Praxis 5039

Genre (and four overarching kinds)

Genre means a type of art, literature, or music characterized by a specific form, content, and style. For example, literature has four main genres: poetry, drama, fiction, and non-fiction. All of these genres have particular features and functions that distinguish them from one another. Hence, it is necessary on the part of readers to know which category of genre they are reading in order to understand the message it conveys, as they may have certain expectations prior to the reading concerned

Lord Byron

George Gordon Byron was born on the 22nd of January in 1788. He is well-known as Lord Byron or the 6th Baron Byron. He was an intelligent child of John (Mad Jack) Byron, a British army officer, while his mother, Catharine Gordon, was a ruined Scots Heiress. Catherine was the second wife of John Byron. He led a traumatic childhood partly because of the fierce temper and insensitivity of his mother and partly because of his clubbed right foot. His father left him in 1791, while his mother left the world in 1811 One of the most controversial but leading voices of the ROMANTIC MOVEMENT in Europe

1984

George Orwell; The Big Brother is the representation of the extreme totalitarianism government; "The Big Brother is Watching"-He's everywhere, on coins, etc.

Hook

Grabs the readers attention authors share an important literary technique to keep their readers engaged in their stories, which is hook, or narrative hook, which keep readers' interest alive in the book. It appears at the beginning of the story, and may contain several pages of a novel, several paragraphs of a short story, or it might be only an opening sentence, or a single line

Hypotaxis

Hypotaxis is subordination of one clause to another, or when the clauses are coordinated or subordinated to one another within sentences. Hypotaxis is defined as a grammatical arrangement of constructs that work in the same way, but which play unequal roles in a sentence. It helps in defining the exact meaning of a clause. Lots of subordinating clauses describing one main clause.

Archetype

In literature, an archetype is a typical character, an action, or a situation that seems to represent universal patterns of human nature. Many literary critics are of the opinion that archetypes - which have a common and recurring representation in a particular human culture, or entire human race - shape the structure and function of a literary work.

Epic

In literature, an epic is a long narrative poem, which is usually related to heroic deeds of a person of an unusual courage and unparalleled bravery. In order to depict this bravery and courage, the epic uses grandiose style

Apostrophe

In literature, apostrophe is a figure of speech sometimes represented by an exclamation, such as "Oh." A writer or speaker, using apostrophe, speaks directly to someone who is not present or is dead, or speaks to an inanimate object. Like in Macbeth when he speaks to a ghost.

Conflict

In literature, conflict is a literary element that involves a struggle between two opposing forces, usually a protagonist and an antagonist. Internal conflict - a character battling good and evil inside of themselves External conflict - a character in a struggle with outside forces (protagonist vs. antagonist)

Discourse

In literature, discourse means speech or writing, normally longer than sentences, which deals with a certain subject formally. In other words, discourse is the presentation of language in its entirety, while performing an intellectual inquiry in a particular area or field, such as theological discourse or cultural discourse.

Cacaphony

In literature, however, the term refers to the use of words with sharp, harsh, hissing, and unmelodious sounds - primarily those of consonants - to achieve desired results (ex: Jabberwocky by Lewis Carroll)

Catharsis

In literature, it is used for the cleansing of emotions of the characters. It can also be any other radical change that leads to emotional rejuvenation of a person

Attitude

In literature, the term "attitude" can be referred as perspective or tone of the writer he adopts in a certain work. The character is a mouthpiece for the author

Enjabment

In poetry it means moving over from one line to another without a terminating punctuation mark. It can be defined as a thought or sense, phrase or clause, in a line of poetry that does not come to an end at the line break, but moves over to the next line. In simple words, it is the running on of a sense from one couplet or line to the next without a major pause or syntactical break. ex: "I think I had never seen A verse as beautiful as a flower."

Aside

Normally playwrights use characters' dialogues to tell their stories, but often it becomes difficult for them to express what their characters are thinking. Hence, they use a typical dramatic device, called "aside," to solve this problem. An aside is a short comment or speech that a character delivers directly to the audience, or to himself, while other actors on the stage appear not to hear. Only the audience knows that the character has said something to them.

Irony

Irony is a figure of speech in which words are used in such a way that their intended meaning is different from the actual meaning of the words. It may also be a situation that ends up in quite a different way than what is generally anticipated. In simple words, it is a difference between appearance and reality

Vignette

a short, descriptive literary sketch a short scene or story a small impressionistic scene, an illustration, a descriptive passage, a short essay, a fiction or nonfiction work focusing on one particular moment; or giving an impression about an idea, character, setting, mood, aspect, or object. Vignette is neither a plot nor a full narrative description, but a carefully crafted verbal sketch that might be part of some larger work, or a complete description in itself

Sonnet

a sonnet has 14 lines, and is written in iambic pentameter. Each line has 10 syllables. It has a specific rhyme scheme, and a volta, or a specific turn Generally, sonnets are divided into different groups based on the rhyme scheme they follow. The rhymes of a sonnet are arranged according to a certain rhyme scheme. The rhyme scheme in English is usually abab-cdcd-efef-gg, and in Italian abba-abba-cde-cde

Thesis

a statement in a non-fiction or a fiction work that a writer intends to support and prove. One can find examples of thesis statement at the beginning of literary pieces. These thesis statements are of utmost importance, as they provide clear indicators as to which direction the writer will follow in their work

Paradox

a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or silly, but which may include a latent truth. It is also used to illustrate an opinion or statement contrary to accepted traditional ideas. A paradox is often used to make a reader think over an idea in innovative way. ex: "I must be cruel to be kind." - Hamlet

Truism

a statement that is obviously true and says nothing new or interesting literary device defined as a statement that is based on self-evidence or factual evidence. and is accepted as an obvious truth in a way that further proof is not considered necessary. It is also that a contradicting statement would be considered as illogical, since truism is agreed to be truth. It is mostly used as a rhetorical device in philosophy, specifically in logic

External conflict

a struggle that takes place between the main character and some outside force. Usually against an antagonist, forces of nature, or a society that the protagonist lives in

Stream of consciousness (and when it occurred in history)

a style of writing that portrays the inner (often chaotic) workings of a character's mind. a method of narration that describes happenings in the flow of thoughts in the minds of the characters The stream of consciousness style of writing is marked by the sudden rise of thoughts and lack of punctuation. The use of this narration style is generally associated with the MODERN NOVELIST and SHORT STORY WRITERS of the 20TH CENTURY ex: Mrs. Dalloway, by Virginia Woolf Stream of consciousness is a style of writing developed by a group of writers at the beginning of the 20th century. It aimed at expressing in words the flow of characters' thoughts and feelings in their minds. The technique aspires to give readers the impression of being inside the minds of the characters. Therefore, the internal view of the minds of the characters sheds light on plot and motivation in the novel.

Kenning

a stylistic device defined as a two-word phrase that describes an object through metaphors. A Kenning poem is also defined a riddle that consists of a few lines of kennings, which describe someone or something in confusing detail. It is also described as a "compressed metaphor," which means meanings illustrated in a few words. For example, a two-word phrase "whale-road" represents the sea

Polysyndenton

a stylistic device in which several coordinating conjunctions are used in succession in order to achieve an artistic effect. ex: "We have ships and men and money and stores"

Periphrasis

a stylistic device that can be defined as the use of excessive and longer words to convey a meaning which could have been conveyed with a shorter expression, or in a few words. It is an indirect or roundabout way of writing about something. For example, using the phrase "I am going to" instead of "I will" is periphrasis

Sesquipedalian

a stylistic device, defined as the use of words that are very long and have several syllables. In other words, sesquipedalian writing or speech involves the overuse of long syllabic (multisyllabic) words, or excessive use of extraordinarily long words

Pacing

a stylistic device, which shows how fast a story unfolds. It is because when readers feel frustration in the length of the story, the writers use different techniques to control the pace of the story Writers use this pace by choosing the exact words. In simple words, pacing is moving a story forward with a certain speed

Melodrama

a subgenre of drama, which is an exaggerated form of this genre. Melodramas deal with sensational and romantic topics that appeal to the emotions of the common audience. Originally, it made use of melody and music, while modern melodramas may not contain any music at all. In fact, a melodrama gives preference to a detailed characterization where characters are simply drawn, one-dimensional, or stereotyped. Typically, melodrama uses stock characters including a heroes, heroines, and villains ex: Wuthering Heights by Charlotte Bronte

Satire

a technique employed by writers to expose and criticize foolishness and corruption of an individual or a society, by using humor, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule. It intends to improve humanity by criticizing its follies and foibles. A writer in a satire uses fictional characters, which stand for real people, to expose and condemn their corruption ex: The Rape of the Lock - mocks the values of the fashionable class of that age

Rhetoric

a technique of using language effectively and persuasively in spoken or written form. It is an art of discourse, which studies and employs various methods to convince, influence, or please an audience

Tercet

a three-lined verse, or a group, or unit of three lines. These three lines are often rhymed together, or they rhyme with another triplet. It has a flow of words as rolling waves. Creating rhythmic flow in in just three lines, however, is quite a challenging job

Anticipation guide

anticipation guide tests a student's knowledge before and after reading for gained comprehension. This guide is a set of questions sometimes in agree/disagree form. Students respond to the questions before reading, may reference them during reading, and review and reflect on their original answers after reading

Self-fulfilling prophecy

any expectation, positive or negative, about a situation or event that affects an individual behavior in such a manner that it causes that expectation to be fulfilled

Rhetorical question

asked just for effect, or to lay emphasis on some point being discussed, when no real answer is expected. A rhetorical question may have an obvious answer, but the questioner asks it to lay emphasis to the point. In literature, a rhetorical question is self-evident, and used for style as an impressive persuasive device

Sujective

based on one's opinions, perspectives, beliefs, discoveries, desires, and feelings. It has no concern with right or wrong, other than the person's opinion of what is right and wrong. Likewise, subjective writing or point of view is based on the writer's own observation and experience. It focuses on the writer's personal point of view and not built on facts that others see or things others go through

