Pols 207 Exam 1 Study Material

ability to pay

redistributing income; taxes are gathered based on the __ _ __, and the services are provided to all who are eligible, regardless of their wealth. There are two prominent bases for measuring ability to pay: income and wealth. Income funds is brought in over 1 year, and wealth is the value of what is owned now.

causal relationship

relationship where one variable causes the other - states with many college graduates had higher per capita income. A causal relationship such as this is desirable because it may show states how they can achieve goals. A legislature sought to raise per capita income in its state could focus on how to increase the number of its residents with college degrees, perhaps by lowering tuition or instituting a student loan program with a low interest rate - something can be done

cause and effect

research about what causes what, incorrect causal identification: state legislatures typically take final action on a large % of the bills they pass in the final days of legislative sessions. This so-called legislative logjam of business builds up during the session and is cleared at the very end. Many observers see this as an undesirable practice, arguing that important decisions are being made under severe time constraints and conditions that are chaotic. Critics advise state legislatures to implement certain practices, such as deadlines for introducing bills, to minimize these end-of-session logjams. In research comparing 37 state legislatures, we hypothesized a negative relationship between use of recommended practices and logjam size - the opposite was true, thinking that procedural reforms would cause smaller logjams when in reality only legislatures with logjam problems were motivated to implement procedural changes intended to reduce them - logjams causes legislative reforms.

health

residents of the 10 states with the highest cancer death rates are more than twice as likely to die of heart disease as are those living in Alaska and Utah - this proves to be largely a result of the % of a state's residents that are 65 or older. The South stands out, with the lowest general life expectancy. Hawaiians live the longest, but residents of the upper Midwest and Western states live nearly as long. Unfortunately, there is little evidence that states with cleaner air and water or better health care infrastructure have longer life expectancy - the major factor is related to infant mortality.

incrementalism

small, predictable, linear changes in policy over long periods of time to state government budgets and decision making; that the best indicator of this year's budget is last year's budget plus a small addition or deduction. Each year, they start with information on a series of past decisions: amounts spent or authorized for spending, requests from agencies, revenue estimates, and executive recommendations. Organizations make modest changes in annual spending based on the compromises between budget numbers submitted by agencies, executive branches, and the appropriations committees to form the budget.

abortion

social problem; there is a continuing dispute between the pro-choice and anti-abortion groups concerning abortion and the prospect that state legislatures might be given greater latitude in legislating when and if further restrictions on abortion are allowed. States at the top of the ranking (such as NY, NY, MD) tend to be more metropolitan states, where we might expect modern lifestyles, availability, and anonymity lead to more abortions. The states at the bottom of the ranking tend to be upper Western and Northeastern states, plus Southern states. Even within the limitations imposed by Roe v. Wade, some state legislatures might seem to be able to curtail the use of abortion.

public policies

state differences; all the things a government decides to do - such as whether they allow capital punishment, spend much money on education or on fighting crime, or commit public funds to paying for the costs of higher education.

wealth

state differences; some states have more wealthy people among their populations. 'per capita income' is the average income of every man, woman, and child in the state (all income in the state divided by its population). On average, residents of some states enjoy higher incomes. A state with a very high per capita income will have many more resources for dealing with social problems and providing government resources. Connecticut, New Jersey, and Massachusetts rank as the 3 wealthiest states, and Mississippi, West Virginia and Arkansas rank as the 3 poorest incomes

politics

state differences; states differ in the nature of their policies - some are much more likely to vote for Republican candidates or to embrace restricting abortion or dealing with poverty.

social problems

state differences; states differ in these problems they have - some have substantial numbers of poor people, some have more crime, and some have many school-aged children or many elderly. More likely to get murdered in the South; lower unemployment in the Great Plains area and higher in the more populous/metropolitan states; amount of school-aged children in a state determines amount of (high/low) tax burden for education; outside of the South, most states either rarely use capital punishment or have no laws imposing it.

political institutions

state differences; the different structures of a political system that carry out the work of governing.

physical and demographic attributes

state differences; this includes the types of people that live within each state. The 50 states differ greatly both in size and population. More populous and typically more diverse states, however, assure a full range of occupations that result from more complex or well-developed economies. The less populous states lack such economies, as they are not industrialized. An agricultural or ranching state needs few high-paying professional jobs.

government revenue

state governments typically derive their revenue from 4 major sources: 24% federal transfer payments, 21% payment into trust funds for employee retirement, unemployment, and workers' compensation, and other insurance trusts, 19% sales tax contributions, and 17% from income taxes on individuals and corporations. The individual income tax and federal payroll taxes make up 80% of federal revenues, while states rely on more and varied sources

finding the "best" state

states differ in many ways that have important implications about the quality or performance of state government and about the quality of our daily lives. We might prefer to live in a state that enacts programs consistent with our personal values. While we may desire that the state with the best job for us, with the best climate, and with people like us be the same as the state with the best public policies, we probably forego the correct policies if we can satisfy other desires. Most will move nearly anywhere in the U.S. for a good job. There is not "best" state for everyone

social concern

students paying for college via ability to pay is conventional and traditional because of the social concern about the consequences of failing to educate the poor; in a district, most support the ability to pay as the basis for paying district-wide educational expenses, it true across the country; statewide, wealth of the rich districts being redistributed to those that are poor is nontraditional and the social benefits are less evident - also states are in competition with one another for attracting new industries and high-paying jobs for the most educated. Ultimately, support for the idea of ability to pay for covering public education breaks down outside the local area.

