislatures for 6 year terms, were to represent society's elite Today members of the House + Senate are elected directly by the people - 435 members of the House are elected from districts apportioned according to pop - 100 members of the Senate are elected in a statewide vote with 2 senators from each state - Senators continue to have longer terms in office and usually represent much larger and more diverse constituencies than the House The Senate is the more deliberative of the 2 bodies, the forum in which any and all ideas that senators raise can receive a through public airing - The rules of the much smaller senate give its leadership relatively little power and discourage specialization The House is the more centralized and organized of the 2 bodies, better equipped to play a routine role in the gov process - Gives House leaders more control over the legislative process and allows members to specialize in certain legislative areas Differences in the length of terms and requirements for holding office, specified by the Constitution, generate differences in how members of each body develop their constituencies and exercise their powers of office - For the House, the small size and relative homogeneity of their constituencies and the frequency with which they seek reelection (every 2 years) make members more attuned to the legislative needs of local interest groups = Most frequently and effectively serve as the agents of well organized local interests with specific legislative agendas = They are interested in doing what their constituencies want right now - Senators serve larger and more heterogeneous constituencies so they are somewhat better able than members of the House to act as the agents for groups and interests organized on a statewide or national basis = Have 6 years in office so have more time to consider new ideas or to bring together new coalitions of interests rather than simply serving existing ones

Hillary's main opponent was Bernie who has an aggressive candidacy that gained momentum in large part through mobilizing young voters

He called for political revolution to counter political corruption, corporate influence, and inequality He was seen as more trustworthy and authentic

Presidency How to influence the president

Help him during the campaign to raise money Create/contribute to a super PAC - Trash others Represent a crucial ally (labor unions, chamber of commerce, etc) Organize a massive protest - Women's March has had huge impact on Congress Be an exemplary person - War hero

Incumbency:

Holding the political office for which one is running Once in office, members of Congress gain access to an array of tools they can use to stack the deck in favor of their reelection High rates of re-election for congressional incumbents - 98% for House member - 90% for Senate member Incumbents also usually win by large margins Incumbency can help a candidate by scaring off potential challengers - In many races potential candidates decide not to run b/c they fear that the incumbent simply has too much money or is too well known or that a districts partisan leanings are too unfavorable - The efforts of incumbents to raise funds to ward off potential challengers starts early Each political party makes a special effort to reelect incumbents viewed as especially vulnerable - Democrats (DCCC) give extra funding, choice committee assignments, and high profile speaking engagements Incumbency advantage makes it harder for women to increase their numbers in Congress b/c most incumbent are men - Women who run for open seats (seats with no incumbents) are just as likely to win as male candidates The % of incumbents who are returned to COngress after each election also depends on how many members decide to run again - b/c each year some members retire so turnover in COngress is greater than the reelection rate of incumbents suggest

3 fundamental problems of democracy

How to regulate the number of people seeking public office How to mobilize voters How to achieve and maintain the majorities needed to pass legislation once in office

Negative campaigning

Idea to get people to oppose voting - Have independence to reject person and choose you

Partisanship:

Identification with or support of a particular party or cause In the early years of the Republic, parties were seen as threats to the social order and were referred to as "factions" - Federalists believed factions pursued narrow self-interest over the broader well-being of the nation as a whole

Congress Representation

Important functions of democracy Need leighway though to make decisions

Impact of Hava

In 2002 Congress passed HAVA - Created voluntary standards for states to meet More optical & paper scans

The Democrats have built a coalition that includes women, minorities, and younger people

If repub party is to remain competitive nationally it must develop a message that appeals to voters outside its current base of older white men in America's small towns and rural areas - If it cannot find a way to expand its constituency, 2018 ay be the last time the red wall can hold back the blue wave

The possibility of a presidential veto affects how willing members of Congress are to push for different pieces of legislation at different times

If they think a proposal is likely to be vetoed, they might shelve it until a later time

In the House virtually all the time allotted by the Rules COmmittee for debate on a given bill is controlled by the bill's sponsor and by its leading opponent

In almost every case, these 2 people are the committee chair and the ranking minority member of the committee that processed the bill, or those they designate These 2 participants are y rule and tradition, granted the power to allocate most of the debate time in small amts to members who are seeking to speak for or against the measure Preference in the allocation of time goes to the members of the committee whose jurisdiction covers the bill

N the House, the relative handful of bills that are presented out of committee must pass one last hurdle within the committee systems, the Rules COmmittee which determines the rules that will govern action on the bill on the House floor

In particular the Rules Committee alloys the time for debate and amendments to the bill can be proposed from the floor

The outcome of the Rules Committee deliberations can be extremely important and the committees hearings can be an occasion for sharp conflict

In recent years the Rules COmmittee has become less powerful b/c they House leadership exercises so much influence over its decisions

Due to controversial 2000 election Congress adapted HAVA (Help Americans Vote ACT) in 2003 requiring the states to use computerized voter registration databases

In the past computerized voting machines have generally worked well and have significantly update American election sys, but all computerized sys have vulnerabilities 2016 Russian hacking has created new priority of election sys protection

Current Events

O Rourke is running for President - Lost senate race though in Texas College admissions scandal US pulling diplomats out of Venezuela

Committee staffers make up the permanent staff that stays attached to every House & Senate committee regardless of turnover in Congress and that is responsible for organizing and administering the committees work

Including doing research, scheduling, organizing hearings, and drafting legislation Can play key roles in the legislative process

Who Gets (in 2014)

Incumbents 1.7 M - Party leaders - Committee chairs - Policy entrepreneurs - More in Close races Challengers 400 K - Close races & with Political experience get more $ than other Open seats 1.4 M

Candidates always endeavor to define the issues of an election in terms that will serve their interests

Incumbents running during a period of prosperity will seek to take credit for the economy strength and will define the election as revolving around their record of success - Encourages voters to make retroprospective judgements An insurgent running during a period of economic uncertainty will tell voters it is time for a change and ask them to make prospective judgments

Sources of Campaign Funds

Individual donors - Asking for it from others - There is no limit to the number of candidates or PACs that an individual can give to PACs SOft Money - Unregulated contributions to the national parties nominally to sit in party building, voter registration efforts, and voter mobilization rather than for particular campaigns - A national political party committee may make unlimited independent expenditures advocating support for its own presidential candidate or defeating an opposing party's candidate as long as these expenditures are not coordinated with the candidates own campaign Outside Spending: Super PACs and Dark Money - Independent groups that are currently not covered by the campaign spending restrictions of 2002 but now raise much of the money used for political campaigns - These groups named for the sections of the tax code under which they are organized, can raise and spend unlimited amounts as long as their efforts are not coordinated with those of any candidates campaign Public FUnding - Candidates running as a major party in presidential primaries are eligible for public funds by raising at least $5,000 in individual contributions of $250 or less in each of 20 states = Candidates who reach this threshold may apply for federal funds to match on a dollar for dollar basis all contributions of $250 or less = But by accepting they agree to spend no more than 48.07 million in their presidential primary campaigns, including limits on using their personal funds and funds from private donors - Not mandatory - Many don't do it b/c think they can raise more on their own Unlimited Spending by Candidates of their own money - Buckley v Valeo says no limit

Once informed partisan loyalties seldom change

Individuals tend to keep their party affiliations unless some crisis causes them to reexamine the bases of their loyalties and to conclude that they have not given their support to the appropriate party Policy preferences are a second factor influencing voters choices at the polls

Caucuses

Informal orgs made by members of Congress - Not as powerful Why exist - Help members of COngress make national policy - Address specific concerns = Ex. Womens & AA most important ones Types - Population = Women, AA - Regional = Northeast & Midwest = People leaving, factories - Economic Interest = Mushroom, Auto (fought safety measures like pollution), textile

Most President make every effort to take potential Senate opposition into account in treaty negotiations with foreign powers

Instead of treaties, presidents frequently resort to executive agreements that do not need Senate approval

Supporters of the independent commision idea opposed gerrymandering whether bipartisan or partisan and favor a level electoral playing field

Interestingly, voters in some solidly red states approved progressive ballot initiatives while voters in some slightly blue states approved initiatives generally associated with conservative forces

Parties form in two ways

Internal mobilization: Occurs when political conflicts prompt officials and competing factions within gov to mobilize pop support - Federalists & Anti federalists formed this way, were the first national parties External mobilization: Takes place when a group of politicians outside of gov organizes pop support to win gov power - 1850s creation of Republican party

Conference committee:

Joint committees created to work out a compromise on House and Senate versions of a piece of legislation Temporary committees whose members are appointed by the Speaker of the House and the presiding officer of the Senate Are charged with reaching a compromise on legislation once it has been passed by the House and the Senate Play an extremely important role in determining the laws that are actually passed b/c they must reconcile any differences in the legislation passed by the House and the Senate When control of Congress is divided between 2 parties, each is guaranteed significant rep in conference committees - When a single party controls both houses, the majority party is not obligated to offer such rep to the minority party Since 2010 have ping-ponged, meaning Rep House & Dem Senate have exchanged amendments as they sought to reach agreements on the final version of a bill

Participatory nominations

Key is that candidate decides to run, they raise money, they org, they get volunteers & consultants, they win, & then they try to get more support or enact change that citizens want All on free will

At each stage of the legislative process Congress relies on committees and subcommittees to do the hard work of sorting through alternatives and writing legislation

Kinds of congressional committees - Standing - Select - Joint - Conference

Senate

Larger & diverse constituencies Moderate views + bills Approving treaties and appointments & advising president

Why voting rates are lower for Latinos compared to whites and AAs

Latinos are recent immigrants to this country and thus have fewer opportunities such as access to a quality ed than do other ethnic and racial groups They are more likely to lack resources for participation in politics such as money, time, and language skills

Latinos

Latinos are viewed as a political group of critical importance b/c largest and fastest growing minority in the US Latinos tend to be religious which may be expected to make them more socially conservative - But it is often found that they do not allow their religious beliefs to dictate their political decisions Latinos also favor an easier path to citizenship for immigrants & more liberal economic policies - They are also more likely to vote if their state legislature or COngress is representative of them - As continues to grow may influence more strongly who wins and who loses in US elections

Congress has vast authority over many aspects of American life

Laws related to federal spending, taxing, regulation, and federal judicial appointments all pass through Congress

Once a bill is debated on the floor of the House & senate the leaders schedule it for a vote on the floor of each chamber

Leaders do not bring legislation to the floor unless they are fairly certain it is going to pass On rare occasions the last moments of the floors vote can be very dramatic as each party's leadership puts its whip org into action to make sure that wavering members vote with the party

Term limit:

Legally prescribed limits on the number of terms an elected official can serve Supporters say only way to get new faces into Congress - Believe that incumbency advantage and the tendency of many legislators to view politics as a career mean that very little turnover will occur in Congress unless limits are imposed on the number of terms a legislator may serve

Joint committees:

Legislative committees formed of members of both the House and Senate 4 committees: economic, taxation, library, & printing Are permanent but do not have the power to present legislation The Joint Economic Committee and the Joint taxation Committee have often played important roles in collecting info and holding hearings on economic and financial issues

Staff agencies:

Legislative support agencies responsible for policy analysis Designed to provide the legislative branch with resources and expertise independent of the executive branch Enhance Congress capacity to oversee administrative agencies and to evaluate presidential programs and proposals Includes the - Congressional Research Service which performs research for legislators who wish to know the facts and competing arguments relevant to policy proposals or other legislative business - Gov Accountability Office through which Congress can investigate the financial and administrative affairs of any gov agency or program - Congressional Budget office which assesses the economic implications and likely costs of proposed fed programs

Staffers often bear the primary responsibility for formulating and drafting proposal, organizing hearings, dealing with administrative agencies, and negotiating with lobbyists