Hypothetical question

based on supposition, opinion, personal belief, or conjecture, and not facts. It is not based on reality. It mostly deals with actions and scenarios that might happen, or something that might not have happened as yet, but which could happen

Metonymy

a figure of speech that replaces the name of a thing with the name of something else with which it is closely associated. We can come across examples of metonymy both from literature and in everyday life ex: "England decides to keep check on immigration." -- "England" is standing in place for the govt of England which is what the speaker really means

Monologue

a literary device that is the speech or verbal presentation given by a single character in order to express his or her collection of thoughts and ideas aloud. Often such a character speaks directly to audience, or to another character. Monologues are found in dramatic medium like films and plays, and also in non-dramatic medium like poetry

Superlative

a literary device that is usually an adjective or adverb used to distinguish an object from three or more others of its type. Superlative is used in both literary as well as scientific writing to emphasize certain objects, persons, places, or events, which have unique or extraordinary attributes. The term superlative can only be applied when three or more objects are compared -est

Nemesis

a literary device that refers to a situation of poetic justice, where the good characters are rewarded for their virtues, and the evil characters are punished for their vices

Repetition (and types of repetition)

a literary device that repeats the same words or phrases a few times to make an idea clearer and more memorable. There are several types of repetition commonly used in both prose and poetry Types: Anadiplosis, anaphora, antistasis, diacope, epiphora, polyptoton

Sestina

a poem with six stanzas of six lines and a final triplet, all stanzas having the same six words at the line-ends in six different sequences that follow a fixed pattern, and with all six words appearing in the closing three-line envoi. a type of a poem that contains six stanzas, each stanza having six lines, while a concluding seventh stanza has three lines called "envoi," which is also known as "tornada." As sestina derives its name from fixed structure and characteristics, it is as popular as the sextain. Unlike other poetic forms, sestina does not rhyme. However, it has rhythmic quality on account of the repetition of the final six words of the first stanza that recur in the remaining poem. Hence, a sestina follows the rule of an end word pattern

Line break

a poetic device that is used at the end of a line, and the beginning of the next line in a poem. It can be employed without traditional punctuation. Also, it can be described as a point wherein a line is divided into two halves. Sometimes, a line break that occurs at mid-clause creates enjambment.

Soliloquy

a popular literary device often used in drama to reveal the innermost thoughts of a character. It is a great technique used to convey the progress of action of the play, by means of expressing a character's thoughts about a certain character or past, present, or upcoming event, while talking to himself without acknowledging the presence of any other person

Pun

a play on words that produces a humorous effect by using a word that suggests two or more meanings, or by exploiting similar sounding words that have different meanings. Puns arise a lot in homonyms and homophones... like this example: "Not I, believe me. You have dancing shoes with nimble soles; I have a soul of lead" (Romeo and Juliet)

Sensory Language

used to invoke mental images and visualize the story or poem. While Imagery is a literary device that appeals to the reader's senses, Sensory Language is a writing style and how the writers use the words to create images for the readers. The writers present their emotions, thoughts, and ideas in a way that they tempt the reader's imagination. Although it is often inserted to uplift the reader's imagination, it and plays a vital role in advancing the story or enhancing a poem

Figurative language

uses figures of speech to be more effective, persuasive, and impactful (metaphors, similes, allusion, etc.) language that uses words and expressions with a meaning that is different from the literal interpretation.

Acrostic

verse in which certain letters such as the first in each line form a word or message

Old English

was the language of the Anglo-Saxons up to 1150. It was a highly inflected language with largely Germanic vocabulary and is very different from modern English

Unclear pronoun reference

when it is unclear to which subject a pronoun refers to make sentences vague and confusing. Using this, they, it, these, those, and which can easily cause unclear pronoun references

Jigsaw strategy

when students are placed in groups and the must work together to achieve a goal. One way this can be implemented is by having students read a section of text - based on group - and becoming and "expert group" on that section and then coming back together to share and work together

Homograph

words that are used in such a manner as to give two or more different meanings, where the words have the same spelling, but different meanings, and sometimes different pronunciations as well ex: Bear (to endure) and bear (the animal)

Countee Cullen

wrote "Any Human to Another," "Color," and "The Ballad of the Brown Girl;" American Romantic poet; leading African-American poets of his time; associated with generation of poets of the Harlem Renaissance

Memoir

literary technique tells a story about the experiences of someone's life. A literary memoir is usually about a specific theme, or about a part of someone's life. It is a story with a proper narrative shape, focus, and subject matter, involving reflection on some particular event or place More storytelling than an autobiography

Nostalgia

nostalgia is employed to discuss a general interest in the past, or the personalities of the past, and subsequent feelings of pleasure or pain not only sadness or sickness, but also the pleasure of remembering, or taking interest in, the past. That is why the Romantic Movement in English literature has a special association with nostalgia, focusing on the pleasure and pain of remembering the past ex: The Odyssey -- Odysseus misses home

John Keats

one of the youngest poets of the ROMANTIC MOVEMENT did not harness dramatic and narrative power necessary to present individual characters. Instead, he was gifted with lyrical power to present characters with expressive moods. Often, these moods were of pensiveness, romantic sadness, or indolence, as well as ecstatic delight, which can be observed in his great odes

Transition

ords and phrases that provide a connection between ideas, sentences, and paragraphs. Transitions help to make a piece of writing flow better. They can turn disconnected pieces of ideas into a unified whole, and prevent a reader from getting lost in the storyline ex: especially, indeed, for instance

Main Idea

overall message of the text that a writer intends to convey to the audience.

Fiction

particular branch of literature consists of stories, novels, and dramas based on made-up and fabricated stories and characters. Fiction contains certain symbolic and thematic features known as "literary merits." In other words, fiction narrates a story, which aims at something bigger than merely a story. In this attempt, it comments on something significant related to social, political, or human related issues

Paralipsis

pretending to omit something by drawing attention to it a rhetorical device in which an idea is deliberately suggested through a brief treatment of a subject, while most of the significant points are omitted. It is explained through the use of this device that some points are too obvious to mention. Also, paralipsis is a way of emphasizing a subject by apparently passing over it ex: "... I will not talk about that"

Motivation

reason behind a character's specific action or behavior. This type of behavior is characterized by the character's own consent and willingness to do something

Hyperbaton

refers to an inversion in the arrangement of common words. It can be defined as a rhetorical device in which the writers play with the normal positions of words, phrases, and clauses in order to create differently arranged sentences, which still suggest a similar meaning. Hyperbaton is also known as a broader version of hypallage ex: "Some rise by sin, and some by virtue fall ..." -- Measure for Measure -- Shakespeare

Dues Ex Machina

refers to the circumstance where an implausible concept or a divine character is introduced into a storyline, for the purpose of resolving its conflict and procuring an interesting outcome

Subplot

subplot is a secondary plot, or a strand of the main plot that runs parallel to it and supports it. It is usually found in plays, novels, short stories, television shows, and movies. It is also known as a "minor story," or as "B" or "C" story. Its purpose is to add complexity and depth to the story, and thereby increases tension - a state of high interest and suspense about events in a story. Not only does it show various aspects of the characters, connecting the readers with them, but it is also a story within a story

Paraprosdokian

surprise or unexpected ending of a phrase or series. a wordplay type of literary device in which the final part of a phrase or sentence is unexpected. Its unexpected or surprised shift in meaning appears at the end of a stanza, series, sentence, or paragraph. Paraprosdokian is a linguistic U-turn that results in humor or surprise ex: "You can always count on the Americans to do the right thing—after they have tried everything else" - Winston Churchill

Concentric circles

teacher dives the class into two equal groups. One group makes a circle, with each student facing out. The second half of the students form another circle around the first circle. Each student should have a partner either from the inside circle or vice vers

Voice

the form or a format through which narrators tell their stories. It is prominent when a writer places himself herself into words, and provides a sense that the character is real person, conveying a specific message the writer intends to convey. In simple words, it is an author's individual writing style or point of view.

Sarcasm

the literal meaning is different than what the speaker intends to say through sarcasm. Sarcasm is a literary and rhetorical device that is meant to mock, often with satirical or ironic remarks, with a purpose to amuse and hurt someone, or some section of society, simultaneously

Speaker

the voice that speaks behind the scene. In fact, it is the narrative voice that speaks of a writer's feelings or situation. It is not necessary that a poet is always the speaker, because sometimes he may be writing from a different perspective, or may be in the voice of another race, gender, or even a material object. It usually appears as a persona or voice in a poem.

Style

the way a writer writes. It is the technique that an individual author uses in his writing. It varies from author to author, and depends upon one's syntax, word choice, and tone. It can also be described as a "voice" that readers listen to when they read the work of a writer

George Gordon Lord Byron

"When We Two Parted" "She Walks in Beauty"

Nationalism/Revolutionary Period

1750 - 1815 Celebrates nationalism and patriotism and examines what it means to be "American" Political writings by: Thomas Paine, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson

British Romantic period (time period and authors/texts)

1790-1830 Wordsworth "Daffodils" Keats "To Autumn", "Ode to a Nightingale" Percy Bysshe Shelly "OZYMANDIAS" Mary Shelley "Frankenstein" (part gothic novel) Jane Austen "Sense and Sensibility" Lord Byron "Don Juan", "Cain" The romantic period stressed individuality and imagination characterized by art and literature that presented unrealistic situations and highly idealized subjects and characters Romantic poets write about nature, imagination, and individuality in England.