liberals and conservatives

terms frequently used to characterize the preferences of political leaders and of voters. Candidates use these words to describe their opponents in negative advertising - goal being to communicate that opponents are extremists, out of touch with the public, a danger, and unworthy of public office. Some think of L and C in terms of the preferred role, size or fiscal/monetary policies of government. Others have social or foreign policies in mind. There is a mild consistency between political culture and political ideology - traditionalistic equated to conservative, individualistic equated to liberal, and moralistic in between however there are exceptions

reserve powers amendment

the 10th amendment, "the powers not delegated to the U.S. government by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved for the states respectively, or to the people." This clause seems to grant a large range of powers, some to the states and others to people

due process and equal protection clause

the 14th amendment, "nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." Forced the states to stop discrimination

education expenditures

the 4th most expensive governmental service, public primary and secondary education, takes 12% of all governmental expenditures and is paid almost exclusively by state and local governments. The federal government pays only 6% of primary and secondary education expenses. Considering all the national discussion of our educational system's deficiencies, the supposed need for us to compete other countries, and the claims of presidents that they would improve education in the U.S., it may be surprising to find that the federal government does not have much to do with financing mandatory public education.

state tax dependencies

the South introduced the state sales tax; the Upper Midwest intitated the income tax; the Northeast has greater dependency on the property tax. All of this strongly suggests that while there are regional traditions in the use of taxes, state legislators over time have relied on all to cover the services they provide. This means that the unfairness of using sales taxes may not have been their concern. Also, essentially all state taxes other than progressive income taxes have regressive tax incidences. In addition, transfer payments from the state and the federal governments have increasingly supplemented local tax revenues - but even with these transfers, the cities still depend on the regressive property tax

age groups

the elderly tend to concentrate in some sections of the country - Florida comes to mind as a state where elders retire, but the other states with at least 15% of the population being 65 years or older are: West Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Maine. Legislators in many states in the Northeast and Great Plains face particular policy needs and demands caused by their more elderly populations, such as medial programs for seniors. For school-aged children, the reverse is the case - states with few elderly have more school-aged children. Demands for those states would include improved schools and safety.

tax effort

the extent to which government takes resources in taxes. From the perspective of taxpayers, the proportion of ability-to-pay resources taken in taxes is called 'tax burden'. A government's __ __ is the aggregation of individual tax burdens. Across the country, there is a strong correlation between per capita income of a state and that state's per capita taxes

deficit spending

the federal government's ability to produce revenue from taxes and to __ put it in a superior position compared to state and local governments. The federal gov used these resources to help the nation get out of the Depression and to win WWII. A popular conclusion was the federal government is of the right scale to deal with problems that extend beyond not only the borders of local or state government, but also beyond national boundaries

federal government's income tax

the first source of federal involvement in this era came with the New Deal programs passed by the Roosevelt administration in 1932. National public aid expenditures went up in the late 1930s, while state and local governments remained largely unchanged. Readopted in 1913, but especially in the 1930s this tax had a huge impace in the modern era, it generated bountiful revenue for the federal government even moreso after 1960. The graduated income tax, in combination with the authority to borrow money, gave the financial government an unprecedented resource base - making the federal the wealthiest government

spurious relationship

the independent variable, competition and control divided between political parties, does not cause payment level to be disabled. Key correctly noted that the South was overwhelmingly controlled by one party and had miserly governmental services for the less fortunate. He was wrong that the lack of competition caused stingy programs. With the South controlled or removed, there is no empirical relationship between competition and generosity to the poor.

tax base

the maximum amount of earnings on which a tax is calculated; simply that which is subject to the tax - the property, income, and sales being taxed. It is multiplied by tax rate to determine tax liability - individual tax bills. What people call 'tax loopholes' are exclusions of property, income, and sales from these bases, governments do offer advantages through rates. One of the reasons tax codes are so hard to understand is those who give and receive preferential benefits would rather keep them hidden

traffic deaths

the most dangerous state to drive in is Montana, with 2.3 deaths per one hundred million miles driven, the safest is Massachusetts, with about a fatality rate approximately 1/3 of Montana's rate. Generally, the rural West and South are most dangerous when driving a car. The states with the fewest fatalities have half as many as states in the top 10 - they tend to be more metropolitan states but certainly not states with warm climates.

redistribution policy

the use of taxes based on the ability to pay to fund government programs such as education 'redistributes' the wealth of the rich to the poor. Some government revenue and expenditure programs involve this policy. Through government, money is redistributed from the wealthy in taxes to the poor in services. The tax rate in the example is a fixed or "flat" rate, the same rate applies to all taxpayers. Self-interest is heavily involved: the wealthy want to reduce taxes and move to more user-pay services and the poor want to have taxes pay more of services they receive rather than having to pay for these services themselves; the middle class will prefer private-sector provided services, and the working class will prefer public-sector or governmental services - all based on self-interest

state constitutions

these constitutions were basically colonial charters quickly written to weaken the office of the governor, who had been the king's governor up to that time. Had the charters not existed, our state and federal constitutions might not have been written. The Southern post-Civil War, Constitutions were revised with great length and detail, in order to incorporate restrictions on government and give the public a substantial role in state government. It may be only coincidental that strong interests and weak political parties are found in long-constitution states (the South)

performance budgeting

type of budgeting which explicitly links funding to substantive agency and program mission in budget and appropriations documents. During each budget cycle, past performances are reviewed and evaluated - and funding is given or taken accordingly

zero-based budgeting

type of budgeting which requires each agency to defend not only the requested increase in their budgets from one budget to the next, but also all dollars in each budget. Without adequate defense of even the last year's budget, the agency might get a zero budget (no funds)