Legislator typically deal with one another through staff rather than through direct personal contact They even develop policy ideas, draft legislation, and in some instances, have a good deal of influence over the legislative process

Presidency Isolation

Live in a fishbowl, rely on others for everything that they know Limited info leads to poor decisions Cause of not enough info - Everyone around you is a power seeker so they want to please the president = Surround yourself with people who agree with your views, president tolds what he wants to hear Exs. - JFK told by everyone that Cuba hates Castro so will be easy to overthrow - Nixon thought Watergate would go away but media prosecuted him - LBJ thought Vietnam would be easy to win but we lost Ways to address it - Key to having active & involved President who reaches out of White House for info = Talking to people who don't agree with them or want power = Breaking bubble

Logrolling

Logrolling: A legislative practice whereby agreements are made between legislators in voting for or against a bill; vote trading - An agreement between 2 or more members of Congress who have nothing in common except the need for support Since party leaders are the center of the communications networks in the 2 chambers they can help members create large logrolling coalitions Can produce strange alliances

Strategies for Elections

Long process - Test water & travel country - Raise money Complicated - Deadlines, rules that vary by state & party Goal to be person who shows up at convention with majority of delegates - Pick running mate to get more votes When run for public office don't really get publicly funding - Job to become #1 candidate within party to attract others - Then leader overall: Become associated with someone who is an icon from the faction (R: Ronald Reagan, Billie grant) - Align policy issues with theirs Stand Out in crowd - Entertainment beats policy - Good communication Attack other leaders - Create effective chants, slogans Consistency mobilizes voters - Issues, themes, imagery shouldn't contradict Good communication -TV ads on certain stations, radio, social media & internet, mail = Can easily target people = Most effective way to get a vote is personal contact * Easy for local candidates * Hard for national candidates - Phases of Campaigns = Bio * Introduce yourself, characteristics = Issue * Workers rights, economy, etc. = Attack/comparison * Most memorable * Pretty nasty = Short * Come together and do right thing Need to mobilize people - Get data on them, study them, & repeatedly contact them

Multivariate Hypothesis

Looked at different things to see how something might affect errors: digital divide - Computer use, ed, age, language, gender, race & ethnicity Previous voting experience - Sys voted on - Voted previously Partisanship - Strength = more knowledge = get it right

Caucuses are essentially party business meetings

Lowest level = Precinct caucuses: are meeting of registered voters within a local geographic area who are members of the same political party - Purpose is to elect delegates to county assemblies

Russia hacked election

Main goal to sow discord in the US by promoting an inflammatory discourse on such matters as race, religion, gun control and police shootings of black men Would tweet from both sides but eventually supported TRump Many americans pissed - Wondered if trump administration knew = FBI investigation has resulted in 6 Trump campaign officials being indicted for various federal crimes and violations of campaign laws * Trump said it was a witch hunt * Still ongoing

Even though the party convention no longer controls presidential nominations, it still has a number of important tasks

Makes the rules concerning delegate selection and future presidential primary elections Drafts the party platform An opportunity for the party to showcase its candidate in anticipation of the upcoming general election

In US have to register before voting, but some allow same day

Many are not voting b/c not registered - Process can be harder than actually voting - Or once have knowledge about candidates, past deadline of month before election to register Registration requirements not only reduce the number of people who vote but also tends to create an electorate that is on average, better educated, more affluent, older, and whiter than the citizenry as a whole

Frequently the committee and subcommittee do little or nothing with a bill that has been submitted to them

Many bills are simply allowed to die in committee without serious consideration - In a typical congressional session 80-90% of more than 10,000 bills introduced die Other pieces of legislation have ardent supporters and die in committee only after a long battle

Often members of Congress introduce legislation that they neither expect nor even desire to see enacted into law but present mainly to please a constituency groups by taking a stand

Many such bills are of narrow interests or stand little chance of passing given the political climate

Elective College Pros

Matthew effect - Inflates size of majority so get more mandate to govern Minimizes fraud - Each state oversees its own elections, counts its own votes, and then casts electoral votes - It's isolated b/c not every individual vote count, its electoral vote which is chunk of votes Need to win plurality of votes in each states in order to win majority of electoral college votes - Have to win enough votes in each state in order to get its electoral votes (270 total electoral votes, need to win combo of 51 elections) = Need votes from all around the country from all different kinds of interests = Aka appeal to moderate people - Concurrent majority: Majority made up of pluralities

Hart InterCivic eState

Mechanical buttons and dial for navigation and candidate selection Impossible to overvote Highlights undervotes

Modern Congress Job description

Members of COngress are locally elected officials who make national policy - House = congressional district - Senate = entire state Do this through legislation, representation, oversight of bureaucracy (executive branch), education - If do a good job then ensuring reelection Typical day in the life - 8am - 8 pm = Study until 12 am - Constantly meeting with constituents, subcommittees, House members, interest groups, party group members, campaign contributors - Floor votes at the last minute - A lot of time is also dedicated to research = Need to know info going into meetings

Modern Congress District orientation

Members of congress have offices in their home districts - Directors = Meet people on your behalf, pay attention to local problems - Receptionist Defining constituents (Who do Members of Congress actually represent & respond to) - Legal/geographic = their official district or state - Reelection = Who actually voted for him/her = People known as the "base" - Campaign activists = People who support or oppose specific political issues = Have a lot of intense emotions & high political knowledge - Friends & informants = Inside circle = Local leaders = If do this though only representing views of small elite group Maintaining and attracting support - Constituent relations = Being active in their lives, helping them - Advertising = Build brand name = Emphasize experience, knowledge = Build confidence & trust = Send out newsletters, surveys = Have website, make media appearance and events = Go to public events - Credit claiming = Create belief that you are responsible for something good the fed gov did, even if not - Position taking = Find issues you & your constituents deeply care about = Publicly announce positions, publicize votes in congress = Intro or cosponsor bills in congress

The first step in getting a law passed is drafting legislation

Members of congress, the White House, and fed agencies all take roles in developing and drafting initial legislation

Soft money:

Money contributed directly to political parties and other organizations for political activities, such as voter mobilization drives, that is not regulated by federal campaign spending laws Get this through Super Pacs which promote & publicize political issues, including airing negative ads - Considered nonprofit political advocacy groups - Can raise or spend unlimited amounts of money as long as their activities are not coordinated with those of the formal party orgs and if their aim is to inform the public and increase voter turnout - B/c wealthy funders, corporations, and even foreign donors can mask their identity by forming Super PACS, they have been associated with corruption Each party also forms House & Senate campaign committees - Made up of members of each chamber that are expected to raise a certain sum of money and doing so allows them to move up in the power structure

Over the years Congress has reformed its org structure and operating procedures

Most changes have been made to improve efficiency, but some reforms have also been a response to political considerations A a consequence of these changes committees no longer have the central role they once hold in policy making Sharp partisan divisions have made it difficult for committees to deliberate and bring bipartisan expertise to bear on policy making as in the past - With committees less able to engage in effective decision making, they typically do not deliberate for very long or call witnesses, and it has become more common in recent years for party driven legislation to go directly to the floor, bypassing committees altogether Nonetheless committees continue to play a role in the legislative process, especially on issues that are not sharply partisan

Open Seat Dynamics

Most competitive contests Strategy (targeting/issues) helps Candidate spending helps Opponent spending hurts Media coverage/endorsements helps Outside spending helps National partisan tides helps

Candidates personal attributes can influence voters decisions

Most important are race, ethnicity, religion, gender, geography, and socio-economic background - Vote for people you think have similar beliefs as you - But can also be repulsed by this = Ex. Women Also pay attention to decisiveness, honesty, & vigor - Are they trustworthy? The Democratic camp includes different varieties of liberal opinion ranging from traditional social welfare liberalism (New Deal stuff) to left liberal progressivism (which envisions a substantially expanded role for the fed gov) The Republican camp includes many shades of conservative opinion ranging from business conservatives who support reducing gov regulation and taxes, to social conservatives who oppose abortion and same sex marriage

Access to the floor

Most important everyday resource available to parties With thousands of bills awaiting passage and most members clamoring for access in order to influence a bill or publicize themselves, floor time is precious - Floor time is allocated in both houses of Congress by the majority and minority leaders The speaker of the house and the majority leader in the Senate possess the power of recognition - Can be used to stymie a piece of legislation completely or frustrate a members attempts to speak on a particular issue - b/c the power is significant, members of Congress usually attempt to stay on good terms with the Speaker and the majority leader to ensure they will continue to be recognized - Usually done with freshman or vulnerable members to protect them

Candidate Assets

Most likely still in power/have vote b/c incumbent

Who Runs, who Wins?

Most white male, affluent middle age churchgoers - Due to incumbency advantages = Few win so low turnover Look at candidate pool: Women in 2014 - 51% of US pop - Only 17% ran for candidates = 19% won general election and house membership - Run less b/c = taking care of family = Highly scrutinized, not taken seriously * Treated differently than men = Men usually pressured to do so b/c mostly in positions of power = Women seen as bossy vs men seen as leadership = Less in stepping stones to power (legislative bodies, law school) * But changing now Women in 2018 - 51% of US Pop - 24% are now house members - Mostly democratic = b/c republicans policy issues run against women rights to choose = More compassionate to social issues = Have a better chance of winning * Like diversity, more welcoming * Huge supportive network of women (Emily's List seeks women to run)

Current Event

Mueller report found not enough evidence of collusion between Trump & Russia to prosecute - But could still be charged with obstruction of justice Supreme Court case that has to due with redistricting - Whether politician should be able to draw lines that max party voters so get better chance of being reelected

A formal organization and professional campaign managers are critical for campaign success

Need professional campaign manager, media consultants, pollsters, and a data analytics teams, financial advisers, press spokesperson, staff directors to coordinate the activities of volunteer and paid workers Consultants offer candidates the expertise necessary to craft appealing campaign messages, conduct accurate opinion polls. Produce TV & social media ads, organize direct mail campaigns, open field offices, and leverage valuable information about their constituents from massive digital voter files or from surveys

Political Parties are important

Networks of who gives to whom

5th Party Sys:

New Deal, Gov helps the working class From the perspective of millions of Americans, the Republican party did not do enough to promote economic recovery when millions of Americans were starving and without jobs Under the New Deal the size of America's national gov increased substantially - responsibility for economic management and social welfare grew - Gov took active role in lives of Americans providing unemployment benefits, jobs, food, etc Democratic party rebuilt around unionized workers, upper middle class intellectuals & professionals, southern farmers, Jews, Catholics, and AAs - Become nation's majority party for next almost 4 decades Republicans ended up supporting popular New Deal programs like Social Security Became strained during 1960s conflicts over civil rights and the Vietnam War - The struggle over civil rights initially divided northern Democrats who supported the cause from white southern Democrats who defended the sys of racial segregation The struggle over the VIetnam War further divided the Democrats with upper income liberal Democrats strongly opposing the Johnson administration's decision to greatly expand the numbers of US troops fighting in Southeast Asia

Focus group

Not polls, no scientific sampling Conversations - Find out what people know Good for fine tuning campaign messages 20 people in a room - Want to make them diverse but sometimes pick certain groups on purpose to influence - Pay them Give them info (candidates issues, background, ads) and ask what they like or what could be better