American Romantic/Transcendentalist/Renaissance Period

1800-1855 (gothic literature overlaps with this) Celebrates nature, individualism, imagination, and emotions Washington Irving (Legend of Sleepy Hollow"), Nathaniel Hawthorne (The Scarlet Letter), Herman Melville (Moby Dick), Ralph Waldo Emerson ("Self-Reliance"), Henry David Thoreau (Walden) Poe and Hawthorne are the Gothic Lit writers of the U.S. (gothic lit being seen as preceding horror lit)

American Romantic Period

1820-1860 Literature produced during this time has been called the first truly American literature. Emphasized emotion over intellect, inspiration, imagination, and intuition over logic, discipline and order, and the wild and natural over the tamed, individual rather than society. Major Writers: Hawthorne, Melville, Poe, Dickinson, Whitman, Douglass, Emerson, and Thoreau

Victorian period and the 19th century British literature (time period and authors/texts)

1832-1901 Elizabeth Browning, Alfred Lord Tennyson, Charles Dickens, the Bronte sisters (Charlotte Bronte), Oscar Wilde (later in the period) Characterized by sentimental novels. Some longing for morality of the medieval world The END of the Victorian Period is marked by intellectual movements of Aestheticism (work that focused more on being beautiful rather than having a deeper meaning... focused more on aesthetic values rather than socio-politcal messages) and "the Decadence".... more of Oscar Wilde's works at the end of the period

American Realistic Period (Realism)

1850 - 1900 Examines realities of life, human frailty; regional culture (local color) Stephen Crane (The Red Badge of Courage), Willa Cather (O, Pioneers), Emily Dickinson ("Because I Could Not Stop for Death"), Mark Twain (Huckleberry Finn)

Little Women

1868 is a novel by American female author Louisa May Alcott (1832-1888). This story is about four March sisters (Amy, Jo, Beth, Meg) in 19th century New England struggle with poverty, juggle their duties, and their desire to find love :Louisa MAy Alcott wrote during the Civil War (Renaissance period)

American Naturalistic Period

1880 - 1940 Views life as a set of natural laws to be discovered Theodore Dreiser (Sister Carrie), James T. Ferrell (Studs Lonigan: A Trilogy), Jack London (The C-Wolf), Frank Norris (The Octopus) Also Emily Dickinson, Walt Whitman, and Stephen Crane can be considered a part of this period as well as the realistic period

American Modern Period

1900 - 1950 Themes of alienation, disconnectedness; experiments with new techniques; use of irony and understatement T.S. Eliot (The Waste Land), F. Scott Fitzgerald (The Great Gatsby), Ernest Hemingway (For Whom the Bell Tolls) Langston Hughes ("Theme for English B"), Zora Neale Hurston (Their Eyes Were Watching God) ***ALSO HARLEM RENAISSANCE - intellectual, social, and artistic explosion centered in Harlem, Manhattan, New York City, spanning the 1920s. At the time, it was known as the "New Negro Movement"

Modern Period British Literature (Time Period and Authors/Texts)

1914 - ~1945 W. B. Yeats, Seamus Heaney, Virginia Woolf, W.H. Auden Realism is the dominant fashion, but the disillusionment with the World Wars lead to new experimentation.

Post-modern Period British Literature (Time Period and Authors/Texts)

1945 - 1980 T. S. Eliot, Morrison, Shaw modern writers, poets, and playwrights experiment with metafiction and fragmented poetry. Multiculturalism leads to increasing canonization of non-Caucasian writers Emphasis on multiculturalism, magic realism, reviling in the sublime

American Post-Modern Period

1950 - 2012/onward in general Non-traditional topics and structures; embrace of changing reality J. D. Salinger (Catcher in the Rye), Kurt Vonnegut (Breakfast of Champions)

Fahrenheit 451

1953 d Ray Bradbury- dystopian novel presents a future American society where books are outlawed and firemen burn any house that contains them. The plot that takes place in a futuristic America, a firefighter (Guy Montag) decides to buck society, stop burning books, and start seeking knowledge; themes: censorship, knowledge vs. ignorance, religion as a knowledge giver Montag ends up escaping the city in the midst of a new declaration of war

Digression

A digression is a stylistic device authors employ to create a temporary departure from the main subject of the narrative, to focus on apparently unrelated topics, explaining background details. However, after this temporary shift, authors return to the main topic at the end of the narrative

Double Entendre

A double entendre is a literary device that can be defined as a phrase or a figure of speech that might have multiple senses, interpretations, or two different meanings, or which might be understood in two different ways. Oxford Dictionary says that it "conveys an indelicate meaning." The first meaning in double entendre is usually straightforward, while the second meaning is ironic, risqué, or inappropriate

Eulogy

A eulogy is a literary device that is a laudatory expression in a speech, or a written tribute to a person recently deceased. We can say, it is a commendation or high praise intended to give honor, generally to a dead family member or loved one, or it is a tribute given to a dead person at his or her funeral

Fallacy

A fallacy is an erroneous argument dependent upon an unsound or illogical contention. There are many fallacy examples that we can find in everyday conversations. ex:"Lots of people purchased this collection, so it must be great"

Farce

A farce is a literary genre and type of comedy that makes use of highly exaggerated and funny situations aimed at entertaining the audience. Farce is also a subcategory of dramatic comedy, which is different from other forms of comedy as it only aims at making the audience laugh. It uses elements like physical humor, deliberate absurdity, bawdy jokes, and drunkenness just to make people laugh. We often see one‑dimensional characters in ludicrous situations in farces (ex: The Taming of the Shrew -- Shakespeare)

Flat Character

A flat character is a type of character in fiction that does not change too much from the start of the narrative to its end. Flat characters are often said not to have any emotional depth

Early Modern English

A form of the English language used from 1500 to around 1650 (Tudor period until the Restoration) Shakespeare WROTE using this English

Homphone

A homophone can be defined as a word that, when pronounced, seems similar to another word, but has a different spelling and meaning. For example, the words "bear" and "bare" are similar in pronunciation, but are different in spelling as well as in meaning. Sometimes the words may have the same spelling, such as "rose," the past tense of rise, and "rose," the flower. Mostly, however, they are spelled differently

Refrain

A line or set of lines repeated several times over the course of a poem. Refrain is a verse, a line, a set, or a group of lines that appears at the end of stanza, or appears where a poem divides into different sections a poetic device that repeats, at regular intervals, in different stanzas. However, sometimes, this repetition may involve only minor changes in its wording. It also contributes to the rhyme of a poem and emphasizes an idea through repetition ex: "The woods are lovely, dark, and deep, But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep." - Stopping by the Woods on a Snowy Evening, by Emily Dickinson

Atmosphere

A literary technique, atmosphere is a type of feeling that readers get from a narrative, based on details such as setting, background, objects, and foreshadowing. A mood can serve as a vehicle for establishing atmosphere.

Lyric poem

A lyric poem or lyrical poem in literature is a poem in which the poet either expresses his feelings and emotions. The poet also presents a character in the first person to express his emotions. It is a combination of lyric and poetry where a piece of poetry is written as a lyric. A short poem of songlike quality

Ode

A lyric poem usually marked by serious, respectful, and exalted feelings toward the subject. a form of poetry such as sonnet or elegy. Ode is a literary technique that is lyrical in nature, but not very lengthy. You have often read odes in which poets praise people, natural scenes, and abstract ideas. highly solemn and serious in its tone and subject matter, and usually is used with elaborate patterns of stanzas. However, the tone is often formal. A salient feature of ode is its uniform metrical feet, but poets generally do not strictly follow this rule though use highly elevated theme

Extended Metaphor

A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work. a comparison between two unlike things that continues throughout a series of sentences in a paragraph, or lines in a poem. It is often comprised of more than one sentence, and sometimes consists of a full paragraph

Spondee

A metrical foot, spondee is a beat in a poetic line that consists of two accented syllables (stressed/stressed) or DUM-DUM stress pattern. Spondee is a poetic device that is not as common as other metrical feet, like iamb and trochee. We rarely find poems written in spondee alone; however, poets use spondee by combining other metrical feet. For instance, the word "faithful" contains spondee. If you say this word loudly, you would notice that you are putting an equal amount of stress on both syllables "faith" and "ful."

Caesura

A pause in a line of poetry A rhythmical pause in a poetic line or a sentence. It often occurs in the middle of a line, or sometimes at the beginning and the end. At times, it occurs with punctuation; at other times it does not. Poets indicate such a pause with a parallel symbol thus: ||. Caesura can be medial (occurring in the middle of line), initial (occurring at the beginning of poetic line), or terminal (occurring at the end of a poetic line)

Prepositions

A preposition links a (comes before) noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to some other part of a sentence. Examples of this are "on, at, in." Example: "The man on the platform." Shows some form of place or time. Words we use before nouns or pronouns to show their relationship with other words in the sentence. Example: behind (the tree), across (Maple Street), down (the stairs)

Primary trait scoring rubric

A primary trait scoring rubric focuses on a specific approach that a write may take. Performance is assessed based on only that one trait. An example of this trait may be "persuasion of the audience"

Enthymeme

An argumentative statement in which the writer or the speaker omits one of the major or minor premises, does not clearly pronounce it, or keeps this premise implied, is called an "enthymeme." However, the omitted premise in an enthymeme remains understandable even if is not clearly expressed. For instance, in the sentence, "Where there is smoke, there is fire," the hidden premise is: fire causes smoke

Undertone

An attitude that lies under the ostensible tone of a literary work. In simple words, it is an implied meaning that usually points towards the underlying theme of a work. It is because mostly writers do not express it directly as their attitude or theme; rather, they do it by using images or symbols. Therefore, sometimes it becomes difficult to identify undertones. ex: Undertones of homosexuality for Nick Caraway in the great Gatsby when he sees a feminine looking man and follows him up and watches him sleep

Elision

An elision is the removal of an unstressed syllable, consonants, or letters from a word or phrase, for the purpose of decreasing the number of letters or syllables when mixing words together. The missing letter is replaced by an apostrophe. Generally, the middle or end letter or syllable is eliminated, or two words are blended together, and an apostrophe is inserted ex: "unexplor'd" Used to continue regular meter or to create flow in iambic pentameter

End-Stopped Line

An end-stopped line is a poetic device in which a pause comes at the end of a syntactic unit (sentence, clause, or phrase). This pause can be expressed in writing as a punctuation mark, such as a colon, semi-colon, period, or full stop

Imperative sentence

An imperative sentence is a type of sentence that gives instructions or advice, and expresses a command, an order, a direction, or a request. It is also known as a jussive or a directive. Depending upon its delivery, an imperative sentence may end with an exclamation mark or a period. It is usually simple and short Gives a command, advice, instructions, or request. ex: "Have a good day!" "Walk the dog!"