confederacy national government

type of national government; the 13 original colonies needed to give up some of their authority to fight the American revolution. What evolved was a confederacy, and ultimately, after many years of fighting the war, the Articles of Confederation, 1781-1789, formalized this organization. This type represents the absolute minimum concession of authority from organizing policies to the new central administration. A 'government of governments' undertakes programs and services desired by all constituent governments. The central government was set up to fight the war but not authorized to collect taxes to pay for it or to draft troops to fight it. Typically, each government in a confederacy retains the right to veto and stop actions by the central gov with a single negative vote

unitary national government

type of national government; under this government, a national government oversees the entire nation. If they exist, regional and local governments merely do the bidding of the national government, With the growing power and importance of the federal government in the US, some have suggested that we revise our Constitution to have this type of national government. States would act as non-sovereign administrative regions. To achieve greater efficiency, smaller Northeastern states might be combined to become the state of New England. This would substantially alter our government and the dynamics of our politics. Changing arenas would no longer be a feasible strategy.

American federalism

type of national government; when the states' representatives met in Philly to amend the Articles of Confederation they exceeded their authority and drafted a new Constitution. It established a federal form of government, the first ever. Two governments for each individual, purpose of its complexity is to allow the central government to cope with national problems without the unanimous consent of the states. Due to the 'Supremacy Clause', when there is a conflict of national vs state/local laws, Constitutional national law takes precedence

income tax

type of tax; both federal and state governments imposed these taxes before 1900 - to finance the Civil War; Wisconsin in 1911 implemented first successful; by 1920, nine other states followed; 43 states now have it, only 4 lack a corporate tax. Some income can be exempt (pension and retirement); state income taxes usually allow deductions available to federal income tax payers: mortgage interest, business expenses, education expenses, and health care expenses

sales tax

type of tax; most recent tax, first introduced in Mississippi in 1932 first introduced a general tax on a broad range of items bought in retail establishments within the state. This tax followed more selective state taxes, such as the tax imposed on gasoline that Oregon introduced in 1919, spread to all states by 1929. The general tax also spread rapidly, as 13 more states introduced it in 1933; now 45 states have it on most goods. Typically, you pay more than 5% but less than 10% of the value of what you buy in tax, most of which goes to state government. 24 states also collect and remit sales taxes for local governments. In all cases, the tax is a flat-rate tax. Tax exemptions include: real estate, stock/bond sales, and other financial instruments - relatively inexpensive everyday purchases are taxed.

property tax

type of tax; taxes on real property, land and permanent improvements, have been imposed for hundreds of years. Government, especially local government, collects taxes on property in its jurisdiction. All property owners pay the same rate, regardless of the quantity and value of property they own - a flat-rate tax. Despite its inequities (regressive tax), this tax persists as the primary source of local government tax revenues

national defense expenditures

until 1941, only a small part of the federal budget was devoted to national defense - in 1940, it received only 18% of the $9.5 billion federal government budget. After declaration of war, the proportion increased to 43% in 1941 and 69% in 1942. Defense expenditures since then have been around 20%

importance of government spending

we can now appreciate that a key element of American federalism is fiscal. The federal government takes the blame for raising 66% of government spending. State and local governments collect the other 34% but receive the credit for 43% of total government spending. No wonder that most Americans view the federal government as extraordinarily wasteful and inefficient and view state/local governments as more prudent and efficient! Without counting federal grants twice, total spending by all governments in 2007 was $4.4 trillion. If you did not pay at least $14,521 in all government taxes and fees in 2007, you did not pay your share.

democratic and republican legislatures

we might expect states where the Democrats control to differ in policies from those controlled by the Republicans. The mass media certainly speak of the Dems as willing to expand government and provide new services, while the Reps are ever seeking to cut taxes and services. State government divided between parties is as common as single-party control. In any given election, more than 85-90% of voters may be voting a straight ticket - in close elections, less partisan and non-partisan voters determine outcomes and their loyalties are likely to change. Quality of candidate is more important than party affiliation, partisan voters simply don't vote when they don't like their party's candidate. Two other factors help account for divided partisan control: timing of elections and gerrymandering

regressive

when the poor pay a greater proportion of their income and their wealth in property taxes than do the wealthy. As wealth goes up, the % of one's wealth on which the property tax is collected decreases. Property tax is __ because the poor have more of their assets in property that is taxed, and the wealthy own additional valuable property that is not taxed: savings, stocks, bonds, and other securities. For one matter, the poor who do not own property still pay property taxes as part of their rent. And the home-owning poor have larger proportions of their wealth in their residences than the more affluent do

3 actors in federal system

1) Congress and the president, 2) state legislatures and executives, and 3) the U.S. Supreme Court. Congress can pass laws, and the states can pass laws. When Congress passes a law and the president signs it, we have a national standard set, such as having no handguns in schools and a 55 mph speed limit.