Presidency Power

Not what's in the constitution - What amount of influence he has Has grown b/c - Have become global powerhouse - Foreign policy is more complex = More danger Policy area - Foreign affairs and national security have lots of power = Survival of nation at stake - Aggregate economies have less power = Health of economy = President might set game plan but that's it - Domestic policies will be challenged, little power = Law enforcement, subsidies, etc are powers shared with Congress Roles - Crisis manager = Rally around the flag = Everyone looks to him for leadership when have crisis - Program designer = Agenda through state of union speech - Recruiter of elites = Help him exercise power = But dangerous b/c president can surround himself with people of the same point of view - Coalition builder = Can get people from all over to back his positions Strategies - Persuasion = President has to work with individuals/groups that want more or look up to him for leadership * Has to work with staff members or Congress or else will just walk out ** Others have their own goals & constituents = Do so by helping others pursue their agendas so they will help your agendas * Can focus on legislation, get info, use party leader to convince others, chief legislator, etc = Involves direct contact with people in power - Going public = Look to president for things to go well = More popular president = less support for competitors = less difference of opinion = War, natural disasters, economy, etc. all effect popularity = Using media to press pressure on decision makers * Radio, interviews, etc

Partisan gerrymandering:

Occurs when politicians from one party intentionally manipulate the boundaries for legislative election districts to disadvantage their political opponents chance of winning an election and advantage their own political party Claim these techniques go against principle of one person one vote Others believe that the process of legislative redistricting is by nature political and parties strategically drawing district to gain an advantage is part of the electoral game The fed gov has often supported congressional districts made up primarily of minority groups, a practice intended to increase the number of AAs and Latinos elected to public office in accordance with the 1965 Voting Rights Act

Party Leadership

Officers - House = Speaker = Nancy Pelosi = Dem * Majority leader * Majority whip * Etc. = Repu * Minority leader * Minority whip * Etc. - Senate = Similar but president pro tempore instead of speaker Tasks - House = Enforce laws but protect own positions and power - Senate = Informal, less rule bound, more personal - Coordinate individuals in committees/sub in order to pass legislation, get representation, oversee bureaucracy (executive branch), & educate = Help party to get as many positions as possible in next election Resources - Committee assignments - Set agenda for congress - Mobilize members to show up for votes - Maintain liaisons with the president - Persuade members to support policies Key Resources: - Control of chamber = Party leadership decides where bill goes * Can easily get rid of unwanted one - Control rules of debate = What can be debated or amended = When votes happen, how long period is - Control tangible & intangible rewards = Committee assignment, intro a bill on the floor = tangible = Intangible = Social contacts * Where park car, go out to eat with people, cocktail parties * Someone is watching out for you - Dominate internal communications = Collect info on who stands on what legislation, surveillance others and then spread it to influence other members - Reelection = Party members raise money for rising stars Influence on policy making (roll call votes): Currently have 95% party unity - Unusual but high when = High leadership activity = When issues more procedural than opinion = Low visibility issue * Surprise laws * Vote secretly - What influences how people vote is = Party membership = Geography & demographic * What is your constituency = Who is President * Follow his policies = Pressures from interest groups * Want campaign contributions = Experts * Surround members Implications - Congress is very open - Can easily influence parties

Party Column Ballot

Offices on top but parties vertical CT uses a party row ballot with offices on top but parties horizontal

New Politics of Campaign Finance

Old: Candidates campaign committees - Raised most of their money New: Outside spending groups - Corportsions, trade associations, union, politically active social welfare groups 501 Cs = Can't contribute to candidates but can advocate for them through ads - Super PACs = Rights of people, money considered speech = Independent expenditure only committee that can raise money from anywhere and spend how they want - Limited liability = Get to be creative to influence election 2016 presidential election - Candidates spent 1.5 B = Clinton spent the most - Groups supporting them 30% total (618 mill)

Younger voters primarily using streaming services

Older are using cable/satellite Now have ads on many different platforms to try to reach broader audience

Criticism of partises

On economic issues both Democrats & republican parties are more responsive to the preferences of the upper and middle classes and ignore the policy wishes of the lower class - Known as unequal democracy They are controlled more by interest groups and wealthy campaign donors than by politicians and the public - Parties may take advantage of the public's lack of attention to politics to promote their own agenda

The seriousness with which members of the House attempt to behave as reps can be seen in the amount of time they spend on behalf of their constituents

On way to measure this is to look at the % of personal (non committee member) House & senate staff assigned to district & state offices Handle correspondence, talk to constituents & provide them with minor services, present special bills for them, attempt to influence decisions by a regulatory commission on their behalf, help them apply for federal benefits such as Social Security and Small Business Ad loans, and assist them with immigration cases

The final steps in passing a law is presidential approval

Once adopted by the House & Senate, a bill goes to the president who may choose to sign the bill into law or veto it If the president does not sign the bill or veto it within 10 days and Congress is in session, the bill automatically becomes law

Politicians spend most of their time fundraising and appealing to both large and small donors

Once elected to office members of Congress find it much easier to raise campaign funds and are thus able to outspend their challengers - Most business & corporation, interest group contributions, and PAC money donations go to incumbents - Makes sense b/c people want to invest in someone who will win Members of the majority party in the House & Senate are particularly attractive to donors who want access to those in power

In the Senate the leadership has much less control over floor debate

Once given the floor, a senator may speak as long as she wishes On a number of occasions senators have used this opportunity to prevent action of legislation that they opposed

Candidates also benefit from free media where the cost of airtime is borne by the media themselves when the media cover the candidates statements and activities as news

Online media is free & has become a major weapon in modern political campaigns as more Americans turn to the internet and social media for news Effective b/c inexpensive & can watch uninterrupted (no ads)

Modern Congress Washington orientation

Open legislature - Public can access it Lots of meetings - Inside congress = Staff, committee members, party members, tasks forces, other members from your state - Outside congress = President & executive branch, interest group leaders, & constituents - Want to know what other people are doing = Reviewing each other Meetings at floor debates, committee hearings, etc

Office Bloc Ballot

Organized by office

Political Parties:

Organized groups that attempt to influence the gov by electing their members to important gov offices They mobilize people to participate in the political arena and to vote They convey info about what policies candidates support - Simplify complex policy debates for citizens & elected officials Ensure public vice is heard in policy debates Seeks to control the gov by nominating candidates and electing its members to office - Interest groups do not control the operation of gov and its personnel but rather try to influence gov policies, often through lobbying elected official and contributing to campaigns Core feature of the American political sys - Were not originally envisioned by the Founders How gov & citizens influence each other Must be competitive and responsible - Once in power must enact laws that represent their members' interests

Leadership pacs

Orgs that members of COngress use to raise funds that they then distribute to other members of their party running for election Money can be directed to the most vulnerable candidates or to candidates who are having trouble raising money

Nomination contests Evolution of process

Originally political parties were like factions - After Washington got King Caucuses (derogatory term) = Members of Congress who got together who elected people thye like Around 1820s had state legislatures caucuses to push nominees forward 1832 first national general election 1930s Intro of primaries during progressive era - Go to polling places and vote = But voted for delegates supporting candidates = Were beauty contests, if won first place state could still choose someone else = Voters were brokered between party bosses in big cities 1970s challenge of authorities - Protesters said primaries didn't mean anything & not everyone could participate - 1972 Dems instituted party reform = Set up new nomination system = Had participatory primaries & caucuses (means any dem could participate) = Delegates selected to pick presidential nominee at convention were required to cast vote there * There had to demographic proportional rep at convention (AA, women, young) 1980s created superdelegates - Are people that have honorary positions in the party and have free will to vote - Some committed early to help the candidate they liked get ahead Takeaway - Party reform took place within Dem Party - Dem reform has contagious effect that affected republicans through dem laws (Since dominated congress) & made them change their reps (less middle aged white men) Now - Have binding primaries & caucuses

In some states felons on probation or parole are not permitted to vote, but rights are restored automatically after parole or probation is complete in some states

Other its suspended forever or never suspended Disproportionately affects AAs and Latinos

Husky Poll

Our class is more liberal than 2015, think US is off track - 62% of republicans thinks wrong track = Shows how party ID constructs opinion Approval of trump? - 16% approve - 2015 Obama 63% approved Most important problem facing country - Gov, political leadership = #1 at 30% = Mostly democrats - Immigration = #2 at 16% = Mostly republicans = Believe democrats stronger with this issue - Economy = #3 at 10% = Believe republicans stronger with this issue What is your party ID - 46% dem - 16% repub - 29% indep Governor of CT = Lamont Chief Justice of US = John Roberts Speaker of House = Nancy Pelosi All public opinion polls have decreased in accuracy because of response issue

It's not always a race between 2 candidates

Outside money can shift spending balance In 2014 - 18 house races where parties and interest groups outspent candidates - 9 senate races where parties and interest groups outspent candidates - Quality of rep sucks b/c just neg ads, not from candidates trying to show policies

Who Gives

PACs Political parties Party politicians - Leaders in party Individuals - Small $ from district and elsewhere - Large $ from the wealthy areas = Major cities

Mass media

Part of strategic environment and an actor Actors b/c - Has own goals to make money (are profit driven) by breaking & making news - Many on one side (Fox, CNN, etc.) = Interpret why things happen and what will happen - Infotainment = Fake News - Media personalities = Trying to start up controversy = Catching people do crazy stuff Strategic environment b/c - Can be manipulated by telling them specific info & making friends to spread idea = Better workers rights means friendship with factories = Give them unique opportunity to break the news

Protest:

Participation that involves assembling crowds to confront a gov or other official org Vast majority of American reject rioting or violence for political ends Peaceful protected by 1st Amendment & recognized as a legitimate and important form of political activity - Have been employed by groups across the political spectrum Often lead to action and remain a common form of political participation across the ideological spectrum Participate to attract media attention, raise public awareness, and send a message to politicians about the policies they enact

Weak parties

Parties do not fully control any part of political sys - Just influence political behavior Not all voters identify with parties Parties can not give out nomination b/c unfair Parties can't run campaigns b/c not enough resources Parties can't control who wins their nominations Issue of political culture

Third parties:

Parties that organize to compete against the two major American political parties Usually represent social & economic interests not given voice by 2 major parties Can influence election Almost always lose at national level so exist as protest movement against the 2 parties or to promote specific issues Are sources of new ideas & party realignment, and they can profoundly affect elections, taking votes from one of the major parties and enabling the other to win Republican Party was the only American third party to make itself permanent, replaced the Whigs Third parties usually have short lives b/c their policies are adopted into major parties Most presidential elections wons through plurality, not majority (over 50% of votes) The failure to secure majorities may continue in the future with the rise of independent candidates and dissatisfaction with the two major political parties Proponents of election reform argue that 2 major parties are not sufficient to represent the varied interests of America's 320 million people Those who favor a stronger role for 3rd parties argue that states should make it easier to get on the ballot Supporters of the current sys say that America's two party system creates stability in governing and prevents the need for a coalition gov where multiple small parties work together to form a majority to govern Ranked choice voting is a form of instant runoff voting in that it guarantees that the winner of an election has support from a majority of those voting in the election, rather than a plurality - May reduce party polarization and increase opportunities for third parties - Rank candidates from most to least preferred - Eliminates the spoiler effect

Party activists:

Partisans who contribute time, energy, and effort to support their party and its candidates Tend to be more ideologically extreme than average person from party Don't just vote but also contribute, time, money, and effort to party affairs, org, and elections

The next step in getting a law passed is debate on the floor of the House and Senate

Party control of the agenda is reinforced by the rule giving the Speaker of the House and the president of the Senate the power of recognition during debate on a bill Usually the chair knows the purpose for which a member intends to speak well in advance of the occasion Spontaneous efforts to gain recognition are often foiled

Committee assignments

Party leaders can create debts among members by helping them get favorable committee assignments These assignments are made early in the congressional careers of most members and cannot be taken from them if they later balk at party discipline Id the leadership goes out of its way to get the right assignment for a member, this effort is likely to create a bond of obligation that can be called on without any other payments or favors

The influence of constituencies is so pervasive that both parties generally agree that nothing should be done to endanger the re-election chances of any member