Split infinitives

An infinitive is a verb along with the word to. An example of this is to walk. A split infinitive occurs when an adverb is added between these two parts of an infinitive such as "to quickly walk."

Ordinal number

An ordinal number refers to a number that indicates the position or order of things or objects, such as first, second, third, fourth, and so on

Dissonance

Dissonance is the use of impolite, harsh-sounding, and unusual words in poetry. In other words, it is a deliberate use of inharmonious words, phrases, or syllables intended to create harsh sounding effects. Dissonance is opposite of assonance, and similar to cacophony, which is also a use of inharmonious sounds. This unpleasant combination of consonants and vowels create an awkward sound, which makes the reading uncomfortable, and adds emotional depth to a situation or moment

Distortion

Distortion is a literary device that twists, exaggerates, changes, and makes something quite different from what it actually is. Writers can distort a thought, an idea, a situation, or an image. They may use symbolism, satire, and personification to present distortion. For instance, in his novel Animal Farm, George Orwell uses personification and symbolism to distort stereotypes and historical figures.

Drama

Drama is a mode of fictional representation through dialogue and performance. It is one of the literary genres, which is an imitation of some action. Drama is also a type of a play written for theater, television, radio, and film

Dramatic irony

Dramatic irony is an important stylistic device that is commonly found in plays, movies, theaters, and sometimes in poetry. Storytellers use this irony as a useful plot device for creating situations in which the audience knows more about the situations, the causes of conflicts, and their resolutions before the leading characters or actors. That is why readers observe that the speech of actors takes on unusual meanings

Dramatic Monologue

Dramatic monologue means self-conversation, speech or talks which includes interlocutor presented dramatically. It means a person, who is speaking to himself or someone else speaks to reveal specific intentions of his actions. However, in literature, it is a poetic form or a poem that presents the speech or conversation of a person in a dramatic manner A dramatic monologue/ persona poem is a poem written in the form of a speech from a particular character.

Folklore

Folklore is a collection of fictional stories about animals and people, of cultural myths, jokes, songs, tales, and even quotes. It is a description of culture, which has been passed down verbally from generation to generation, though many are now in written form.

Functional writing

Functional writing in usually non-fiction and serves a purpose. Examples of this type of writing give advice, make requests, or may do something such as invite someone for a visit.

Volta

A turn of thought or argument in poetry is called the volta. It is a rhetorical shift. In some ways, it is a dramatic change in emotions or thoughts that the poet is expressing in the poem

Sibilance

A type of alliteration in which a soft consonant sound is repeated that results in a hissing sound (so mostly the "s" sound) a literary device where strongly stressed consonants are created deliberately by producing air from vocal tracts through the use of lips and tongue. Such consonants produce hissing sounds. However, in poetry, it is used as a stylistic device, and sibilants are used more than twice in quick succession. Most of the times, the "s" sound is the sibilant

Lyric

A type of poetry that explores the poet's personal interpretation of and feelings about the world. Lyric is a collection of verses and choruses, making up a complete song, or a short and non-narrative poem. A lyric uses a single speaker, who expresses personal emotions or thoughts. Lyrical poems, which are often popular for their musical quality and rhythm, are pleasing to the ear, and are easily put to music

Fantasy

Fantasy is a form of literary genre in which a plot cannot occur in the real world. Its plot usually involves witchcraft or magic, taking place on an undiscovered planet of an unknown world. Its overall theme and setting involve a combination of technology, architecture, and language, which sometimes resemble European medieval ages. The most interesting thing about fantasies is that their plot involves witches, sorcerers, mythical and animal creatures talking like humans, and other things that never happen in real life

Mood

Feeling or atmosphere that a writer creates for the reader

Two Types of Caesura

Feminine Caesura - occurring after an unstressed syllable (less abrupt) Masculine Caesura - occurs after a long or accented syllable (creates a staccato affect in the poem)

Feminine Rhyme

Feminine rhyme is an unstressed two syllable rhyme followed by another unstressed syllable rhyme. They are used between the stressed rhyme to create a rhythm. Rhyme that ends with unstressed syllables

Flash-forward

Flash-forward, or "prolepsis," is a literary device in which the plot goes ahead of time; meaning a scene that interrupts and takes the narrative forward in time from the current time in the story. Generally, a flash-forward represents expected or imagined events in the future, interjected into the main plot, revealing important information to the story that has yet to be brought to light.

Flashback

Flashbacks are interruptions that writers do to insert past events, in order to provide background or context to the current events of a narrative. By using flashbacks, writers allow their readers to gain insight into a character's motivations, and provide a background to a current conflict. Dream sequences and memories are methods used to present flashbacks.

KWL Chart

Stands for "What I KNOW, what I WANT to know, and what I LEARNED. It is is a type of graphic organizer to assist students in monitoring their reading comprehension

Antagonist

Stands in opposition to the protaganist

The Open Boat

Stephen Crane, Naturalism 4 people stranded on a boat Row towards the lighthouse but can't reach it (they try multiple times) and the boat stops being able to hold them so they try again and the boat starts sinking and then all try and get to shore but Billie (the oiler)

Order of periods for British Literature and Dates (with context)

1. Anglo Saxon Period (449-1066) - Beowulf 2. Medieval Period (1066-1485) - later in this period is where works of Chaucer, Dante, and even Petrarch come around 3. The Renaissance (includes the Tudor, Elizabethan, and Jacobean periods) (1485-1660) - Shakespeare, Marlowe, Donne, Milton, George Herbert, and Marvell (toward the ends he shows up) 4. Enlightenment/Neoclassical (includes restoration, Augustan age, and Age of Johnson) (1660-1785) - Dryden, John Lock, Steele, Swift, Pope, Cowper 5. The Romantic Period (1785-1830) - Coleridge, Blake, Shelley, Keats - Jane Austen writes at this time though is not typically categorized with the male romantic poets - GOTHIC LIT (1790-1890) overlaps w/ romantic and Victorian time periods (Radcliffe) 6. Victorian Period and the 19th Century (1830-1901) - Elizabeth Browning, Robert Browning, Lord Tennyson, Dickens, Bronte sisters (Charlotte), Oscar Wilde towards the end 7. Modern Period (1901-1945) - Yeats, Heaney, Woolf, Wilfred Owen, W.H. Auden 8. Post-Modern Period (1946-1980) - T.S. Elliot, Shaw

Order of periods for British Literature and dates (only the skeleton)

1. Anglo Saxon Period (449-1066) 2. Medieval Period (1066-1485) 3. The Renaissance (1485-1660) 4. Enlightenment/Neoclassical (includes restoration, Augustan age, and Age of Johnson) (1660-1785) 5. The Romantic Period (1785-1830) 6. Realism/Naturalism (1830-1901) 7. Modern Period (1901-1945) 8. Post-Modern Period (1946-1980)

Order of American Literature Time Periods (and most important authors)

1. Colonial Period (1620 - 1750) Bradford, Anne Bradstreet, Ben Franklin 2. Native American Period (1620 - 1840) Oral works, most authors unknown 3. Nationalism/Revolutionary Period (1750 - 1815) Political writing by Thomas Jefferson, Ben Franklin, and Thomas Paine 4. Romanticism/Transcendentalism/Renaissance (1800 - 1855) -- Gothic literature overlaps in here Washington Irving, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allen Poe, Emerson, Thoreau, Herman Melville 5. Realism (1850 - 1900) Stephen Crane, Willa Cather, Mark Twain, Emily Dickinson 6. Naturalism (1880 - 1940) Theodore Dreiser, James T. Ferrell, Jack London, Frank Norris 7. Modern (1900 - 1950) T.S. Elliot, Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway 8. Post-modern (1950 - 2012) J.D Salinger and Kurt Vonnegut

Order of American Literature Time Periods (just the skeleton)

1. Colonial Period (1620 - 1750) 2. Native American Period (1620 - 1840) 3. Nationalism/Revolutionary Period (1750 - 1815) 4. Romanticism/Transcendentalism/Renaissance (1800 - 1855) -- Gothic literature overlaps in here 5. Realism (1850 - 1900) 6. Naturalism (1880 - 1940) 7. Modern (1900 - 1950) 8. Post-modern (1950 - 2012)

Types of persuasion

1. Ethos - ethical appeal 2. Logos - logical appeal 3. Pathos - emotional appeal

Three types of Ode

1. Pindar ode - meant to be sung by a chorus 2. Horation odes - serious and intimate. Interesting and pleasing person as subject 3. Irregular ode - informal, without rhyme scheme

Types of character archetypes

1. The Hero 2. The Mother Figure 3. The Innocent Youth (ex: Pip in Great Expectations) 4. The mentor 5. The doppelganger (ex: Jekyll and Hyde) 6. The scapegoat (Snowball in Animal Farm) 7. The villain

Types of situational archetypes

1. The Journey 2. The Initiation - character undergoes an experience that leads them to maturity 3. Good Versus Evil 4. The Fall - character falls from grace due to their own actions (King Lear)

Classical period

1200 BC - 455 AD The Iliad and The Odyssey by Homer Many epic works based on warriors and heroes

Renaissance and Reformation period authors

1485 - 1660 (includes Tudor, Elizabethan, and Jacobean periods) Emergence of Protestantism Thomas Moore "Utopia" (earlier on), and SHAKESPEARE, Marlowe, and even later during the Jacobean period marks John Donne and Shakespeare's later works. The end of this period (Caroline Age), marks Milton, George Herbert "Easter Wings" (shaped poem), and at the very very end during the commonwealth period marks Milton's continued works, as well as Andrew Marvell

American Native American Period

1620 - 1840 Characteristics of the period: Celebrates the natural and spiritual worlds.Authors and works: oral tradition, original authors, and works are largely unknown.