United States v Lopez

1995 - The Commerce Clause of the Constitution does not give Congress the power to prohibit mere possession of a gun near a school, because gun possession by itself is not an economic activity that affects interstate commerce even indirectly.

minorities

Americans include many nationalities, races, and religions. African Americans: top 10 states are Southern states, few live in upper New England or in north Mountain West/Great Plains. Implications for government programs such as affirmative action and the nature of politics in these states. Hispanics: the states closest to the Hispanic North American countries have the most - however, Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey are far away but have large Hispanic populations (due to employment in metropolitan areas). States with few Hispanics prove to be a diverse group among US states, sharing only their relatively low metropolitan populations.

national speed limits

Congress first passed the 55 mph national speed limit in 1973 to help conserve oil when OPEC threatened our oil supply. The Supreme Court subsequently rules that setting a national speed limit exceeded the powers granted to Congress by the Constitution. Congress bypassed the Court's ruling by tying funds granted to the states for highways to their enactment of a 55 mph speed limit, and all states did. The federal government retained the speed limit as a safety measure, as supposedly, people driving slower saves lives - states retained the limits only because they needed the federal dollars to build and maintain highways. As predicted, most removed the limit within days of Congress voting to allow the states to regulate their highways.

full faith and credit clause

Constitutional clause forcing states to recognize official acts of other states, such as marriages, divorces, and abortions

necessary and proper clause

Constitutional clause that gives congress the power to make all laws "necessary and proper" for executing its powers. To some scholars, known as "loose constructionists", the federal government has many more implied and potential powers from this clause

privileges and immunities clause

Constitutional clause that means that states have to grant nonresidents the same privileges and immunities that they accord to their residents

rendition or extradition clause

Constitutional clause, if a state requests extradition or that a person charged with a crime be made available to be brought back to the state where the alleged crime took place, the requested governor is supposed to make that person available

Nathan's factors

Nathan argued there is a cycle in the interplay between state governments and the federal government, with each temporarily leading the way in innovative policy. Beginning in 1980,he saw 5 factors contributing to this new trend: 1) the New Federalism of the Reagan administration that sought to cut federal underwriting to domestic programs, 2) the modernization of state governments - improved managerial and technical capacity, 3) the reapportionment of state legislatures and especially suburbs, 4) the South catching up with the rest of the states in gov resource capacity, and 5) he believed the states overreacted to the sharp recession of the US economy in 1980-1981 by passing new taxes and sharply curtailing expenses

enumerated powers

Powers specifically given to Congress in the Constitution; including the power to collect taxes, coin money, regulate foreign and interstate commerce, and declare war. To some scholars, known as "strict constructionists", the federal government has powers other than these 16

Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority

Supreme Court case (1985); in a case decided by a narrow vote, the SC refused to identify "traditional" areas of state governing that are beyond the powers of Congress. The Court's majority refused to define such traditional areas. Instead, it said that the process of federalism should preserve the states. Since the states have representatives both in the House and Senate, they can influence Congress to respect powers of the states. Until Congress enacts a law, they said, the states could take action. The decision went on to say when Congress acts, the states must comply

cost of living

The average cost of life's basic necessities, such as shelter, food, and clothing. The US federal government collects data and calculates cost of living indexes only for selected metropolitan areas - Massachusetts was the most expensive state in which to live, and Mississippi the least expensive. Generally, Southern states have lower costs and Northeastern states have higher costs. Wealthier states will receive more revenues per capita with lower tax rates than those of poorer states.

commerce clause

The section of the Constitution in which Congress is given the power to regulate trade among the states and with foreign countries. This clause was, of course, the primary motivation for the new Constitution and has been the basis of much of the federal government's involvement in the national economy

participation in elections

a democratic public is supposed to participate in government. Elections are supposed to be opportunities for citizens to express their preferences between candidates offering different plans of action. Most people's political actions affecting government are limited to voting - although other possibilities include contributing money, working on campaigns, running for office, attending meetings of government bodies, and contacting government officials, few Americans do much other than vote. Moralistic states tend to have high turnout, traditionalistic states have low turnout, and individualistic states are in the middle

federal government

a form of government in which powers are divided between a central government and several local governments. American government is one of the most complex systems to be found in any nation, system is largely defined by the US constitution and US Supreme Court decisions interpreting it. If the national government passes a law, it is the "supreme" law of the land, overriding any states.

homestead exemption

a method of making property tax more equitable; a statutory protection of real property used as a home from the claims of certain creditors and judgments up to a specified amount.

circuit breaker

a method of making property tax more equitable; sets a maximum % of a person's income that will be collected as property taxes, called the __ __

correlated relationship

a relationship may not be causal, while the existence of a strong empirical relationship between variables does not prove one variable is causing the other. There is a positive relationship across the states between number of clergy and bible sales, as well as many other things. A greater number of clergy does not directly cause any of these empirical relationships - they are 'spurious'

severance tax

a tax paid by the producers or extractors of certain minerals taken from the earth such as oil, coal, natural gas, and sulfur. To the extent the final consumers are residents of other states, these taxes can be shifted, exported out of state.

voting methods

after the controversial 2000 election, the extended focus on voting difficulties identified many challenges to correctly counting votes. Only 26 states use only one technology for recording and counting votes, and with the exception of Alaska, states assign responsibility for administering elections for federal, state, and local elections to more officials of local governments, almost always to county governments. Voting procedures vary greatly among the states; no consistent counting or recording procedure; the act of voting can leave justifiable uncertainty that one has really cast a proper vote that will be counted the way it was voted.

length of sessions in the state legislature

an institutional difference is the number of days that the various state legislatures meet over the 2-year period between elections. It used to be that all American legislatures met for a few days every other year. We might expect that more time in legislative session gives the opportunity for more deliberation on agenda items - might result in better policies. Thus, we might expect that states with more business to transact would have longer sessions. However, it's proven length of sessions is not caused by number of bills submitted.

poverty

another perspective on the wealth of a state's public can be gained by looking at the percentage of the population living in poverty. There are 13 states where more than one resident in seven is living in poverty. 7 are Southern states, 3 border Southern states, and 2 are Southwestern states. Unlike the pattern for per capita personal income, the Mountain West and Great Plains states, while lacking high per capita personal incomes, do not have high percentages of their publics living in poverty. Only the South and Southwest have states that are both low in income and high in poverty.