Party leaders obey this rule fairly consistently by not asking any member to vote in a way they might conflict with a district interest

Selection bias:

Polling error that arises when the sample is not representative of the pop being studied, which creates errors in overrepresenting or underrepresenting some opinions

In addition to voting citizens can give money to candidates or political orgs, volunteer to work on campaigns, contact political officials, sign petitions, attend public meetings, join orgs, display campaign signs and pins, write letter to the editor, attend rallies, lobby reps in COngress, sue the gov, run for elected office, etc

People can convey their specific opinions & more info than voting can Generally require more time, effort, and/or money than voting The % of the pop that participates in ways other than voting is relatively low

What include in Ads

Personal - Positive portrayal - goals to fix in office - Convey sense of who person is = Fighter, strong, local person, family person, american dream/bootstraps story, etc - Hide his weaknesses - Accomplishments have already done Values - Core beliefs - What is his or her motivation to act - Connect to faith, family, community values Issues - Vision - Why fighting - Align candidate with the solutions voters seek Negative ads - Bar is higher - Hate them but they are the most convincing - Use credibility of others, imagery and personal stories to connect with voters on a gut level - Humor or emotion can ruin it so be careful - Can backfire on the attacker unless = Carefully created = Factually correct = Reinforces a perceived weakness of your opponent Digital - A video ad viewed 4-6 times online cn equate to an ad viewed 12-18 times times on TV = People absorb TV differently = For youtube deliver message in first 6 secs in case person skips * Sometimes don't get option to skip and show it 2 or 3 times and then do last time for only like 6 seconds ** Very effective

Grassroots campaigns:

Political campaigns that operate at the local level, often using face to face communication to generate interest and momentum by citizens Organizationally driven & labor intensive Recruit large numbers of volunteers to knock on doors, hand out leaflets, and organize rallies

501(c)(4) committees (dark money):

Politically active nonprofits Under federal law, these nonprofits can spend unlimited amounts on political campaigns and not disclose their donors as long as their activities are not coordinated with the candidate campaigns and political activities are not their primary purpose - A nonprofit that also engages in campaign advocacy but may not spend more than half its revenue for political purposes - Not required to disclose where it gets its funds or exactly what it does with them = Reason why called dark money = Has raised growing concerns that the lack of transparency in campaign funding threatens fair elections (idea that can buy an election) * Many use 501 to avoid legal limits

Sampling error/margin of error:

Polling error that arises based on the small size of the sample The chance that the sample used does not accurately represent the pop from which it is drawn Even with a good sample design, surveys may fail to reflect the true distribution of opinion within a target pop - One error could be from the wording of questions or format

To be competitive a candidate must use random sample public opinion polls to gauge public support

Polls of likely voters are conducted throughout most political campaigns These polls provide the basic information that candidates and their staff use to craft campaign messages and strategies Access the candidate's strengths and weaknesses and those of the opposition & measure voter responses to the campaign

Exit Polls

Polls taken on election day to speculate about the vote & why people voted the way they did Choose election precincts and go to them at times and interview people that will give rep sample - Working class, high class, city, coast

4th Party Sys:

Populism & Republican Responses 1890s Profound and rapid social and economic changes led to the emergence of a variety of protest parties, including the Populist Party which had support from the South & West Appealed mainly to small farmers but also attracted western mining interests and urban workers In 1896 it effectively merged with the Democrats - Seen as radicals by the Republicans The Grand Old Party/Republicans dominated for next almost 4 decades with support from heavily pop northern & midwestern states - Were pro business, advocating law taxes, high tariffs on imports, and a min of gov regulation

Generally speaking American national elections follow a pattern sometimes called the cycle of surge and decline

Power shifts from dem to rep

Inherent powers:

Powers claimed by a president that are not expressed in the Constitution but are inferred from it

Implied powers:

Powers derived from the necessary and proper clause of Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution; such powers are not specifically expressed but are implied through the expansive interpretation of delegated powers

Presidency Success

President's abilities to get policies enacted and leave a lasting mark on American politics in society - George Washington set tradition of giving away power in peaceful manner - Abraham Lincoln defined what it is to be a human being - FDR redefined role of American gov - Reagan redefined how people think of gov (too invasive) Influenced by - If have a lot of popularity from very beginning of victory then have better chance - Composition of congress and US = If party controls then can get lot of legislation through - Bureaucracy = Many policies now privately overseen so have bias towards republicans - Economic Prosperity & peace = Americans happier when we are - Crisis = Disasters can destroy presidencies or allow for greatness - Personality & character

Presidential elections have special rules b/c they are the only public office in the US elected by all US citizens/electoral college votes

Presidential candidates from the two major parties are officially nominated at the parties' national conventions, following a series, following a series of state by state primary elections and caucuses to select delegates to the conventions

A veto override says much about the support that a president expect from Congress and it can deliver a stinging blow to the executive branch

Presidents will often back down from a veto threat if they believe that Congress will override the veto

Campaign Finance

Public vs private funding - For pres elections have public money - Don't use public $ for pres election b/c = amount has not increased in proportion of campaigns * Not enough = Opponent can rise & spend more = Spending in elections isn't as clear now b/c campaign finance sys is unpredictable * Need to be ready if super PACs release ad last minute ** In super PACs can get as much money as possible Nomination matching fund sys - Last used 2000 (GOre) General Election Public Funding - Last used by both major party candidates in 2004 - Last used by John McCain in 2008 Outside money

Not "push polls"

Push polls don't measure public opinion, are negative campaigning Might sound like normal survey question & then given you negative info Advertisements

Concentrated poverty:

Racial segregation & persistence of black urban poverty - If AAs and whites were equal socioeconomically then AAs would be more likely to vote

Voting behavior

Rational choice theory - Cost benefit calcs = Benefit= get what you want, might of made a difference in the country = Costs = register, get to polls early, sit through a lot of info, people might not follow through with promises Behavioral approaches - Columbia School came up with = Social determinism: COmmunity affects how you see things, what you do * Habits/beliefs enforced by those you talk to - Michigan School came up with = Social sociological theory: Emphasis on party identification * Will probably vote due to funnel casualty Short term factors - Political campaigns = Vote for your party b/c of what you have seen & interpreted * How you act on things - Vote for not #1 candidate but one that stole spot from #1 b/c is better than other guy Long term factors - Party ID formation from background Used modern survey research

Originally presidential nominations were controlled by each party's congressional caucus (all party members in the House and the Senate)

Referred to as the King caucus and charged that it did not fairly represent the views of party members throughout the nation so was replaced by national party conventions - Became the decisive institution in the presidential nominating processes of the two major parties - Composed of delegates from each state who pledge loyalty to different presidential candidates, the convention was a deliberative body in which party elites argued, negotiated, & eventually chose a single candidate to support In 20th century changed to direct primary elections to choose presidential candidates, enabling average citizens to have a voice in picking their president - If one candidate does not win a majority of delegates, a second ballot is issued, and delegates can choose to vote for a different candidate

Congress Functions and design

Representation Education Legislation - Liberation, policy formation, coalition building, lawmaking Oversight of Executive branch Framers didn't want something absolutely representative or responsive - Gridlock, diversity of reps - Prevent tyranny of majority

Congress frequent inability to divide reflects the deep ideological differences that separate the 2 parties

Reps & dems are now more polarized than at any time in the last century Dems have become more liberal & repubs or conservative on issues related to the economy & role of gov

In many districts, there are 2 or 3 issues that are top priorities for constituents and therefore the reps

Reps are probably fearful of voting against their district interests but the districts are unlikely to have elected reps who would want to vote against them On many issues constituents do not have very strong views and rep are free to act as they think best - Foreign policy issues often fall into this category

The battle over the Kavanaugh appointment convinced Republicans that they needed to fight hard to retain control of Congress

Reps saw the accusations as false and politically motivated But with all of his updates on national & domestic stuff, people embraced Trump

Are both strategists & artists

Researchers Made ads to make people think about issue & candidate - Encourage them to go out and vote Always having to come up with more creative ways to challenge voters

Party unity strong today due to party polarization pn high profile issues like abortion, health care, and financial reform

Rises when congressional leaders try to put a partisan stamp on legislation Is based on ideology and background - Republican House members are more likely than Dems to have been elected by rural or suburban districts - Dem are likely to more liberal on economic and social questions than their Republican colleagues in both houses - These differences help explain roll call division between the 2 parties Also has to do with party org and leadership - Can reward loyal members who who vote with the party through = Leadership pacs = Committee assignments = Access to the floor = Whip sys = Logrolling = Presidency

County caucuses:

Same process which elect members to represent their preferences at the district caucuses and finally for the state assembly Citizens attending local caucuses end up election delegates to statewide conventions, which is where delegate to the national party conventions are chosen Give party leaders & activists a larger role in selecting candidates for public office

Ballot measure have been found to increase voter turnout, especially in lower profile, midterm elections

Same with controversial candidates/policy issues (marijuana legalization, death penalty, etc) - Known as educative effects of direct democracy as voters are forced to make a yes or no choice on the policy issue

In 2014 had continued change in technology

Scared of computer hacking

Public opinion polls:

Scientific instruments for measuring public opinion Public officials use these to help them decide whether to run for office, what policies to support, how to vote on important legislation, and what types of appeals to make in their campaigns

Expressed powers:

Specific powers granted by the Constitution to Congress (Article I, Section B) and to the president (Article II)

Elective College Cons

Seen as undemocratic b/c unequal - States rep based on # of members in congress, CT has 7 but California has 55, California is overrepresented - Senators for CT = 2, small states overrepresented b/c can get pop vote but lose in electoral college - Electoral college votes are winner takes all B/c can become president as long as just get majority of electoral college vote - Don't need majority of pop vote Elitists - Elites cast in vote - Elector Problem: 7 electors (states) voted against the people's choice for president in 2018

Straight ticket vote:

Selecting candidates from the same political party for all offices on the ballot In 20th century got new ballot called Australian/long form ballot which was prepared & administered by the gov rather than political parties - Each ballot was identical & included the names of all candidates running for public office - Made it possible for voters to make their choices on the merits of the individual candidates, rather than the overall party and to have their choice of candidates be private Lead to split ticketing where voters support candidates from more than one party in the same election

Candidate Centered Election

Self selected, nominated Own organization & message Why - Institutions, laws, participatory nominations, weak parties, political culture, technology Supporting cast (for some, mostly incumbents) - Party committees = Put resources behind candidates they are interested in = Want more seats in congress - Interest groups = Put resources behind candidates they are interested in = Want to have access to policy

Political institutions

Separation of powers Bicameralism Checks & Balances Federalism

ES&S Model 100

Similar to CT Can cast a flawed ballot, will accept it No warnings or undervotes - Don't fill stuff in Warnings for overvotes Intake similar to fax machine Paper ballot

Political Parties

Simplify elections - Give general info on what candidates stand for Political accountability Campaign - Influence political agenda - Tells voters what they promise, attract them Represent broad interests - Mobilize majorities to win Organize gov - Leadership is taken over in branches Structure elite and citizen political activity - Elites donate, citizens vote Promote continuity and change in gov - Norms, traditions - Socialize voters Make modern democracy workable - Central to sys

House

Smaller & homogeneous constituencies Revenue bills & taxes

Agents of socialization:

Social institutions, including families and schools, that help to shape individuals' basic political beliefs and values Opinions from family, social networks, ed, membership in social groups, religion, party affiliation, self interest, & political environment Experiences (background, environmental & social factors) & influences that are unique to each individual play a role in shaping political orientation - Important mentor or traumatic event or personality characteristic (paranoia) Difference in family background tend to produce divergent political perspectives - Absorb political views of parents often without realizing it - Notice & conform to beliefs of those around us Govs use public ed to try to teach all children a common set of civic values, it is mainly n school that Americans acquire their basic beliefs in liberty, equality, & democracy - One of the most important factors in predicting who engages in behaviors that increase political knowledge, such as regularly following the news, voting, & participating in politics Social groups give individuals experiences & perspectives that shape their view of political & social life - Race: Most Americans recognize racism in America now = Linked fate where see one's fate linked to other members of the community = Filter through which group evaluates info & determines their own opinions & policy preferences - Ethnicity: Latinos generally see an active gov as a good thing & favor liberal economic policies to create jobs and improve the economy = ALso have sense of linked fate = Want to improve lives of citizens & reduce inequality = Are fairly religious but doesn't dictate their political decisions = Less likely to vote for conservatives - Gender = WOmen tend to oppose military intervention, favor gun control, & are more supportive of gov social programs * More likely to vote for Democrats = Gender gap - Religion = Meaning religious affiliation, frequency of church attendance, and the belief that religion & prayer are important in their lives = Protestant against abortion & same sex marriage = More likely to be conservative & republican - Party affiliation = Getting larger polarization in gov structure & geographic sorting * Large cities = Democratic while rural/suburban areas = republican = But Fiorina argues that most AMericans hold moderate opinions - Economic class & Group Self interest = Self explanatory = But the public is not always able to translate a concern for economic self interest into policy preferences that would benefit average citizens b/c they lack necessary info about the effects of the tax cuts = Also difference in beliefs according to age = Group membership can never fully explain a given individual's political views, can be different based on their own experiences & values - Political environment = Beliefs influenced by family background & group membership but many views determined by political circumstances

There are 2 circumstances under which one person reasonably might be trusted to speak for another

Sociological Agency

Libertarian:

Someone who emphasizes freedom and believes in voluntary association with small gov Favor individual initiative, suspicious of the motives of gov & of its ability to manage economic & social affairs Gov interferes with freedom of expression, free markets, society & thus should be limited to as few spheres of activity as possible Opposition to foreign wars & commitment to civil liberties & smaller gov

Socialist:

Someone who generally believes in social ownership, strong gov, free markets, and reducing economic inequality Argue more gov is necessary to promote justice & to reduce economic & social inequality Support free markets & private enterprise but want gov to ensure more equality of opportunity for citizens such as free public college, single payer health care, & increased taxation on the very affluent Support gov policies to protect workers rights & unions

What's a challenger to do?

Start from beinhd, but try to catch up Contestant primary helps Incumbent scandal helps Strategy (targeting/issues) helps Challenger spending helps Incumbent spending helps Outside spending helps Media coverage/endorsements helps National partisan tide helps If all goes well, mostly lose

Evolution of Interest Groups

Started with PACs Now have - Traditional PACs - Super PACs - 527 committees - 501 c 4/social welfare organizations - Corporations, trade associations, labor unions, other Campaign finance sys very regulated - Wealth & well financed usually win though

Partisanship is more likely to assert itself in the less visible races, where issues and the candidates are not as well known

State legislative races for ex

Media driven campaigns

Statewide & national elections Money intensive

Socioeconomic status:

Statues in society based on level of ed, income, and occupational prestige Americans with higher status participate much more in politics than do those with lower income & ed People who are more affluent have the money, time, and capacity to participate effectively in the political system Ed is one of the most important predictors of voting & it is also associated with encouraging other people to vote or support an issue, as well making a donation to a candidate or cause

Campaign for votes

Strategy Message Communication Active v passive - Targeting = Most: Personal (going house to house), mail, some digital (email) = Middle: radio, cable TV, satellite TV, social media * Stuff can go viral on social media = Least: TV, debates, earned/free media Mobilize supporters - Identify, register to vote, turn out Win persuadable voters - Identify, register, persuade, turn out

Had lower AA voters in 2016 possibly due to

Strict voter ID laws Reduction in days allowed for early voting in some states Lack of an AA presidential candidate Divisive presidential campaign including anti-minority rhetoric

Party machines:

Strong party organizations in late 19th and early 20th century American cities; these machines were led by often corrupt "bosses" who controlled party nominations and patronage NY, Chicago, & Boston relied on precinct captains who were usually leaders in neighborhood park clubhouses - Important social centers and places for distributing favors/bribing constituents Depended heavily on patronage

Democratic party:

Supports expanded funding for public education, social services and national health care, public spending for infrastructure (roads), cuts in military spending, increased regulation of business to address climate change, raising taxes on the wealthy & corporations to combat growing income inequality, restrictions on gun ownership, variety of consumer protection programs, support lenient immigration policies like the DREAMers At the national level seeks to unite organized labor, poor and working class, college educated middle class professionals, members of racial and ethnic groups, the young, and gov workers Urban area More than 90% of AA Overall, Latinos & Asians too Mostly women, they prioritize health, education, and social services About 90% of Jews Also 25% are non religious Working class minorities Liberals The coast of the US, upper Midwest, north, and urban areas - Democratic strength is a function of the continuing influence of organized labor in the large cities of these regions and of the regions large pops of minority voters = Growth of millennials, importance of Latino vote, concerns with environment, growing pop of the religiously unaffiliated

Trend Polls

Survey is 700-800 people Follow up on areas where baseline was important - Issues, traits of candidates Has name recognition & message gone up Make tactical & strategic adjustments

Baseline Polls

Survey of 1000 or more people Used to assess knowledge of voters on issues & find out what people think of a candidate Usually 1 year to 10 before election

Where the money goes in 2018

TV Salaries Fund raising Rent, supplies, etc. Direct mail

After speaker & majority and minority leader have Steering and Policy COmmittee (D) or if rep then steering committee and a policy committee

Tasks are to assign new legislators to committees and to deal with the requests of incumbent members for transfer from one committee to another - Today reps receive the assignments they want - But often several individuals seek assignments to the most important committees which gives the leadership an opportunity to cement alliances when it resolves conflicting requests - Reps seek assignments that will allow them to influence decisions of special importance to their districts = Seats on pop committees such as Ways and Means, which is responsible for tax legislation, and Appropriations are especially popular

Campaign Fundraising

Techniques (Chasing money) - Personal solicitation to get money from big donors/egos = Cost lot of time getting to know people - Fundraising events to get mid dollar donors = Fancy dinners - Direct response to get low dollar donors = Direct Mail = Telemarketing = Social media & internet = Need lots of data Donor Motives - Big donor want access to influence politics - Mid dollar donor give b/c of social reasons = Friendly meeting - Low dollar donors b/c of issue = No expectations - Selling issues, ideology, gov not doing enough or doing too much - Access to politicians = After election get to talk to politician about things you care about = Donors tend to support people in congressional power already = Some donors (labor union) want to support most powerful of specific group - Solidary = Care about the parties = Do it for fun = Friends with candidates, repayment

Turnout:

The % of eligible individuals who actually vote Americas is relatively low, get just over 50% in 2010s decade presidential election State & local elections, especially those that do not coincide with national contests or primaries, is even lower Those who do not vote are more likely to lack a college ed & have lower incomes - Has neg outcomes b/c get election of candidates who do not reflect the interests of most voters, gov policies that benefit wealthy voters over the middle and lower classes, and lower trust in gov & perceptions of gov legitimacy Overall trends have improved in presidential elections due to highly contested elections and major efforts to get out the vote Midterm elections with only congressional elections at the national level tend to have much lower voter turnout There are significant differences in voter turnout rates across the states

Legislative initiative:

The President's inherent power to bring a legislative agenda before Congress

If candidates articulate and publicize very different positions on important policy issues, voters are more likely to be able to identify and act on whatever policy preferences they may have

The ability of voters to make choices on the basis of policy preferences is diminished however if voters are uninformed or misinformed about the issues and candidates Voters issue choices usually involve a mix of their judgements about the past behavior of competing parties and candidates and their hopes and fears about candidates future behavior

Appropriations:

The amts of money approved by COngress in statues (bills) that each unit or agency of gov can spend The funding of agencies and gov programs

Gerrymandering:

The apportionment of voters in districts in such a way as to give unfair advantage to one racial or ethnic group or political party Some argue that Republicans have benefitted from partisan since the 2010 redistricting cycle b/c they controlled the majority of state legislatures at the time Others argue that these district may reflect the natural clustering of Democrats in urban areas, not deliberate bias Concern about partisan gerrymandering has ed some states to take redistricting power away from state legislatures and give it to independent commissions Since the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 race has become a major and controversial consideration in drawing voting districts - Encouraged the creation of districts in which members of racial minorities have decisive majorities , have greatly increased the number of minority reps in COngress - Among the most fervent supporters of the minority districts were white republicans who used the opportunity to create more districts dominated by white Republican voters - Some analysts argue that the sys may grant minorities greater sociological rep but has made it more difficult for minorities to win substantive policy goals - In the case of Miller v Johnson (1995) the Supreme Court limited racial redistricting by ruling that race could not be the predominant factor in creating electoral districts = The distinction between race being the predominant factor and its being one factor among many is hazy = As a result, concerns about redistricting and representation have not disappeared - 2013 Supreme Court decision in SHelby County v Holder invalidated a section of the Voting Rights Act requiring that the Justice Department approve the redistricting plans of jurisdictions with a history of racial discrimination = Many democrats expressed disappointment with the decision fearing that the previously covered states, several of which are controlled by Republican majorities, might try to redraw district lines to partisan ends and further bias districts towards Republicans b/c the drawing of district boundaries affects incumbents as well as the field of candidates who decide to run for office, it continues to be a key battleground on which political parties fight about the meaning of rep

Gerrymandering:

The apportionment of voters in such a way as to give unfair advantage to one racial or ethnic group or political party Different pops of voters residing in geographically defined districts can produce different electoral results Cracking technique - By dispersing the members of a political party across 2 or more districts, state lawmakers can dilute the group's voting power and prevent it from electing a rep in any district Packing technique - By concentrating the members of a party in as few districts as possible, state lawmakers can try to ensure that their opponents will elect as few as reps as possible Has created many safe districts in COngress & state legislatures where incumbents rarely face a serious challenger - Contributes to the frequency with which members of Congress are re-elected in landslide elections When candidates do not face serious challenges in elections there is concern that public officials will not represent the interests of the people but will instead make laws that benefit special interests - To address this problem some states use nonpartisan redistricting boards or commissions where boundaries are drawn not to advantage one party over the other and the partisanship of voters in the district is not a consideration in drawing geographic boundaries

Speaker of the House:

The chief presiding officer of the House of Reps; the Speaker is the most important party and House leader and can influence the legislative agenda, the fate of individual pieces of legislation, and members positions within the House The elected leader of the majority party

Executive principle:

The claim that confidential communications between a president and close advisers should not be revealed without the consent of the president

Divided gov:

The condition in American gov wherein the presidency is controlled by one party while the opposing party controls one or both houses of Congress Since Great Depression take over

Party polarization:

The division between the two major parties on most policy issues, with members of each party unified around their party's positions with little crossover In congress measure by party unity in roll call votes Over 90% of the time, members of COngress vote in agreement with the majority of their party - So legislation is often enacted by slim vote margins in COngress COngress does not match the ideology of the AMerican public, most are moderate May be the result of uncompetitive elections in COngress and safe seats - How congressional districts are drawn Also may be due to how individuals segregate themselves by choosing to live in liberal or conservative geographic areas or consume liberal or conservative news/social media Lawmakers elected from solidly safe district have less incentive to compromise so homogeneous Democratic & Republican districts add to the polarization of the political parties A specific event that resulted in rise of Polarization was the Tea Party movement= extremely conservative faction of Republican party

Social desirability effect:

The effect that results when respondents in a survey report what they expect the interviewer wishes to hear rather than what they believe Respondents hide their preferences from the interviewer for fear of social retribution