American Colonial Period

1620-1750 Focuses on historical events, daily life, moral attitudes (Puritanism), political unrest William Bradford (Of Plymouth Plantation), Anne Bradstreet ("To My Dear and Loving Husband," Jonathan Edwards (Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God), Benjamin Franklin (Poor Richard's Almanack)

The Enlightenment (Neoclassical) Period What is it and who are the major authors?

1660 - 1790 Includes Restoration, Augustan Age, and Age of Johnson Refers to the increased influence of classical literature and increased reverence for logic and disdain for superstition. Marked by the rise in deism, intellectual backlash against earlier Puritanism and America's revolution against England PRECEDED BY RENAISSANCE AND FOLLOWED BY ROMANTIC ERA Authors: Restoration period has authors like John Dryden and John Lock, Augustan authors are Alexander Pope "Rape of the Lock", Jonathan Swift "Gulliver's Travels", ans Steele. Age of Johnson had authors such as Cowper

Romanticism (and when did it occur in history)

19th century artistic movement that appealed to emotion rather than reason one of the recurring themes that are linked to either imagination, idealism, inspiration, intuition, or individualism. The theme often criticizes the past, stresses upon sensibility, isolation of the writer and pays homage to nature. PRECEDED BY THE ENLIGHTENMENT, Romanticism brought not only fresh poetry but also great novels in English Literature. Late 18th Century to 19th century. Romanticism went against the historical conformity to neoclassicism. Characteristics of romanticism include, but are not limited to, subjectivity, an emphasis on individualism, freedom from rules, a focus on solitary life rather than life in society, and the belief that imagination was superior to reason Started from England and spread throughout Europe including the United States, the Romantic movement includes famous writers such as William Wordsworth, Coleridge, Keats, Lord Byron, Shelley, Chatterton, and Hawthorne

Trimeter

3 feet per line a poetic device that is defined as a meter or a line that consists of three iambic feet. It is one of the five main types of iamb. An iamb is a foot that contains an unaccented syllable followed by an accented syllable ex: "The only news I know Is bulletins all day" - The Only News I Know, Emily Dickinson

Medieval period (time period and authors/texts)

450-1450 (includes the anglo-saxon and middle english periods) Beowulf by unknown Occurs when Rome falls and barbarian tribes move into Europe. Franks, Ostrogoths, Lombards, and Goths settle in the ruins of Europe and the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes migrate to Britain, displacing native Celts into Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. Early Old English poems such as Beowulf, The Wanderer, and The Seafarer originate sometime late in the Anglo-Saxon period In 1066, Norman French armies invade and conquer England under William I. This marks the end of the AngloSaxon hierarchy and the emergence of the Twelfth Century Renaissance (c. 1100-1200 CE). Late medieval period holds works like Chaucer's "Garwain" or "Pearl" Also Petrarch and Dante emerge here

Octave

8 line stanza It is a verse form that contains eight lines, which usually appear in an iambic pentameter. In simple words, it can be any stanza in a poem that has eight lines and follows a rhymed or unrhymed meter

socratic seminar

A Socratic seminar is a student facilitated scholarly discussion on a text in which students opinions are shared, proven, refuted, and refined through dialogue with other students.

Balanced sentence

A balanced sentence is made up of two segments which are equal, not only in length, but also in grammatical structure and meaning. It could be a periodic or cumulative sentence. A reader finds both parts equal when he goes through such a sentence. ex: "... government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth,"

Ballad stanza

A ballad stanza is a four-line stanza in iambic meter in which the first and third unrhymed lines have four metrical feet and the second and fourth rhyming lines have three metrical feet. Form - ABCB

Cliffhanger

A cliffhanger is a type of narrative or a plot device in which the end is curiously abrupt, so that the main characters are left in a difficult situation, without offering any resolution of conflicts

Anthology

A collection of various writings, such as songs, stories, or poems. A compilation of works normally falling into a particular category ( comic anthology, essay anthology, fiction anthology, poetry anthology).

Compare and contrast essay

A comparison and contrast essay compares two similar objects, or contrasts dissimilar objects, in a way that readers become informed about the advantages and disadvantages of both the objects. Readers are then able to weigh pros and cons of the objects compared and contrasted to select a better product. It, however, does not mean that it is only a comparison or contrast of products, it could be a situation after which readers are to make a decision, weighing pros and cons. Although a comparison and contrast essay is set to demonstrate both similarities as well as differences, sometimes it only shows similarities, and at other times, only differences.

Round character

A complex personality has many layers of personality. Writers define a round character fully, both physically and mentally. It is the character with whom the audience can sympathize, associate with, or relate to, as he seems a character they might have seen in their real lives

Cause and Effect Essay

A composition written to find out reasons and results is called a cause and effect essay. It makes discovery of the causes of something and resultantly finds out effects Signal Words for Cause and Effect Essays: cause: led to, because, cause, reason, explanation effect: therefore, as a result, consequently, thus, then, thanks to predictions: if, when, after, as soon as, may, might, possible

Couplet (two types)

A couplet is a literary device that can be defined as having two successive rhyming lines in a verse, and has the same meter to form a complete thought. It is marked by a usual rhythm, rhyme scheme, and incorporation of specific utterances If a couplet has the ability to stand apart from the rest of the poem, it is independent, and hence it is called a "closed couplet." A couplet that cannot render a proper meaning alone is called an "open couplet." SHAKESPEAREAN SONNETS ARE 14 LINES AND END IN A COUPLET

Dialects

A dialect is the particular form of a language that is particular to a specific region or social group

Quatrain

A four line stanza A quatrain is a verse with four lines, or even a full poem containing four lines, having an independent and separate theme. Often one line consists of alternating rhyme, existing in a variety of forms. We can trace back quatrains in poetic traditions of various ancient civilizations, such as China, Ancient Rome, and Ancient Greece; and they continue to appear in the twenty-first century ex: "Hope is the thing with feathers That perches in the soul, And sings the tune without the words, And never stops at all..." - Hope is the thing with Feathers, by Emily Dickinson

Gerund phrase

A gerund is a verb form ending in -ing. A gerund phrase includes the gerund plus any modifiers and complements.

Haiku

A haiku poem has three lines, where the first and last lines have five moras, and the middle line has seven. The pattern in this Japanese genre is 5-7-5. The mora is another name for a sound unit, which is like a syllable, though there is a difference. As the moras cannot be translated into English, they are modified, and syllables are used instead. The lines of such poems rarely rhyme with each other

Holistic rubric

A holistic rubric is the most general type of rubric. This rubric format lists three to five levels of performance with a basic description of the characteristics that define each level

Narrative poem

A narrative poem in literature is a poem which tells a story. It has a full storyline with all the elements of a traditional story. These elements include characters, plot, conflict and resolution, setting and action. Although a narrative poem does not need a rhyming pattern, it is a metered poem with clear objectives to reach a specific audience. These poems have been borrowed from oral poetic narratives from different cultures. Narrative poems include old epics, lays and ballads ex: The Canterbury Tales by Chaucer, The Raven by Poe

Annotation

A note or explanation added to a text.

Simple paragraph

A paragraph contains a group of sentences intertwined with each other to discuss, or debate, or explain a central idea. It conventionally begins with an indented line. A beginner writer or a student usually starts writing a paragraph having seven sentences, comprised of three major components. The first sentence, which is often a declarative sentence, is called the "topic sentence." It introduces the topic of the paragraph, setting its tone and mood. The next few sentences elaborate, explain, and exemplify the topic introduced in it. These sentences also provide supporting details for the explanation or examples. The final sentence is the concluding sentence, which wraps up the topic discussed in the paragraph

Rhyme scheme

A regular pattern of rhyming words in a poem the pattern of rhyme that comes at the end of each verse or line in poetry. In other words, it is the structure of end words of a verse or line that a poet needs to create when writing a poem. Many poems are written in free verse style. Some other poems follow non-rhyming structures, paying attention only to the number of syllables. The Japanese genre of Haiku is a case in point. Thus, it shows that the poets write poems in a specific type of rhyme scheme or rhyming pattern.

Semicolon

A semicolon is a punctuation mark used to indicate a pause, typically between two main clauses, is also more pronounced than a comma

Complex sentence

A sentence that includes one independent clause and at least one dependent clause. A complex sentence is a sentence that contains one or more dependent clauses in addition to the main clause (joined by a comma). Example: When the bell rings (dependent clause), walk out of class (main clause).

Tragedy

A serious form of drama dealing with the downfall of a heroic or noble character a type of drama that presents a serious subject matter about human suffering and corresponding terrible events in a dignified manner

Parable

A simple story used to illustrate a moral or spiritual lesson a figure of speech, which presents a short story, typically with a moral lesson at the end a succinct narrative, or a universal truth that uses symbolism, simile, and metaphor, to demonstrate the moral lesson intended to be taught. Like analogy, we find the use of parables in verse and prose, specifically in religious texts ex: The Boy Who Cried Wolf

Claim

A statement essentially arguable, but used as a primary point to support or prove an argument is called a claim. If somebody gives an argument to support his position, it is called "making a claim." Different reasons are usually presented to prove why a certain point should be accepted as logical. General Form of a claim to present it: Premise 1 Premise 2 Premise 3 Premise N Therefore...

Style manual

A style manual provides information on writing and formatting for a variety of purposes. Style manuals also include guidelines for incorporating information into an essay

Argument

An argument is the main statement of a poem, an essay, a short story, or a novel, which usually appears as an introduction, or a point on which the writer will develop his work in order to convince his readers.