tax incidence

concept that takes into account tax rates, tax bases, and tax shifting to determine who pays more and who pays less. Neutral __ occurs when the bills for all taxpayers are the same proportions of their abilities to pay. Progressive occurs when those with greater ability to pay are taxed a larger proportion than those with lesser ability. Regressive is the opposite: those with the lowest ability to pay are taxed a larger proportion than those with greater ability.

crime and prisoners

crime varies across the US. In 2007, there were 467 violent crimes and 3264 property crimes per 100,000 people nationwide. South Carolina leads the states with more than 5000 total crimes per 100,000 residents. There is a major difference in violent crime rates for states located above and below 40 degrees north latitude, states in more southern latitudes also have higher property crimes rates. The lowest property crimes rates are found in the Northeastern states, Virginia, the Dakotas, and Idaho. Amount of persons incarcerated in jails and prisons, affected by regionalism - most Southern states are above the regression line while NE and NW states are below. States with greater crime rates have greater incarceration rates.

transparency in government

during the federal gov era (1932-present); conditions on how individual grants could be spent gave grantors important influence over recipients. General requirements applied to all grants were even more important. Providers of these funds wanted proof money had been spent appropriately. As a result, state and local governments had to maintain accurate financial records. Moreover, these records had to be available for review by those outside of the spending government. To document that they were eligible for grant programs, more local governments had to provide information to more central governments. Keeping secrets became too expensive. Intergovernmental grants were used as tools to encourage more honest and ethical behavior. Information requirements and open records reduced opportunities for corruption in government

role of guardian

during the federal government era (1932-Present); federal resources and power became more important in the workings of state and local governments and the lives of citizens. It became responsible for softening the impact of economically bad times. As the US took on a leadership role among nations after WWII, defense and international security became permanent prime missions for the federal government. It was also assigned responsibility in domestic affairs for guaranteeing income for elderly and disabled Americans, for protecting the environment, for safety in workplaces, for assuring quality education, for eliminating discrimination, for reducing crime and porn, and for protecting the integrity of baseball

urban machines

during the municipal government period (1850-1895), it was inevitable that large city politicians, elected from ethnically distinct districts or wards, would recognize the benefits of developing "solid neighborhood loyalty". By being a friend of that neighborhood in providing of city services, the politician assured his party's reelection success - called "ward heelers". Provided services (social and economic opportunities) to constituents, who then supported them for reelection despite their corruption - public knowledge that ward heelers took bribes, kept tax funds, granted special favors, and made life difficult for their enemies. Even so, machines could not be defeated in elections so mid to upper class opponents of them went to the state legislature to end their reign

municipal reform

during the state intercity gov period (1895-1932), corruption was rampant with political machines controlling everything. The economic crash of 1873 caused many cities to default on their debt and to even relinquish their status as cities - arguments for 'state legislative supervision' for the moral order of cities gained favor with state legislators in the 1870s. Reforms imposed by state governments on urban municipalities changed the rules of political engagement: election reforms stopped machines from remaining in power, they became nonpartisan and held at different times of the year than partisan state and federal contests and ballots control shifted from the parties to the municipal government which made voting fair

common law

during the state intercity gov period (1895-1932), increasingly the __ __ that we had adopted from Great Britain proved inadequate to cope with the new problems of an industrialized and urbanized state. This type of law is a series of case-by-case judicial court principles for resolving disputes. State legislatures needed to be more active in passing statutes to undo a common law that predated modern life. Because it controlled the land between cities, state government became active in passing statutes to regulate interstate commerce.

civil service system

during the state intercity gov period (1895-1932), other reforms changed the status of mayors and city employees, mayoral powers strengthened with the task of reorganizing municipal agencies to achieve greater efficiency. Another major change was implementation of a __ __ __. Municipal employees were chosen by merit rather than political loyalty - retained their position for performance and not for delivering votes to machine leaders. On the whole, the reforms were intended to remove corruption from municipal elections and administration, as a result the reforms also reduced the participation and political influence of the immigrant and working class

changing the arena of conflict

during the state intercity gov period (1895-1932), the widespread municipal reforms were an excellent example of __ to improve chances of winning in a political conflict. The groups who had lost out in the politics of industrialized municipalities remained in control of state and national governments. If they could pass laws at these levels of government and force them on the municipalities, they could win at the state levels what they had lost at the municipal levels. To do so, they had to establish the right of states to tell municipalities that they had to enact civil service procedures for employment, have voter registration, and keep functional budgets subject to inspection, among other things.

state and local government

each is part of the federal system of government, and their local governments must largely comply with any standards their state might impose. Each state has its own constitution that shapes actions in that state. State and local create policies and activities that have the greatest impact on daily lives.

percentage metropolitan

each metropolitan area contains either a place with a minimum population of 50,000 or a Census Bureau-defined urbanized area and a total population of at least 100,000. By this definition, the population of the U.S. in 2006 was 93.5% metropolitan. Have higher per capita income; more abortions; more murders. In general, the most populous states have many people living in metropolitan areas. The least metropolitan states apart from northern New England, run in a belt including the traditional South (exceptions of Florida and Texas), many rural Midwestern states, and northern Mountain West and Plains states. The geography of several Western states discourages rural settlement and results in their being among the most metropolitan of our states even though their urban centers were not created primarily by industrialization.