Oversight:

The effort by Congress, through hearings, investigations, and other techniques, to exercise control over the activities of executive agencies Supervise how the executive branch carries out legislation Carried out by committees or subcommittees of the Senate or he House, which conduct hearings and investigations to analyze & evaluate bureaucratic agencies and the effectiveness of their programs Possible purposes - to locate inefficiency or abuses of power - to explore the relationship between what an agency does and what a law intends - to change or abolish a program Most agencies and programs are subject to some oversight every year during the course of hearings on appropriation Committees or subcommittees have the power to - subpoena witnesses - Administer oaths - Cross examine - Compel testimony - Bring criminal charges for contempt (refusing to cooperate) & perjury (lying under oath) Hearing is held on a specific bill and the questions asked are usually intended to build a record with regard to that bill In an investigation, the committee or subcommittee does not begin with a particular bill but examines a broad area or problem and then concluded its investigation with one or more proposed bills Has increasingly been used as a tool of partisan politics

Majority leader:

The elected leader of the majority party in the House of Rep or in the Senate In the House, the majority leader is subordinate in the party hierarchy to the Speaker of the House

Minority leader:

The elected leader of the minority party in the House or Senate

Impeachment:

The formal charge by the House of Reps that a gov official has committed "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors" President, VP, or other executive officials Bring him before congress to determine guilt Is like a criminal indictment in which the House acts like a grand jury, voting by simple majority on whether the accused ought to be impeached - If majority of House votes to impeach the trial moves to the Senate, which acts like a trail jury by voting with 2/3rds majority whther to convict and forcibly remove the person from office Highly effective safeguard against the executive tyranny feared by the framers of the Constitution Is controversial b/c actual crime or whatever the House determines to be a crime - Its a political decision

Party organization:

The formal structure of a political party, including its leadership, election committees, active members, and paid staff Exist at virtually every level of gov Usually committees made up of a number of active party members Up to state law & party rules how created but usually committee members are elected at local party business meetings called caucuses or as part of the regular primary election

Political socialization:

The induction of individuals into the political culture; learning the underlying beliefs and values on which the political system is based

The occupational backgrounds of members of Congress have always been a matter of interest b/c many issues slip along economic lines that are relevant to occupations and industries

The legal profession is the dominant career of most members of Congress prior to their election & public service or politics is also a significant background Many members of Congress have important ties to business and industry Members of congress are much more highly educated than most Americans This is not a portrait of the US pop

Early voting:

The option in some states to cast a vote at a polling place or by mail before the election Up to 40 days before election

Permanent absentee ballots:

The option in some states to have a ballot sent automatically to your home for each election, rather than having to request an absentee ballot each time Don't need to explain why Increases turnout, saves gov money by not having to staff polling stations across the state

Same day registration:

The option in some states to register on the day of the election, at the polling place, rather than in advance of the election To try and boost voter turnout Has been found to have the greatest effect in boosting voting rates and making participation by different demographic groups more equal - Especially young voters

Majority party:

The party that holds the majority of legislative seats in either the House or the Senate Decides elections Chairs the the congressional committee, setting the policy agenda

Minority party:

The party that holds the minority of legislative seats in either the House of the Senate

Executive Office of the President (EOP):

The permanent agencies that perform defined management tasks for the president; created in 1939, the EOP includes the OMB, the CEA, and the NSC, and other agencies

Electoral realignment:

The point in history when a new party supplants the governing party, becoming in turn the dominant political force Transitions in party sys over times Coalitions that support the parties and the balance of power between the parties change and are redefined Realignments happen when new issues, combined with economic or political crises, mobilize new voters and persuade large numbers of them to reexamine their traditional partisan loyalties and permanently shift their support from one party to another Rare, occur every 30 years Believe 5 have occured since the Founding - 1790-1800 Jeffersonian Republicans defeated Federalists and became dominant force - 1828 Jacksonian Democrats seized control of White House/Congress - 1860 election republican party led by Abraham Lincoln win power, destroyed Whig party = Northern whigs shifted to republicans, southern whigs shifted to democrats - 1896 election McKinley emphasis of business, industry & urban interests wins - 1932-36 Democrats led by FDR take control of WHite House/COngress

Referendum:

The practice of referring a proposed law passed by a legislature to the vote of the electorate for approval or rejection In which the state legislature refers certain laws to the voters for a popular vote Are required for changes in the constitution

Veto:

The president's constitutional power to turn down acts of Congress; a presidential veto may be overridden by a 2/3rds vote of each house of Congress

Veto

The president's constitutional power to turn down acts of Congress; a presidential veto may be overridden by a 2/3rds vote or each house of Congress The president returns a bill unsigned within 10 days to the house of Congress in which it originated If Congress adjourns during the 10 day period and the president has taken no action, the bill is also considered to be vetoed - Known as the pocket veto

Presidency

The president's support is a criterion for party loyalty amd party leaders are able to use it to rally some members - Look to president to set agenda and policy initiatives

Electoral college:

The presidential electors from each state who meet after the general election to cast ballots for president and vice president The group of electors who formally select the president and vice president When Americans go to the polls on Election Day they are technically not voting directly for presidential candidates, they are instead choosing among slates of electors selected by each party in the state and pledge if elected, to support that party's presidential candidate Electors are allocated to each state based on the size of the states congressional delegation (Senators + House members) Need to win 270 votes to become President Each state's awards all of its electors to the candidate who receives the most votes in the states Can win college but lose popular vote Can lose college but win popular Replacing it would require a constitutional amendment that most agree would be extremely difficult to pass National Popular Vote plan is a proposed plan, says states electoral college votes would go to the candidate who won the national popular vote not the candidate with a plurality of votes in that specific state - States would enter a compact with other states making the same change, which would go into effect when a number of states representing a majority in the electoral college approved it - Way to bypass drafting of new amendment Also some presidents do not have widespread support - Can't win plurality - Happens when 3rd party candidate receives a significant % of votes

Patronage:

The resources available to higher officials, usually opportunities to make partisan appointments to offices and to confer grants, licenses, or special favors to supporters How party machines got power to control gov jobs With 1000s of jobs to dispense, party bosses were able to recruit armies of political workers to turn out the vote - If did so got gov position or food Progressive movement of 1900s was motivated by the excessive power, corruption, and abuses of party machines and their bosses - Changed rules of politics to reduce the power of parties and to give voters more voice in deciding who was elected to public office Few political machines left today - With civil service & the merit system, party leaders no longer control many gov jobs, which was a primary way the party rewarded loyal supporters

Mobilization:

The process by which large numbers of people are org for a political activity People become much more likely to participate when someone (especially someone they know) asks them to get involved Face to face (physically & online) interaction greatly increases voter turnout - Most common way average Americans participate in politics outside of voting Contact people personally (found to most effective at mobilization) and people who are all kinds of committed to a group Competitive presidential elections since 200 have motivated both parties to build strong grassroots orgs to reach voters and turn them out on Election Day Today's modern campaigns use massive computer databases and sophisticated data analytics to identify individuals and members of the electorate to mobilize turnout in elections Competitive elections and the campaign spending and mobilization efforts that go along with them, play a key role in turnout in the US and cross nationally - In many congressional statewide and local races, a candidate runs unopposed or is expected to win by such a large margin that the challengers chances are virtually nil = Could be leading to lower turnout rates When congressional districts are drawn to favor one political party over another (gerrymandering) election outcomes are thus often highly lopsided in favor of one candidate over another Relatively non competitive elections are a primary reason why most members of Congress win by landslides - Without active campaigns, individuals have few opportunities to be interested in an election and may not vote To win a US presidential candidate must receive a majority of the votes in the electoral college - Each state is given a set number of votes in the electoral college based on the size of its congressional delegation - Some states are battleground states (Florida, ohio, pennsylvania) and get smothered with attention from candidates and media leading to higher voter turnout - Same with primary elections & caucuses in Iowa and New Hampshire

Nomination:

The process by which political parties select their candidates for election to public office Parties want only one candidate on the general election ballot so that members of the same party do not split the vote Parties therefore undertake an internal process of nomination to settle on one candidate who will be on the ballot in the general election

Redistricting:

The process of redrawing election districts and redistributing legislative representatives This happens every 10 years, to reflect shifts in pop or in response to legal challenges in existing districts Is influenced by pop size & counties In 1964 Supreme COurt held that legislative districts for Congress & state legislatures must include roughly equal proportions so as to accord with the principles of one person, one vote 1980 SC declared that legislative districts should also be contiguous, compact & consistent with existing political subdivisions Despite these legal requirements, state lawmakers who are responsible for drawing the district boundaries for Congress and state legislatures regularly seek to influence electoral outcomes to favor one political party over another - Known as Gerrymandering

Redistricting:

The process of redrawing election districts and redistributing legislative reps This happens every 10 years to reflect shifts in pop or in response to legal challenges to existing districts Districts are shaped to create an advantage for the party with the majority in the state legislature, which controls the redistricting process in most states Those charged with drawing districts use sophisticated computer technologies to come up with the most favorable district boundaries Can create open seats and pit incumbents of the same party against each other, ensuring that one of them will lose Can also give an advantage to one party by clustering voters with some ideological or sociological characteristics in a single district or by separating those voters into 2 or more districts

Apportionment:

The process, occurring after every decennial census, that allocates congressional seats among the 50 states Every 10 years state legislatures must redraw congressional district to reflect pop changes b/c the # of congressional seats has been fixed at 435, redistricting is a zero sum process = in order for one state to gain seat, another must lose one States with pop growth gain seats, states with pop decline or with less pop growth lose seats Over the past several decades the shift of the AMerican pop to the South & West has greatly increased the size of the congressional delegations from those regions States in the Northeast and rust belt are likely to lose seats Latino voters are nearly 3x as prevalent in states that gained seats than in states that lost seats, suggesting that the growth of the Latino pop is a major factor in the American political landscape

Marketplace of ideas:

The public forum in which beliefs and ideas are exchanged and competed against - Gov, private groups, & news media play important roles in shaping opinions in the marketplace All govs try to influence, manipulate, or manage their citizens beliefs - Focus attention to boost support for their policy agendas The media are opinion makers & have an enormous impact on pop attitudes - The national new media is notorious for investigating gov corruption Elected officials are influenced by the preferences of the public - SHifts in public opinion on particular issue sdo in fact tend to lead to change in public policy - But the relationship between gov policy & opinion may be dynamic, wherein policy responds to opinion but opinion also shifts based on new gov policies = New policy may expose the public to new ideas, causing opinion to change or experience with a successful or unsuccessful policy may give the public new information = A policy might act as a signal of a moral or ethical view More affluent & educate citizens manage to wield outsize influence over policy makers by voting at higher rates and contributing money to political campaigns - Laws are made based on their opinions & not the opinions of the poor

Seniority:

The ranking given to an individual on the basis of length of continuous service on a committee in Congress In general each committee is chaired by the most senior member of the majority party Republicans tend to depart from the seniority principle, often choosing committee chairs on the basis of loyalty or fund raising abilities Dems follow seniority principle for choosing committee chairs but altered traditional practices by offering freshman Democrats choice committee assignments to increase their chances of re-election

Constituency:

The residents in the area from which an official is elected Each member of congress primary responsibility in theory is to the district, not to the congressional leadership, a party, or even Congress itself Members of Congress must consider diverse views and expectations as they represent their districts

Patronage:

The resources available to higher officials, usually opportunities to make partisan appts to offices and to confer grants, licenses, or special favors to supporters Members of Congress have numerous opportunities to provide direct benefits for their districts Ex. Pork barrel legislation Ex. intervention with fed administrative agencies on behalf of constituents - Members of the House + Senate and their staff spend a lot of time on the phone and in administrative offices seeking to secure favorable treatment for constituents and supporters Ex. Private bill