Internal Rhyme

A word inside a line rhymes with another word on the same line Internal rhyme is a poetic device that can be defined as metrical lines in which its middle words and its end words rhyme with one another. It is also called "middle rhyme," since it comes in the middle of lines ex: "Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary"

Onomatopoeia

A word that imitates the sound it represents. a word which imitates the natural sounds of a thing. It creates a sound effect that mimics the thing described, making the description more expressive and interesting "buzz" "meow" .... a lot of animal sounds tbh

Argumentative essay

An argumentative essay is a type of essay that presents arguments about both sides of an issue. It could be that both sides are presented equally balanced, or it could be that one side is presented more forcefully than the other. Intro Body Conterargument Conclusion

Three most prominent Greek dramatists (playwrights)

Aeschylus (525 - 456 B.C.) Most famous plays: Agamemnon, the Libation Bearers, and the Eumenides. Sophocles (496 - 406 B.C.) Most famous plays: Oedipus Rex, Antigone Euripides (480 - 406 B.C.) Most famous plays: Medea, The Bacchae

Brave New World

Aldous Huxley Year A.F. 632 (After Ford -- this many years after the first Model T car was produced) (so it's actually 2540) All human life originates from a hatching lab center 5 classes: alpha, beta, delta, gamma, epsilon All people adopt the thinking of: consumerism, promiscuity, group think, rejection of solitude, and discrimination between classes Mustapha Mond - antagonist (talks about history and literautre being forbidden) Bernard is a main character Lenina and John the savage like each other but are from different worlds and Lenina does not understand life because she like a clone brainwashed by the govy John starts a riot when his mother died Mustapha talks to Bernard and Hemholtz and exiles them for non comformity John the savage commits suicide The endddd

Monologue vs. Soliloquy

Although, like soliloquy, a monologue is a speech, the purpose and presentation of both is different. In a monologue, a character usually makes a speech in the presence of other characters, while in a soliloquy, the character or speaker speaks to himself. By doing so, the character keeps these thoughts secret from the other characters of the play.

Ambiguity

Ambiguity, or fallacy of ambiguity, is a word, phrase, or statement which contains more than one meaning. Ambiguous words or statements lead to vagueness and confusion, and shape the basis for instances of unintentional humor.

Stephen Crane (what period was he a part of)

American realist AND naturalist period 1871-1900

Amplification

Amplification is a rhetorical device writers use to embellish a sentence or statement by adding further information. The objective is to increase readability and worth of the statement or sentence. They usually use it when a simple sentence is abrupt, and cannot convey the desired implications. Writers then use amplification to make structural additions, and give further meanings by describing and repeating a certain statement or idea. The purpose of this rhetorical device is to bring the readers' attention to an idea, which they may miss otherwise. Often repeating a word to bring attention to it

Adage (also adage vs. proverb)

An adage is a short, pointed, and memorable saying that is based on facts, and which is considered a veritable truth by the majority of people. Famous adages become popular due to their usage over a long period of time. Adages are general truths with universal applications while proverbs are more traditional/practical and used in everyday speech

Pedantic

An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish. Tending to show off one's learning A pedantic is someone who is concerned with precision, formalism, accuracy, and minute details in order to make an arrogant and ostentatious show of learning. He could be a writer, a character, feelings, tone, or words. ex: Tom Buchanan in Gatsby trying to show off his knowledge

Almanac

An almanac is an annual calendar that incorporates statistics on various topics such as tides.

Analogy

An analogy is a comparison in which an idea or a thing is compared to another thing that is quite different from it. It aims at explaining that idea or thing by comparing it to something that is familiar. Metaphors and similes are tools used to draw an analogy. Therefore, analogy is more extensive and elaborate than either a simile or a metaphor.

Analytical essay vs. Critical essay

An analytical essay is just an analysis of a literary text. By contrast, a critical essay involves, not only an analysis of the text in question, but also dissection of the literary terms and devices used by the author to make his meanings clear. The critical essay also explains the functions of the literary terms used, and evaluates their usage, and whether they have achieved the intended purposes or not.

Epigraph

An epigraph is a literary device in the form of a poem, quotation, or sentence - usually placed at the beginning of a document or a simple piece - having a few sentences, but which belongs to another writer. An epigraph can serve different purposes, such as it can be used as a summary, introduction, example, or an association with some famous literary work, so as to draw a comparison, or to generate a specific context for the piece

Epistle

An epistle is a letter in the form of prose or poetry to a particular person or group. It can also be a story or a religious sermon. Traditionally, an epistle was written to express love, philosophy, religion, and morality. However, the roots of epistle composition date back to ancient Roman poetic form and The Bible. Most of the epistles are written in free verse without following any strict meter or rhyme. In this sense, the writers are free to write in whatever narration, or character they select to write

Expository essay

An expository essay is a genre of writing which tends to explain, illustrate, clarify, or explicate something in a way that it becomes clear for readers. Therefore, it could be an investigation, evaluation, or even argumentation about an idea for clarification Explains, describes, and gives information on a topic explains, describes, and gives information on a topic

Iamb

An iamb is a literary device that can be defined as a foot containing unaccented and short syllables, followed by a long and accented syllable in a single line of a poem (unstressed/stressed syllables). Two of Robert Frost's poems, Dust of Snow, and The Road not Taken are considered two of the most popular examples of iamb (unstressed, stressed)

Illusion

An illusion is a false illustration of something, a deceptive impression, or a false belief. Literally speaking, an illusion is something that is false and not factual. It tricks the human brain into thinking an unreal into a real. In other words, it is meant to mislead the perception of readers, and deceive their senses. Writers deceive readers' sense of sight, touch, taste, and sounds, making them imagine what is happening, by illustrating certain details. (ex: In Gatsby when Gatsby says he is the son of wealthy people in the Midwest and it is a lie and the reader does not know that yet)

Situational irony

An outcome that turns out to be very different from what was expected it occurs when incongruity appears between expectations of something to happen, and what actually happens instead. Thus, something entirely different happens from what audience may be expecting, or the final outcome is opposite to what the audience is expecting. Situational irony generally includes sharp contrasts and contradictions. The purpose of ironic situations is to allow the readers to make a distinction between appearances and realities, and eventually associate them to the theme of a story ex: Romeo and Juliet

Anachronsim

Anachronism is derived from the Greek word anachronous, which means "against time." Therefore, an anachronism is an error of chronology or timeline in a literary piece. In other words, anything that is out of time and out of place is an anachronism. (Brutus: "Peace! Count the clock."Cassius: "The clock has stricken three." -- Julius Caesar... there were no mechanical clocks during the time this play was set in.... Shakespeare was taking something from his own time and putting it in the past)

Anagnorsis

Anagnorisis is a moment in a plot or story, specifically a tragedy, wherein the main character either recognizes or identifies his/her true nature, recognizes the other character's true identity, discovers the true nature of his situation, or that of the others - leading to the resolution of the story. (ex: when MacBeth realizes Macduff is going to kill him on the battlefield because the witches prophecy of a not woman-born (c-section) child would kill him is going to come true, yet he fights to his death anyways)

Analytic rubric

Analytic Rubrics are more in depth then holistic grid form - on these assignments are broken down by characteristics for assessment. This allows the scorer to itemize where exactly need improvement on an assignment and what is strong.

Analytical essay

Analytical implies the breaking down of something into parts, or the discussion of something in a way that it becomes a dissection of the whole. An analytical type of essay differs from other types of essays in that its primary goal is to explain something bit by bit to enhance understanding. Most of the times, an analytical essay is written about the analysis of a text, or a process, or an idea. In literature, however, it is a critical analysis of some literary text which is done to enhance its understanding

Anecdote

Anecdote is defined as a short and interesting story, or an amusing event, often proposed to support or demonstrate some point, and to make the audience laugh. Anecdotes can include an extensive range of tales and stories. In fact, it is a short description or an account of any event that makes the readers laugh or brood over the topic presented for the purpose

Antecedent

Antecedent is an earlier clause, phrase, or word to which a pronoun, noun, or another word refers. Broadly speaking, antecedent is a literary device in which a word or pronoun in a line or sentence refers to an earlier word. For instance, "While giving treats to children or friends, offer them whatever they like." In this line, children and friends are antecedents, while they is a pronoun that refers to friends and children. It is a typical linguistic term and originates from grammar.

Antropomorphism (and it's differences from another kind of word that means something similar)

Anthropomorphism is a literary device that can be defined as a technique in which a writer ascribes human traits, ambitions, emotions, or entire behaviors to animals, non-human beings, natural phenomena, or objects. Different from personification because it makes something inhuman more literally human while personification give human-like characteristics for the purpose of imagery

Anti-hero

Anti-hero is a literary device used by writers for a prominent character in a play or book that has characteristics opposite to that of a conventional hero. The protagonist is generally admired for his bravery, strength, charm, or ingenuity, while an anti-hero is typically clumsy, unsolicited, unskilled, and has both good and bad qualities. (ex: Edward Rochester from Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte)

Antimetabole

Antimetabole is derived from a Greek word which means "turning about." It is a literary term or device that involves repeating a phrase in reverse order. (ex: fair is foul and foul is fair)

Antiphrasis

Antiphrasis is a figurative speech in which a phrase or word is employed in a way that is opposite to its literal meaning, in order to create an ironic or comic effect. ex: pretty sounds of banging on my door

Antithesis

Antithesis, which literally means "opposite," is a rhetorical device in which two opposite ideas are put together in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect. (ex: Setting foot on the moon may be a small step for a man but a giant step for mankind -- contrasting small step with large one)

Aphorism

Aphorism is a statement of truth or opinion expressed in a concise and witty manner. The term is often applied to philosophical, moral, and literary principles.

Aphorismus

Aphorismus is borrowed from a Greek word that means "marking off," "banishment," or "rejection." It is a figure of speech that brings into question the meaning of words, in case the words are used inappropriately. Aphorismus often appears as a rhetorical question used to create a difference between the current situation being discussed and the general idea of the subject. Aphorismus examples are found both in casual conversations and in literary pieces. OFTEN IN QUESTION FORM "For you have but mistook me all this while.I live with bread like you, feel want,Taste grief, need friends: subjected thus,How can you say to me I am a king?" (Richard II - Shakespeare) Asking how he's a king if he's being treated like a common man

Aporia

Aporia is a figure of speech wherein a speaker purports or expresses doubt or perplexity regarding a question (often feigned), and asks the audience how he ought to proceed. The doubts may appear as rhetorical questions, often in the beginning of the text. Aporia is a logical paradox in which the speaker sows seeds of doubt on a subject. This rhetorical strategy can make the audience feel sympathetic toward the speaker regarding the dilemma he is in. ex: Hamlet "To be, or not to be: that is the question.Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to sufferThe slings and arrows of outrageous fortune,Or to take arms against a sea of troubles,And by opposing end them? To die: to sleep;Than fly to others that we know not of?Thus conscience does make cowards of us all...")