New Federalism

earlier in American history, the states and communities, being responsive to local constituencies, could enact local standards, but beginning in this era, national standards took precedence over local standards. Republicans interpreted their victories in the 1980 and 1994 congressional elections as widespread support for what Reagan called __ __. It posited three tenets: individuals make better decisions than institutions; businesses make better decisions than governments; and governments closer to the people make better decisions than more distant ones. Proponents pledged to use 3 principles in governing: 1) the private sector is superior to the public sector, 2) less government is preferable to more government, and 3) state and local governments make better decisions than the federal government

private and public goods

economists argue the government should provide these goods, and that services should be retained in the private sector. The first consideration is whether goods are 'excludable', meaning that sellers can guarantee the benefits of goods and services to those who pay and exclude those who don't. The second consideration is whether a good or service used by one person reduces what is available for others, if so it should be a private good. On the other hand, when everyone can use a good or service without denying it to others, it is 'non-rivaling'. Markets fail when potential customers think they can benefit without paying or should not have to pay for benefits they are receiving. The crucial element of 'voluntary exchange' has been eliminated.

merit goods

government activity could be appropriate whenever the private sector does not provide what is needed, how do we decide what is needed? These are things we think should not be denied to those who are unable to pay for them. Consensus, they include: food for the hungry, shelter for the homeless, and aid of all kinds to victims of natural disasters

tax

governments must have revenues to pay for governmental services such as roads and education. In the United States, taxes provide the largest share of government revenues. Any given state or local government's taxes are paid mainly by people and businesses within a state. A government with only poor residents cannot provide services similar to those offered by a government with mostly wealthy residents. Tax revenues are not dependent solely on tax rates. Revenues available to a state legislature depend also on its public's ability to pay taxes; and that can best be judged by the wealth of the state.

self-dependence

idea from the 'no government period' (1776-1850), that if something unfortunate happened you were on your own. The best government was the least government, largely because little or no government was the only thing available. When you did have contact with the government, such as with the sheriff, troops, or a tax collector, it was usually a negative experience.

vote with their feet

if Congress or the Supreme Court makes a law, it is likely to reflect a national consensus and will be enforced at least fairly consistently across the land. When a state or local government makes a law, however, it is enforced only by that government and reflects only a local preference for the policy - we might expect state and local laws to differ from one state or community to the next. Local government laws may only apply with that city, county, or school district. This allows people to move to state and locals governments with policies and tax levels they prefer

reactive

if we always view state governments as __ agents, we always expect that state efforts will be negatively correlated with good results. A more sophisticated approach would be to recognize that sometimes state governments are powerful actors and sometimes they are reactors whose ability to make bad situations become good is limited. How often are state/local governments proactive vs. reactive? Ira Sharkansky tested the idea that state/local governments that spend more have better outcomes than state/local governments that spend less. In his study, none of the correlations was strong enough to conclude spending alone exerts a pervasive influence on the nature of public services. Correlations between education expenditures suggested that state/local government programs were proactive; correlations between public safety expenditures and rates for rape, robbery, burglary, larceny, and auto theft all suggested that state/local governments react to crime rates

proactive

if we always view state governments as powerful, __ agents, we always expect that state program efforts will be positively correlated with good results. States attempt to deal with a wide range of problems, they pursue public policies to achieve certain outcomes. The goal of government action is to reduce problems and enhance the lives of citizens, so many of us assume and expect the following causal directions: effective government actions cause better social conditions. When social condition is measured in terms of desired outcomes - successes and benefits - there should be a positive correlation with government action. Government is assumed to be __ in dealing with problems and working to achieve goals

Dillon's rule

in 1878, John Dillon extended the ideas of common law that argue local government should deal with services that can be easily, cheaply, and intelligently offered, while state governments should have more general powers. His rule severely constrained opportunities for municipalities to deal with their problems creatively and independently. It also limited opportunities for municipalities to ignore problems. Thus state legislatures became more active producers of statutes designed to remove corruption, introduce efficiency in municipal services, and some were granted the ability to make franchise agreements with private businesses.

state and local spending

in 2007, American state and local governments spent $1.9 trillion. Through simple arithmetic (2.9 + 1.9), we could calculate total government spending as 4.8 trillion dollars, 60% federal and 40% state and local. But that conclusion would be incorrect - federal grants, funds transferred from the federal government to state and local governments, are included in both spending totals. Federal grant funds in 2007 amounted to more than $376 billion, or 9% of government spending. Total government spending in 2007 was comprised of 57% raised and spent by the federal government, 34% raised and spent by the state and local governments, and 9% raised by the federal government but spent by the state and local governments.

federal spending

in 2007, the federal government spent nearly $2.9 trillion. This would have allowed making 2.9 million millionaires, or about one millionaire per every 104 Americans. With the population of the United States having been nearly 302 million in 2007, federal spending was $9,508 for every American.

government expenditures

in 2007, the spending by all three levels of government in top spending areas: the top 7 account for 78% of all spending, the federal government provides Social Security and defense and more than half of government funding for health, welfare, and social services, housing, and community development, and natural resources. The federal gov pays the greatest share of governmental interest payments, 76%. The fed gov does not do much in the areas of elementary/secondary education; police, courts, and prisons; highways or fire services - covered by state and local mostly. Health and hospitals is the most expensive government service - about 20% of all governmental expenditures go to this service, fed gov pays over half. National defense and Social Security are the 2nd and 3rd most expensive - about 13% of expenditures, paid for mainly by the fed gov.