Suffrage:

The right to vote; also called franchise For most Americans is the single most important political act Most common way that people interact with politics Gives ordinary Americans an equal voice Especially important b/c it selects the officials who make the laws that the American people must follow Originally for white males over 21 who owned property & paid a certain amt of taxes Until early 1900s state legislatures elected senators & no direct elections for members of electoral college DUring 19th-early 20th centuries was restricted through poll taxes & literacy tests - And each state had their own requirements/disqualifications (race, property, etc.) Over past 200 years have had dominant trend with federal statutes, court decisions, and constitutional amendments designed to override state voting laws and expand suffrage Blacks given right in 1965 with Voting Rights Act Women in 1920 with 19th Amendment 18 year olds in 1971 with the 26 Amendment Today only restricted for people who have committed felonies or are mentally impaired

Commander in Chief:

The role of the president as commander of the national military and the state National Guard units (when called into service)

Cabinet:

The secretaries, or chief administrators, of the major departments of the fed gov; Cabinet secretaries are appointed by the president with the consent of the Senate

Power to approve or reject presidential requests includes the power to set conditions

The senate only occasionally exercises its power to reject treaties and appointments like judicial nominees

Committee markup:

The session in which a congressional committee rewrites legislation to incorporate changes discussed during hearings on a bill At every stage of the legislative process members protest that they are not given enough time to read proposals Not allowing much time for readings of committee markups or bills themselves is usually a leadership tactic designed to push legislation forward before members can find items with which to disagree

B/c congressional districts are increasingly homogeneous in their ideology, in part due to gerrymandering but mainly b/c of natural clustering of the pop, most members of Congress are in safe seats

Their constituents will not punish them for failing to compromise

Some of the most divisive conflicts in politics today (abortion, birth control, and contraceptives) hinge on differences over religious beliefs

These divisions have become so salient that they now constitute what is called a culture war, with repercussions throughout the political sys and many policy areas One of the most significant drivers of this new politics was the mobilization of white evangelical Protestants into a cohesive political force

But active mobilization by far right orgs means that Republican members of congress who support compromises might be punished

These outside orgs have financed alt candidates to challenge members who voted against the org positions

Congress instituted a number of reforms in the 1970 to make itself more accessible and to distribute power more widely within the Institution

These reforms sought to respond to public views that Congress had become a stodgy institution ruled by a more powerful elite that made decisions in private Resulted in the increased # of subcommittees, prohibited most secret hearing, & increased the staff support for COngress Spread more power evenly throughout the institution and opened new avenues for the public to contact and influence Congress But made Congress less effective and more permeable to special interests - Open committee meeting made it possible for sophisticated interest groups to monitor and influence every aspect of developing legislation Has resulted in financial issues and less confidence in Congress - Public frustrated with congressional inaction on important policy areas = Due to filibustering & gridlock

An equally important set of factors is the rules of congressional procedure

These rules govern everything from the intro of a bill through its submission to the president for signing These regulations influence the fate of every bill & help determine the distribution of power in the Congress

There is constant communication between constituents and congressional offices but high volume of emails make it even harder today so members of congress have found new ways to communicate

They have created websites describing their achievements, established a presence on social networking sites, and issued e-newsletter that alert constituents to current issues Many have also set up blogs and Twitter accounts to establish a more informal style of communication with constituents

In the US churches are an important social institution that often fosters important political participation

Through church activities many people learn civic skills that prepare them to participate in the political world

Campaign for resources

Timing and logistics - Begins early, ends after the election - Nationwide Steps - Identify a financial constituency = Group of people predisposed to contribute to your campaign * Networks of business partners, interest groups, etc = If incumbent people who supported you - Develop a pitch = Reasons why running, issues I care about = Have a goal of $ to achieve - Start local, go national (ehlp introduce you to national level) = Visit groups = Develop relationships = More likely to get more money from people you know * Help you start off on the right track - Match techniques to donors = Direct mail, social media, etc. = Convince them to give through potent message = Have events for people who want access

Liberal:

Today this term refers to those who generally support social & political reform, gov intervention in the economy, more economic equality, expansion of federal social services & greater concern for consumers and the environment Equality is the most important core value Encourage gov action in economy & progressive taxation, health care & workers rights, financial aid for college, environmental protection, & business practices to enhance minority equality of opportunity Today's liberals are social liberals, not classical liberals Support gov policies to create a fairer economic system & opportunity for upwards mobility including raising taxes on the wealthy, the expansion of federal social services & health care, gov spending on roads, infrastructure, science, technology, & alternative energy, more vigorous efforts on behalf of the poor & minorities, and greater concern for protecting the environment Support reproductive rights for women, rights for gays & lesbians, and are concerned with protecting the rights of people accused of crimes, refugees, & immigrants & support foreign aid to poor nations, arms control, & international orgs that promote peace (UN & EU) DIvided on issues of military wars & international trade

Conservative:

Today this term refers to those who generally support the social & economic status quo and are suspicious of efforts to introduce new political formulas and economic arrangements; conservatives believe that a large and powerful gov poses a threat to citizens' freedom Liberty is core value Oppose many efforts of the gov to interfere in private life & free markets, including gov regulations Believe large gov poses a threat to the freedom of individual citizens and to free markets & democracy Generally oppose the expansion of gov activity, asserting that solutions to many social & economic problems can and should be developed in the private sector, local communities, or by religious orgs support cutting taxes & reducing gov spending Oppose efforts to impose gov regulations on business, maintaining that regulation frequently leads to economic inefficiency, is costly, & can lower the entire nation's standard of living by making US manufactured products more expensive & less competitive Many support traditional family values & generally oppose abortion & same sex marriage Oppose environmental protections that interfere with private business Prefer stricter criminal justice laws, oppose drug legalization, & seek to reduce immigration to the US Deeply divided on issues of immigration, international trade, & fairness of the US economic system SUpport military intervention & the maintenance of American military power

Real power is in the hands of the majority leader and minority leader, each elected by party conference

Together they control the senate's calendar or agenda for legislation Each party also elects a policy committee, which advises the leadership on legislative priorities

Diebold Accuvote TS

Touch screen Smart card activation Manual navigation Ballot review Impossible to overvote Highlights undervotes

Pro of Primaries and caucuses

Trend to greater participation: Better feel for which candidates are liked More democratic b/c anyone can participate

Questions guest speaker answered

Trump had so much baggage (like 10 fold) that trips up candidates, so don't know how he even got elected after They find candidates they want to work with & some of them find them - Especially women or minorities = Emily's list will send candidate to consultants they think will be a good match If don't believe in candidate then probs won't be able to work together

Election was a historic upset

Trump swept South & nearly all the MidWest - Due to his popularity among working class white Americans who didn't like economic policies of Democrats (trade, outsourcing, etc.) - Saw him as bold & not afraid to act = Seemed to represent Americans who felt disenfranchised and left behind by the social and economic changes of the nation Won most of the battleground states and northern industrial states that Obama had Whole gov was republican run Clinton won mostly females, AAs, Latinos, Asians, college educated voters, younger voters - She lost voters to 3rd party candidates

Where did the money go in 2016?

Trump was mostly - Media (like more than 2/3rds) - administration Clinton was mostly - strategy & research - Salaries - Travel & meetings = So much money that could do this

Voters

Turnout Subgroups Voting behavior

Interest/advocacy groups

Types ideological/election oriented Goals: Use elections to try to influence who holds office & policy Pick candidates with same view and get them into office Strategies: to maximize seats Activities: Get involved in close races & primaries, recruitment, contributions, independent expenditures, campaign support, voter mobilization activities Same as political party just not on the ballot Exs: Emily's list, Crossroads GPS Pragmatic/Access oriented Goals: Using elections to create or reinforce relationships with powerful incumbents Lobbying Access so can put member of congress in an area/bill that matters to them Strategies: Work with incumbents even if disagree, target resources to powerful incumbents, give money when asked or at time of important vote Many don't even face opponents Show themselves as members' of congress re election team Don't spend against or involved in primaries View contribution as a way to buy access Member of congress doesn't need the money but in order to tsya in power need support Activities: Exs: American Medical Association Mixed Strategies Goals: pArt ideology part access Maximize number of sets but also access to powerful people who share their view Strategies: Mainly support one party's members and support the powerful one Also support those in close races Activities: Contributions ($), campaign help, help fundraising, get out the vote, etc. Exs: Labor Unions

Presidency Institutional foundations and development

Unique b/c independent authority from Congress, elected separately Become more powerful as country grows in size & complexity Mass media allows President to directly communicate with people

Voter Turnout

Usually Low - In presidential 50-60% - During midterms only about 40% vote - During local elections is super small Low b/c inconvenience - Registrations a pain - Have work or class - Long line Fixed Elections - On tuesdays every couple years - If no burning issues people don't care Lot of elections - Have midterms, presidential, state legislature/gov, primary, etc. - Overwhelming, people get tired of it If competition or surprise election turnout goes up

Sometimes members or leaders will let objectionable provisions pass on the floor, knowing that they will get the chance to make changes in conference

Usually conference committees meet behind closed door Agreement requires a majority of each of the 2 delegations Legislation that emerges successfully from a conference committee is more often a compromise than a clear victory for one side In recent years polarization in COngress has led to much less reliance on conference committees - Instead leaders exchange amendments in the hope of reaching agreement

When a bill comes out of conference before it can be sent to the president for signing the House-Senate conference committees version of the bill must be approved on the floor of each chamber

Usually such approval is given quickly However sometimes a bills opponents use this round of approval as one last opportunity to defeat a piece of legislation

Select committees:

Usually temporary legislative committees set up to highlight or investigate a particular issue or address an issue not within the jurisdiction of existing committees Usually do not have the power to present legislation to the full COngress - The House and Senate Select Intelligence committees are permanent however and do have the power to report legislation (send legislation to the full House or Senate for consideration) Hold hearings and serve as focal points for the issues that are charged with considering Congressional leaders form select committees when they want to take up issues that fall outside the jurisdictions of existing committees to highlight an issues or to investigate a particular problem Set up to highlight ongoing issues - House Select Committee on Homeland Security was created to oversee the new Department of Homeland Security = This one has the ability to present legislation and is now permanent

Characteristics of Elections

Values of election - Many promises, peaceful orderly transition between gov, stability at the societal level, circulation of elites and non-elites, emphasis on ascertaining the wants of the citizens/representing what they want which gives legitimacy, people's will = Humans have a capacity to make long term rational choices Celebrate equality (right to capacity) and liberty (freedoms) Campaigning Debate Majority wins Everyone gets to vote Ballots are secret No punishment for voting choice or losers Not universally held - Some nations punish voters = Fined or imprisoned - Some nations used to give people 2 votes = Ex. If graduated from Oxford Some basic agreement on what is fair and free election

Zoomable Prototype

Visual overview of full ballot Zooming navigation - Press category, zoom in, make choice, zooms out Voting decisions replace names of offices - Instead of president says name once choose Impossible to over voted Highlights undervotes

Candidate-Centered Elections

Vote b/c like the candidate and his values We have unique elections b/c of - Political institutions - Election laws - Participatory nominations - Weak parties - Political culture

How to Influence Elections

Vote in the primary Contribute money Attend events Endorsements - Different types = Newspaper = Personal (social media) Volunteer