Logos

Appeal to logic Logos is a literary device that can be described as a statement, sentence, or argument used to convince or persuade the targeted audience by employing reason or logic. In everyday life, arguments depend upon pathos and ethos besides logos.

self assessment rubric

Are used to see how a student thinks he/she is doing

Hero

As a literary device, a hero can be defined as the principal character of a literary work. The term hero has been applied, not only in the classical sense, but also in modern literature, as the principal character of a story, play or novel (Beowulf, Odysseus)

Direct Characterization

Direct characterization means the way an author or another character within the story describes or reveals a character, through the use of descriptive adjectives, epithets, or phrases. In other words, direct characterization happens when a writer reveals traits of a character in a straightforward manner, or through comments made by another character involved with him in the storyline

Interrogative sentence

Asks a question

Assonance

Assonance takes place when two or more words, close to one another repeat the same vowel sound, but start with different consonant sounds. Often used to enhance musical effect in a text the repetition of the same sound in two or more closely connected words - it is getting the rhyme wrong. Example of Assonance: Dream and Greed. Example of Rhyme: Dream and Scream.

Asyndeton

Asyndeton is derived from the Greek word asyndeton, which means "unconnected." It is a stylistic device used in literature and poetry to intentionally eliminate conjunctions between the phrases, and in the sentence, yet maintain grammatical accuracy. This literary tool helps in reducing the indirect meaning of the phrase, and presents it in a concise form "Without looking, without making sound, without talking" (takes out the conjunction -- the and, or)

Auditory imagery

Auditory imagery is used to explain things, ideas and actions using sounds that appeal to our sense of hearing. It is intended to invoke up sound images in the minds of the readers. In literature, it means to use words and literary devices in a way that they make readers experience sounds when reading poetry or prose.

Bandwagon

Bandwagon is a persuasive technique and a type of PROPOGANDA through which a writer persuades his readers, so that the majority could agree with the argument of the writer. He does this by suggesting that, since the majority agrees, the reader should too. For instance, "Everyone is voting for David, so definitely he is the best presidential candidate," is intended to convince others. The term bandwagon means, to "jump on the bandwagon," to follow what others are doing, or to conform

Bathos

Bathos is a literary term derived from a Greek word meaning "depth." Bathos is the act of a writer or a poet falling into inconsequential and absurd metaphors, descriptions, or ideas in an effort to be increasingly emotional or passionate Sometimes done in a more conscious effort to portray a character or a situation in a certain light

Bildungsroman

Bildungsroman is a special kind of novel that focuses on the psychological and moral growth of its main character, from his or her youth to adulthood.A bildungsroman is a story of the growing up of a sensitive person, who looks for answers to his questions through different experiences. Generally, such a novel starts with a loss or a tragedy that disturbs the main character emotionally. He or she leaves on a journey to fill that vacuum. During the journey, the protagonist gains maturity, gradually and with difficulty. Usually, the plot depicts a conflict between the protagonist and the values of society. Finally, he or she accepts those values, and they are accepted by society, ending the dissatisfaction. Such a type of novel is also known as a "coming-of-age" novel.

Black Humor

Black humor is a literary device used in novels and plays to discuss taboo subjects while adding an element of comedy. Cambridge dictionary defines it as a non-serious way of treating or dealing with serious subjects. It is often used to present any serious, gruesome or painful incidents lightly. The writers use it as a tool to explore serious issues, inciting serious thoughts and discomfort in the audience

Harlem Renaissance

Black literary and artistic movement centered in Harlem that lasted from the 1920s into the early 1930s that both celebrated and lamented black life in America; Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston were two famous writers of this movement. Claude McKay, Langston Hughes, Zora Hursten, James Johnson -- famous writers during this time period

Blank Verse

Blank verse is a literary device defined as un-rhyming verse written in iambic pentameter. In poetry and prose, it has a consistent meter with 10 syllables in each line (pentameter); where, unstressed syllables are followed by stressed ones, five of which are stressed but do not rhyme. It is also known as "un-rhymed iambic pentameter." Has no fixed number of lines Used for verse drama and narrative poems It is often used in descriptive and reflective poems and dramatic monologues — the poems in which a single character delivers his thoughts in the form of a speech Can be composed in any type of meter (iamb, trochee, spondee, or dactyl)

Joseph conrad (what time period did he write in)

British Modernist Period

Conceit

Conceit is a figure of speech in which two vastly different objects are likened together with the help of similes or metaphors. A comparison that seems extremely unlikely.

Caricature

Caricature is a device used in descriptive writing and visual arts, in which particular aspects of a subject are exaggerated, to create a silly or comic effect. In other words, it can be defined as a plastic illustration, derisive drawing, or a portrayal based on exaggeration of the natural features, which gives a humorous touch to the subject ex:"Mr. Chadband is a large yellow man, with a fat smile, and a general appearance of having a good deal of train oil in his system. Mrs. Chadband is a stern, severe-looking, silent woman. Mr. Chadband moves softly and cumbrously, not unlike a bear who has been taught to walk upright. He is very much embarrassed about the arms, as if they were inconvenient to him." Charles Dickens - Bleak House

Catachresis

Catachresis is a figure of speech in which writers use mixed metaphors in an inappropriate way, to create rhetorical effect. Often, it is used intentionally to create a unique expression. Catachresis is also known as an exaggerated comparison between two ideas or objects "His complexion is perfect gallows" - Shakespeare - The Tempest

Autobiography examples in fictional form

Catcher in the Rye David Copperfield by Charles Dickens

Great Expectations

Charles Dickens Pip is at his parents grave and an ex-convict threatens him and tells him to bring him some food Mrs. Joe -- Pip's older sister Her husband is Joe -- a blacksmith Pip helps convict Next day Pip and Joe tag along with solderis who are looking for 2 convicts who are re-arrested Ms. Havishum - old woman who invites Pip over and he plays cards with her adopted daughter Estella who insults him Pip visits Ms. Havishum regularly and become infatuated with Estella but sees himself as her inferior He become's Joe's apprentice but is asahmed with his work Ms. Havishum tells Pip she doesn't need him Ms. Joe is attacked and can no longer speak Woman named Biddy nurses Mrs. Joe A lawyer comes and says an anonymus person wants to pay for Pip's education as a gentleman and Pip assumes it Ms. Mavishum Pip goes to London and lives w this guy who explains the Havishum was left by lover on wedding day and has been alone ever since Pip is educated and then goes back to Havishum's and Estella is older and beutiful Mrs. Joe dies and Pip goes back briefly to attend her funeral Madwictch is Pip's benefactor and he gets the funds from him Estella marries rude guy and Pip finds out her father is Magwitch Pip and Magwithc try to flee the country but are intercepted by authorities Magwitch gets injured and his fortune goes to the govy Magwithc dies after Pip tells him about Estella Joe and Biddy get married Pip and Estella reconcile (and then part or maybe get together)

Concession

Concession is a literary device used in argumentative writing, where one acknowledges a point made by one's opponent. It allows for different opinions and approaches toward an issue, indicating an understanding of what causes the actual debate or controversy. It demonstrates that the writer is a mature thinker, and has considered the issue from all angles

Middle English

Circa 1150-1420. One major change of Middle English was the move to rely less on inflectional endings.

Elizabethan English

Circa 1558-1603. Language SPOKEN during Shakespeare's time

Circumlocution

Circumlocution is a rhetorical device that can be defined as an ambiguous or paradoxical way of expressing things, ideas, or views. In fact, when somebody wants to remain ambiguous about something, and he does not want to say a thing directly, it means he is using circumlocution

Cliche

Cliché refers to an expression that has been overused to the extent that it loses its original meaning or novelty. A cliché may also refer to actions and events that are predictable because of some previous events.

Comedy (and types of comedy)

Comedy is a literary genre and a type of dramatic work that is amusing and satirical in its tone, mostly having a cheerful ending. The motif of this dramatic work is triumph over unpleasant circumstance by creating comic effects, resulting in a happy or successful conclusion Types: Romantic Comedy (Shakespearian - A Midsummer Night's Dream) Comedy of Humors Comedy of Manners Sentimental Comedy Tragicomedy

Comic Relief

Comic relief is a literary device used in plays and novels to introduce light entertainment between tragic scenes. It is often used in the shape of a humorous incident, a funny incident, a tricky remark or a laughing commentary. It is deliberately inserted to make the audiences feel relief. In this sense, it makes the tragedy seem less intense. Although it is often considered a diversion, it plays a significant role in advancing the action of the play or the novel.

Comparison

Comparison is a rhetorical or literary device in which a writer compares or contrasts two people, places, things, or ideas. In our everyday life, we compare people and things to express ourselves vividly. So when we say, someone is "as lazy as a snail," you compare two different entities to show similarity i.e. someone's laziness to the slow pace of a snail

Connotation

Connotation refers to a meaning that is implied by a word apart from the thing which it describes explicitly. Words carry cultural and emotional associations or meanings, in addition to their literal meanings or denotations... "Shall I compare thee to a Summer's Day"

Consonance

Consonance refers to repetitive sounds produced by consonants within a sentence or phrase. This repetition often takes place in quick succession, such as in "pitter, patter."

Context

Context is the background, environment, setting, framework, or surroundings of events or occurrences. Simply, context means circumstances forming a background of an event, idea or statement, in such a way as to enable readers to understand the narrative or a literary piece.