state media evaluations

in 2008, Forbes, CNBC, and CQ Press ranked the states from best to worst - characterizing either 'quality of life' or 'state livability' as the defining factor. With strong agreement between all three rankings - New Hamphire, New Jersey, Minnesota, and Utah are the consensus best states to live in. Alabama, Arkansas, South Carolina, Louisiana, and Mississippi are the consensus worst states to live in.

college education

in America, the % of those completing college has increased dramatically - in 1960, less than 8% of Americans 25 years or older held bachelor's degrees or greater, but by 2005, it tripled to 27%. The population percentages for bachelor's degrees or greater looks similar to the per capita income map, suggesting higher education assures higher incomes. This would have important implications for legislators seeking to improve the incomes of their residents. They must ensure that an increasing proportion of state residents both complete HS and acquire baccalaureate degrees.

carrying concealed weapons

in May of 1995, Texas governor George W Bush signed into law the right of Texas to carry concealed handguns with proper permits. Texas joined Florida and several other states in enacting this law that was supposed to deter crime. The argument for claims criminals would hesitate knowing a prospective victim was carrying; arguments against claim criminals might just shoot first, carriers might shoot themselves or bystanders, and the result could be arguments being solved with gunfire more regularly. Since the enactment of the law in Florida years after Texas, nothing has happened differently than before enactment - crime has not reduced and no greater number of innocent bystanders have been shot that before. Why does evidence of the effect of proposed laws weigh so little in their enactment by other states?

high school education

in the 20th century, the most common measure of a state's education was the % of residents with at least a ___ ___ ___. In 1960, about 41% of people over 25 years old had at least HS educations, but by 2005, this had soared to more than 84%, the % more than doubled. Like the poverty map, the South stands out as poorly educated. The high school education map does not seem to correspond well with the per capita income map. Many states, notably Utah and Montana, have high levels of HS or better educations but not high per capita incomes.

term limits

in the case US Term Limits v. Thornton (1995), by a narrow vote of 5-4, the Court declared that state restrictions on who could run for Congress were unconstitutional. Even voters cannot set congressional standards other than citizenship, a minimum age, and residency in the state where an official is elected. Limits were struck down for Congress but let stand the limits on state legislators. All states have great latitude in setting standards for who can run for state and local offices and how elections are administered.

progressive tax

income taxes assessed by the federal and most state governments have __ __. This means that as one's taxable income increases, the tax rate increases.

education

is often seen as a means for people to improve their future earnings. Similarly, legislators see improving education as a way to make their states more competitive in attracting businesses with high-paying jobs. According to this argument, businesses with a choice among states will go to the state with the better educated residents because more will be available to fill positions requiring better educations. The lack of an educated public may keep a state poor as better paying jobs go elsewhere. An educated population is typically a component of "best for business" measures in media evaluations of states.

winning and losing

it is not possible for everyone to get more and pay less for government over time. On the other hand, it is possible for some to get more without increasing what is provided if others get less. It is possible for some to pay less without decreasing revenues to government if others pay more. Politics is all about __ __ __. Many define it in terms of what they pay and what they get. Yet most of us are ignorant about what we pay to and what we get from the government

government budgets

much of what we characterize as politics centers on drafting budget proposals and passing appropriations. Decisions about how government will spend money have major impacts on who receives more and who receives less - they determine winners and losers. They are at the heart of politics in all organizations

planned program budgeting

new forms of budgeting in the 1960s and 70s were created to improve efficiency - these reforms compares the program goals, program achievements, and program spending. This required agencies to compute the costs of each of their services, thus making it quite evident which services were least and most costly, which then could be made to be more efficient or stricken from the budget

tax shifting

occurs when the individuals are able to pass the cost of their taxes to others. This most frequently occurs in business situations - landlords receive and pay property tax bills, but they pass the costs on to the renters. Rental property owners use rent income to pay taxes, private companies make greater profits to the extent they can pass on their costs of doing business to customers. Taxes are cost of doing business

competition between political parties

party competition has been considered of primary importance in state politics since V.O. Key's groundbreaking study of the US South in 1949. The Democrats had complete control of the government - political situations favored the wealthy over the poor, the poor rarely voted or ran for office so the dominant party's candidates responded only to the demands of the wealthy. During times of competition between parties, turnout increases and less of the affluent vote. As parties become equal in strength they will seek to expand their supporters by promising policies that use government to help the 'have-nots' - for their votes, the poor get governmental services.

individualistic

political culture; emphasizes the conception of the democratic order as a marketplace. From this perspective, "a government is instituted for strictly utilitarian reasons, to handle those functions demanded by the people it is created to serve." There is a belt of state included in this culture that runs from Mass. through the US industrial heartland. In these states, immigrants from all over Europe found employment in the industrial revolution and settled in rather squalid conditions in these cities. Conditions made them receptive of the idea of having government provide them necessary services - they were willing to pay taxes to underwrite these services. Government is thought to be won through political competition, citizens should participate in elections and other political activities to gain power and influence. Example states: Mass., NY, Illinois

moralistic

political culture; ranges along the northern border in a belt from Maine to Oregon. Is good government, promoting the public goods of honesty and selflessness, and governments serving God's purpose define this political culture. Like the traditionalistic culture, this derives from the ideas that whites brought with them, this time from Northern Europe, where Protestant religions predominate. Government is considered to serve God, thus must do what is morally correct - might be expected to regard corruption in public office as unacceptable and to demand that merit, not who one knows, be the basis for selecting who will get public jobs. Participation in elections and other political activities is a civic duty; little disagreement on morals; turnout in elections should be high. Example states: Wisconsin, Minnesota, Dakotas