DVs of Study

Voter satisfaction - Topics like: = Comfort = Ease of sue = Confident vote recorded accurately = Characters easy to read = Ballot easy to understand = Correcting mistakes easy = Changing vote easy = Cating write in vote easy - Really liked AccuVote & Protype = Hated Hart InterCivic - How vote matters Need for assistance - More for Hart & Nedap = Especially for straight party stuff - Low for Model & Diebold - Confusing Accuracy of votes cast - Types of errors = Proximity * Incorrectly vote for candidate listed before or after selected candidate * Want to vote for second candidate but choose first instead ** Accidentally vote for other party * Bigger problem then ones listed below = Vote cast for some other candidate (other error) = No vote cast = Write in incorrectly cast - Results = President okay but lower candidates have more errors, especially if wanted to vote for 2 candidate

Strategic environment

Voters Institutions Election laws Governing bodies

Prospective voting:

Voting based on the imagined future performance of a candidate or political party

Retrospective voting:

Voting based on the past performance of a candidate or political party This type of economic voting has been found to be more important than prospective voting

To assess the race look at

Voting history redistricting/demographic trends Political climate Electorate Assets as a candidate - Incumbent, business person, professional Vulnerabilities of opponent Create a strong, viable contrast

Impact

Voting sys manufacturers have changed some aspects of their sys - Changed style Some have gone out of business

Conclusions

Voting tech and ballot styles influence - Voter trust, confidence, & satisfaction in general - Need for assistance when voting - Accuracy with which votes are vast The way people cast their votes is important Can influence some close election Influences confidence and faith in the political sys

Voting Tech Matters

Votomatic Vte II - Used in Florida 2000 - Used by estimated 37% of all voters nationwide in 1996 - Can't check if voted correctly

Office Bloc Ballot with Straight party Voting option

Want to vote for one party in every office, press button, and automatically does that Can override by writing in candidate or circling specific candidates Can easily get confused or make an error - Privacy effect- Pick first person - Undervote

Public Opinion

What people think about a set of issues at any given point in time - Measured by public opinion polls (surveys) or census, interviews, focus groups Be an informed consumer Public opinion does not equal survey results: - Hawthorne Effect - Question bias - Interviewer bias - Sampling error - Margin or error - Temporal limitations Every person in pop has equal probability of being included in the sample, so all views will be representative since random sample - Today not random anymore b/c so little people answering only get their views

When one party controls both houses of the state legislature and the governor's mansion it is likely to engage in partisan gerrymandering

When control of a state gov is divided the two parties are often compelled to reach an agreement that protects incumbents on both sides

Micro-targeting:

When political campaigns tailor messages to individuals in small homogeneous groups based on their group interests to support a candidate or policy issue Emphasize specific, heated issues Groups like suburban stay at home mothers or fans of NASCAR Enables political parties to identify small groups based on specific characteristics (including geographic location) and to target candidates strategies and messages to these groups

Voter Subgroups

Which groups turn out at high and low, who they vote for - Old age = higher - Higher socioeconomic = higher - More degrees = higher - Young = liberal - Middle class = republican - Women vote more than men, more democratic - Whites high turnout, more rp - Africans lower turnout, strongly dem - Latinos lower turnout, rep & dem

3 factors related to the US electoral sys affect who gets elected and what they do once in office

Who decides to run for office and which candidates have an edge over others - Voters choices are restricted from the start by who decides to run for office - In the past decisions about who would run for a particular elected office were made by local party officials = A person who had a record of service to the party, who was owed a favor, or whose turn had come up might be nominated by party leaders - Today few party orgs have the power to slate candidates in this way = Instead parties try to ensure that well qualified candidates run for congress - One of the most important factors determining who runs for office is an individual candidates ambition - A potential candidate may also assess whether he or she can attract enough money to mount a credible campaign = The ability to raise money depends on connections with other politicians, interest groups, and national party orgs - Features distinctive to each congressional district also affect the field of candidates = A state level legislator who is considering running for US congress is more likely to asses her prospects favorably if her state district coincides with the congressional district (b/c the voters will already know her) Incumbency advantage The way congressional district lines are drawn can greatly affect the outcome of an election

Modern Congress Member of Congress Inc

Who helps members do their job (with educating themselves & constituents) - Intern - Legislative assistants & directors = Handle mail = Concentration on certain issues = Overview schedule - Deputy chief of staff - Chief of staff Higher ranking members get additional staff - High profile committee members, party leaders - Senate members also have bigger teams b/c of # of people they represent

Targeting

Who trying to reach, how, & why - Register, turnout to vote, or persuade to vote = Younger voters register = AAs focus on turnout = Radical/loyal focus on persuade Changes on demographic of voters - Message will be different = Part of the team vs why you should vote - Media form will be too

Committees and Subcommittees

Why exist - Exist to help members of Congress do their jobs - Help members write bills, learn about issues, do research, represent, oversee executive branch - Help make national policy Official types - Standing - Select - Joint - Conference Influences - Members chose committees to get reelected, care about specific policies, to build power in the chamber, or pushed by external pressures - Get committee assignment from leaders in your chamber party = Consider * Your request - Even if have 50-50 congress republicans get more committee seats = Especially in power committees - Each year House get # of committees, how many serve, who has what power, elect speaker Behavioral classification - Reelection committees = For members from battle districts or are freshman and need to get word out that "I did this for you" = Ex. Agriculture, transportation, infrastructure - Power committees = For senior members * Only ones who can really get these positions = Huge amt of power b/c huge decision * Other members want to befriend these people = Ex. Appropriations (gov spending) = Ex. Ways and Means (taxes, who gets tax breaks) = Ex. Rules committees * How long bills debated, how can be amended, time of debate Policy committees - Deep personal issues - Ex. Abortion, education, environment - Can make a lot of noise & a name for yourself as an advocate Committee activities - Enable members to represent constituent viewpoints = Debate policy, write bills, research on how issues is cared about, hold hearings - Each committee is its own unique group = Represent views of people who care the most, not other congress members = Why bill might not be approved * Just cause bill approved doesn't mean will be passed ** But have higher chance of being passed if go through committees

The states nor the fed gov control voter registration and voting itself

Why have variation in in laws governing elections and voting which affects participation in politics

The democrats blue wave meant that opposition to Trump increased sharply in states and urban and suburban districts where the president was already unpopular, without having much impact upon states and districts in america's small towns and rural areas where the president drew his strongest support

With control of the house Democrats are in a position to block Trump's legislative efforts and to conduct investigations into the president's conduct as well as the activities of trump appointees in the executive branch Democrats are unlikely to see any reason to help the president achieve anything for which he might claim credit in 2020

The president will almost certainly feel compelled to rely ever more heavily on executive orders and other forms of executive action that bypass Congress

With the Senate firmly in Rep hands Trump will continue to use his appointment powers to reshape the bureaucracy and the courts

Members of Congress job description:

are locally elected officials who make national policy Do this through legislation, representation, oversight of bureaucracy (executive branch), education

Public bill:

deals with general rules and categories of behavior, people, & institutions

Older people have much higher rates of participation than do young people, in part b/c

homeownership and property taxes are more common among older people, leading to a greater awareness of the importance of gov

Strategies

ideological/election oriented = to maximize seats Pragmatic/Access oriented = Work with incumbents even if disagree, target resources to powerful incumbents, give money when asked or at time of important vote Mixed Strategies = Mainly support one party's members and support the powerful one

External influences

include a legislators constituency and various interest groups Most constituents pay little attention to politics and often don't even know what policies their reps support - Nonetheless members of Congress spend a lot of time worrying about what their constituents think b/c they realize that the choices they make may be scrutinized in a future election and be used as ammunition by an opposing candidate - b/c of this possibility, members of Congress do try to anticipate their constituents policy views, especially if they think that voters will take them into account during election - In this way constituents may affect congressional policy choices even when there is little direct evidence of their influence Members of Congress pay close attention to interest groups for a number of reasons - Interest groups can = mobilize constituents = Serve as watchdogs on congressional action = Supply candidates with money - When members of Congress are making voting decisions those interest groups that have some connection to constituents in particular districts are more likely to be influential and these groups with the ability to mobilize followers in many congressional district may be especially influential - In recent years Washington based interest groups with little grassroots strength have recognized the importance of locally generated activity so they have sought Astroturf lobbying = Encourage constituents to sign form letters, postcard, or email which are then sent to congressional rep = As such campaigns increase however they become less influential b/c members of Congress are aware of how rare real constituent interests actually is - Many interest groups also use legislative scorecards that rate how members of Congress vote on issues of important to that group = A high or low rating by an important interest group may provide a potent weapon in the next election = Interest groups can increase their influence over a particular piece of legislation by signaling their intention to include it in their scoring - Interest groups also have substantial influence in setting the legislative agenda and in helping to craft specific language in legislation = Today sophisticated lobbyists win influence by providing info about policies, as well as campaign contributions to busy members of Congress - In recent years interest groups have also begun to build broad coalitions and comprehensive campaigns around particular policy issues = These coalitions are put together by Washington lobbyists who lunch comprehensive lobbying campaigns that combine stimulated grassroots activity with info and campaign funding for members of Congress - Close financial ties between members of Congress and interest group lobbyists often raise eyebrows b/c they suggest that interest groups get special treatment in exchange for political donations = Now lobbyists are required to disclose the names of the individual contributors to these political donations * Although the new law provides additional transparency, revealing more about the relationship between lobbyists and members of Congress, it is widely viewed as lacking sufficient authority to go after those who are suspected of ethics violations = SUper PACS have introduced a whole new set of questions about the role of special interests in politics especially b/c donors to Super PACs can remain anonymous * Although they cannot openly coordinate with candidates, Super PACs can endorse candidates by name and are often run by people close to the candidates they support

Internal influences

include party leadership, congressional colleagues, & the president In both the House & Senate party leaders have a good deal of influence over the behavior of their party members - Influence called party discipline, was once so powerful it dominated the lawmaking process Typically party unity is greater in the House than in the Senate - House rules grant greater procedural control of business to the majority party leaders which gives them more influence over House members - In the Senate the leadership has few sanctions over its members

Republican beliefs:

limit immigration, high levels of military spending, cuts in social programs including health care, tax relief for corporations and upper income voters, protecting rights for gun owners, and a social agenda backed by members of conservative religious denominations, including opposition to abortion And limited gov regulation of businesses including environmental laws Appeal to white non-Hispanics, white working class voters, upper class & affluent voters, military families, religious conservatives, and libertarian leaning conservatives who want less govt interference in all aspects of society economy Rural and suburban Mostly men, they prioritize fiscal and economic issues and national security Catholic & WHite Protestants & Evangelical Protestants Working class whites with low levels of ed Conservatives Concentrated in the Mountain West and SOuth and in suburbs/rural areas - Southern Republicanism has come about b/c conservative white southerners associate the Democratic party with liberal positions and policies that benefit urban and minority voters = Also weakness of organized labor in the region & dependence on military programs supported by the Republicans

Party system includes the:

org of the parties, the dominant form of campaigning, the main issue divisions between the parties, the balance of power between and within party coalitions, the parties social and institutional bases, and the policies around which party competition is organized - Have had 6 distinct party systems

Within the Senate the majority party usually designates a member with the greatest seniority to serve as the president pro tempore

president pro tempore = a position of primarily ceremonial leadership

Whether or not people feel engaged or are recruited to participate in politics depends on their political environment

that is, social setting, their friends and family, where they live, what associations they belong to

The religious affiliations of members of both the House & senate are overwhelmingly Protestant

the distribution is very close to the proportion in the pop at large Catholics come 2nd, Jews 3rd Directly affects congressional debate on a limited range of issue where different moral views are at stake, like abortion

Two media techniques that became important in the 1900s were

the talk show interview and town hall meet

Descriptive representation:

when individuals are represented in gov by officials of their same race, ethnicity, ir gender, allowing minority groups to have a greater ability to affect policy outcomes May also confer symbolic beliefs such as reducing levels of political alienation among racial & ethnic minorities