traditionalistic

political culture; reflects a political orientation that predates the industrialization and urbanization of the US and rests on the 'normal' ordering of society going back to England (immigrant influence). Those of wealth and position were expected to rule and to have their property protected by the government from theft by others. Turnout in elections and other political participation should be low. Decisions were to be made by those most capable, not by typical citizens. The government is to play little other roles - no one expects an active government seeking to end corruption, to lessen the impact of economically tight times, or to deal with immorality. Poor states with substantial minority populations behave in this manner. And in general, the Southern states maintain this political culture. Example states: South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi

no government period

political history (1776-1850); at the end of the successful fight for independence, a nation of many states evolved into a new federal system of government - due to external threats, a central government had to take the lead. There were questions of interplay between the states and of smoothing commerce by dealing with interstate trade and creating a stable economy. Many people lived their simple lives with nearly no contact with government interference; small towns, 5% of Americans lived in urban areas; families were self-dependent, relied on the community; accountability and efficiency in government mattered little; 'traditionalistic' services provided - define property ownership, kept records, and protected property

municipal government period

political history (1850-1895); during and after the Civil War, urbanization increased in the US - driven by industrialization of economy and the immigration of Europeans. With urban concentration: water, waste, crime, poverty, education, and health issues arose - services had to be provided to an increasingly dependent population. Requests to create city/municipal governments were raised so they could pass laws to provide services and collect taxes - 'if gov is to help cope with problems, it should be a local government, because its closest to the people and knows what they need.' New ideas were shaped: 1) gov should provide services beyond property, 2) candidates for public office could promise to provide services desired by citizens in exchange for their votes, 3) corrupt administration of government is inefficient and expensive. Politicians established neighborhood loyalty along with 'political machines'; elections mattered thus there was highest rates of voting in history; public trust in politics meant that public decision makers had to behave more responsibly than private decision makers

state intercity government period

political history (1895-1932); the privileged elite who held power before the rise of urban machines resented their change of fortune - they were accustomed to holding office, saw the new urban centers as hostile, foreign, and contrary to their self-interest feeling things would only be right if "responsible men" were put back in charge of government. The reform movement promised to weed out corruption and fraud and thereby achieve greater efficiency. To cope with municipal inefficiency and fraud, states merely needed to pass election laws, require auditing to ensure proper use of public funds, and select quality public employees based on merit rather than political spoils. To ensure quality local government, states needed to require checks and balances between the legislative (city council) and the executive (the strong mayor) branches or to combine the two branches into a manager-council form of government. Although many would accuse the reformers of reflecting their class interests in their reforms, it should be noted that they believed reforms would work. Perhaps the primary ideas that persist from this period are 1) there are clear standards by which government can be judged, and 2) reform can improve government performance.

federal government era

political history (1932-Present); two events drove the United States into this era of government - the first was the Great Depression of the late 1920s and early 1930s. The year FDR was elected, 1932, is used to identify the beginning of this era. The second event was the declaration of way by the US against Japan and Germany immediately after the bombing of Pearl Harbor in 1941. Both of these events raised enormous challenges - the US met these challenges by greatly increasing the scope of federal gov responsibilities. The federal gov became responsible for managing the economy and actively providing national defense

state taxes and expenditures

poor states cannot expect that their residents will be able to pay high taxes. Higher wealth does result in higher tax revenue, the scatterplot shows a strong concentration of states along the line from poor states with low taxes and revenues to rich states with high taxes and revenues. State taxes are the largest single source of state revenues, 41% of state revenues in 2004. The balance comes from a variety of nontax sources including federal grants, fees, royalties, and leases involving state land, and income from investments. Correlations: none between per capita income and per capita nontax revenue; strong relationship between per capita income and per capita total revenue; extremely strong relationship between per capita total revenue and per capita nontax revenue; very strong correlation between total per capita state revenues and total per capita state expenditures. People living in low revenue/expenditure states can expect few services, such as highways, public higher education, or help for the poor

Why do states enact policies that have not worked in another state?

reasons: 1) those making decisions may be unaware of the other state's failure, 2) may think their state offers a better chance for the program to work, 3) may not care that a program fails to work in general as long as it benefits certain interests, 4) may be relieved of pressure to take effective action, at least temporarily, by enacting a program that has failed elsewhere, 5) voter demands, 6) state is in trouble, 7) reelection belief, 8) ignorant voters

Why would a state fail to enact a policy that has worked in another state?

reasons: 1) those making decisions may be unaware of the other state's success, 2) legislators may not think their state does not offer a chance for the program to work, 3) success may not matter if it does not benefit the interests they care about, 4) unwillingness to reallocate resources necessary, 5) voter ignorance, 6) if reelection chances are reduced, 7) indifference if benefit is only for small/unpopular segment of population, 8) may not think problem is sufficiently important

are US taxes high?

recently, many have charged that Americans pay too high of a % of our money into taxes, in reality American taxes are not high in comparison with other countries. The United States, with 32.8% of GDP devoted to state, local, and national taxes, ranks 28th among the 29 developed democracies. This figure falls far short of the high % of GDP devoted to gov services in Sweden or other Northern European countries - some countries provide more services based on the ability to pay than the US such as: health care, day care, retirement income, college education, and job retraining

user pay (client pay)

redistributing income; in a capitalist society, we normally pay for any goods or services that we receive. Implicit in a user-pay system for public education is the idea that education is a good consumed by those who receive education. However, others in the community gain if the children of family B are educated - education can be viewed as an investment that benefits society in general. That is why primary and secondary education in the US has traditionally been supported by taxes