Critical Essay

Contrary to the literal name of "critical," this type of essay is not only an interpretation, but also an evaluation of a literary piece. It is written for a specific audience, who are academically mature enough to understand the points raised in such essays. A literary essay could revolve around major motifs, themes, literary devices and terms, directions, meanings, and above all - structure of a literary piece

Contrast

Contrast is a rhetorical device through which writers identify differences between two subjects, places, persons, things, or ideas. Simply, it is a type of opposition between two objects, highlighted to emphasize their difference

Types of stanzas

Couplet (2 lines, same meter, rhyming) Tercet (3 lines - aaa, aba rhyme scheme) Quatrain (4 lines - aaaa, aabb, abab rhyme scheme) Quitain (5 lines, rhymed or unrhymed) Sestet (6 lines, second division of Petrarch sonnet, tend to mark an emotional change to a more subjective part of the sonnet) Octave

Critique

Critique is a literary technique that means to critically evaluate a piece of literary work, or a political or philosophical theory in detail. A critique could be a critical essay, an article evaluating a literary piece, or a review. It may be just like a summary that identifies the central issue, raises questions, takes notice of theoretical and experimental approaches, and reviews the significance of the results. Apart from that, its purpose is to highlight both the shortcomings as well as strengths of a literary piece or a work of art. Moreover, critical evaluation or assessment requires sufficient knowledge about the subject matter

Dactyl

Dactyl is a metrical foot, or a beat in a line, containing three syllables in which the first one is accented, followed by second and third unaccented syllables (accented/unaccented/unaccented) in quantitative meter, such as in the word "humanly." In dactyl, we put stress on the first syllable, and do not stress second and third syllables, try to say it loud: "HU-man-ly." Accent, no accent, no accent Opposite of Anapest

Denotation

Denotation is generally defined as literal or dictionary meanings of a word in contrast to its connotative or associated meanings The literal or primary meaning of a word or statement in contrast with implied meanings of a word or statement.

Denouement

Denouement is derived from the French word denoue, which means "to untie." Denouement is a literary device that can be defined as the resolution of the issue of a complicated plot in fiction. The majority of examples of denouement show the resolution in the final part or chapter, often in an epilogue. The unraveling of a plot... the outcome/solution

Descriptive writing

Descriptive writing describes elements such as characters, events, and places. Descriptive writing is poetic and appeals to the senses

Diatribe

Diatribe is a violent or bitter criticism of something or someone. It is a rhetorical device used as a verbal attack against a person, group, institution, or a particular behavior. Merriam Webster defines diatribe as, "An angry and usually long speech or piece of writing that strongly criticizes someone or something." Its purpose is to point out the follies and weaknesses of something or someone. However, if the focus of criticism diverts from targeting the main object, it may become negative or destructive criticism on account of its harshness

Dichotomy

Dichotomy is a literary technique that divides a thing into two equal and contradictory parts, or between two opposing groups. In literary works, writers use this technique for creating conflicts in their stories and plays. Its common examples in literature are good and evil, soul and body, real and imaginary, heaven and hell, male and female, and savage and civilized, among others. Often, dichotomy appears in a single character; however, sometimes writers use separate characters for representing opposing ideas

Diction

Diction can be defined as style of speaking or writing, determined by the choice of words by a speaker or a writer. Diction, or choice of words, often separates good writing from bad writing. It depends on a number of factors. Firstly, the word has to be right and accurate. Secondly, words should be appropriate to the context in which they are used. Lastly, the choice of words should be such that the listener or reader understands easily

Didacticism

Didacticism is a term that refers to a particular philosophy in art and literature that emphasizes the idea that different forms of art and literature ought to convey information and instructions, along with pleasure and entertainment.

Dilemma

Dilemma is a rhetorical device in which a conflicting situation arises for a person to choose between right and wrong, where both seem of equal worth. Often times, dilemma involves an ethically wrong decision that may produce desirable outcomes, but which could have moral consequences. Or it involves a decision in which a person needs to choose one of the two options, both of which are equally good or bad

Dysphemism

Dysphemism is the use of negative expressions instead of positive ones. A speaker uses them to humiliate or degrade the disapproved person or character.

Dystopia

Dystopia is a world in which everything is imperfect, and everything goes terribly wrong. Dystopian literature shows us a nightmarish image about what might happen to the world in the near future. Usually the main themes of dystopian works are rebellion, oppression, revolutions, wars, overpopulation, and disasters. On the other hand, utopia is a perfect world - exactly opposite of dystopia (Brave New World, The Giver, 1984)

Elegy

Elegy is a form of literature that can be defined as a poem or song in the form of elegiac couplets, written in honor of someone deceased. It typically laments or mourns the death of the individual

Ellipsis

Ellipsis is a literary device that is used in narratives to omit some parts of a sentence or event, which gives the reader a chance to fill the gaps while acting or reading it out. It is usually written between the sentences as a series of three dots, like this: "..."

Resolution

End of the story where loose ends are tied up the unfolding or solution of a complicated issue in a story. Technically, resolution is also known as a "denouement." Most of the instances of resolution are presented in the final parts or chapters of a story. It mostly follows the climax

End Rhyme

End rhyme occurs when the last syllables or words in two or more lines rhyme with each other. It is also known as "tail rhyme," and occurs at the ends of the lines. The lines ending in similar sounds are pleasant to hear, and give musical effect to the poem or song

Charles Dickens

English writer whose novels depicted and criticized social injustice (1812-1870) VICTORIAN PERIOD

Enumeration

Enumeration is a rhetorical device used for listing details, or a process of mentioning words or phrases step by step. In fact, it is a type of amplification or division in which a subject is further distributed into components or parts. Writers use enumeration to elucidate a topic, to make it understandable for the readers. It also helps avoid ambiguity in the minds of the readers

Epigram

Epigram is a rhetorical device that is a memorable, brief, interesting, and surprising satirical statement (witty comment)

Epiphora

Epiphora, also known as "epistrophe," is a stylistic device in which a word or a phrase is repeated at the ends of successive clauses. Examples of epiphora are not only found in literary pieces, but debates and persuasive writings are also rich with epiphora examples

Epistolary

Epistolary is a literary genre pertaining to letters, in which writers use letters, journals, and diary entries in their works, or they tell their stories or deliver messages through a series of letters. Though the usual format of epistolary is letters, writers sometimes use other forms of document such as newspaper clippings and diary entries. Recently, writers also use electronic documents like emails, blogs, radio broadcast, and recordings (ex: The Color Purple by Alice Walker, Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, Diary of a Young Girl by Anne Frank)

Epithet

Epithet is a descriptive literary device that describes a place, a thing, or a person in such a way that it helps in making its characteristics more prominent than they actually are "snot-green sea"

Eponym

Eponym is a name of a legend or real person that writers associate with some other person, object, institution, or thing. Simply, we can define it as a famous person whose name is given to someone else, such as Homer has derived the name of his ancient epic The Odyssey from a major character, Odysseus. A person whose name is thought to be the source of something else

Vernacular

Everyday language of ordinary people is a literary genre that uses daily-used language in writing and speaking. It is different from written works, as they normally follow the formal variety of language. The word "vernacular" refers to writing or speaking of the public. We find the origin of vernacular literature during the Middle Ages, in various countries of Europe. In fact, Latin was the language of historical documents and religion, and ordinary people would not even speak it in Medieval Europe, like that of the Sanskrit language in India. However, the writers of vernacular language, such as DANTE, Geoffrey CHAUCER and MARK TWAIN. Dante Alighieri, diverged from this tendency by writing in the language of ordinary people The dialect of English spoken in a certain region

Exact Rhyme

Exact rhyme is a poetic device used to repeat the same stressed vowel sounds as well as consonant sounds that follow the vowel. It is used in poems and texts to create musical and pointed effects. Hence, the writers intentionally stress some syllables to emphasize some sounds that appeal to the readers. In this way, a powerful rhythm is created and makes the text enjoyable giving it a unique flow (ex: Double, double, toil and trouble Fire burn and cauldron bubble.

Exemplum

Exemplum is a rhetorical device that is defined as a short tale, narrative, or anecdote used in literary pieces and speeches to explain a doctrine, or emphasize a moral point. They are generally in the forms of legends, folktales, and fables. (often told in medevial times to teach a lesson??)

Existentialism

Existentialism is a philosophy that focuses on the existence of mankind. It deals with their efforts of finding a way in this hostile universe. The writers apply existentialist philosophy in their texts to underpin the efforts of dejected, tormented and alienated humans, how they find themselves facing certain choices in the world. It is based on the concept that humans should choose their paths of life independently, and, try to make rational decisions in the irrational universe. In this sense, it liberates them from the clutches of moral values, social norms, and religious beliefs. Asking "why?" a lot

Expletive

Expletive is a grammatical construction that starts with words like it, here, and there. This rhetorical device usually interrupts normal speech and lays emphasis on certain words. It plays a syntactic role, but does not contribute to the meaning of a sentence or line. It is also known as empty words. (sometimes an interjection??)

Exposition

Exposition is a literary device used to introduce background information about events, settings, characters, or other elements of a work to the audience or readers. Crucial to any story many ways to present an exposition, including monologues, dialogues, in-universe media (newspapers, letters, reports, journals, etc.), a protagonist's thoughts, or a narrator's explanation of past events. It is one of the four rhetorical modes of communication - the other three being narration, description, and argumentation

Eye Rhyme

Eye rhyme is a poetic device in which two words are spelled similarly but pronounced differently. It also called a visual rhyme or a sight rhyme. For example, the pair "rough and bough look similar and should rhyme keeping in mind the visual aspect, but when they are spoken, they are not similar.

Fable

Fable is a literary device that can be defined as a concise and brief story intended to provide a moral lesson at the end it is described as a didactic lesson given through some sort of animal story. In prose and verse, a fable is described through plants, animals, forces, of nature, and inanimate objects by giving them human attributes wherein they demonstrate a moral lesson at the end

Falling Action

Falling action occurs right after the climax, when the main problem of the story resolves. It is one of the elements of the plot of the story, the other elements being exposition, rising action, climax, and resolution. Falling action wraps up the narrative, resolves its loose ends, and leads toward the closure

Foreshadowing

Foreshadowing is a literary device in which a writer gives an advance hint of what is to come later in the story. Foreshadowing often appears at the beginning of a story, or a chapter, and helps the reader develop expectations about the coming events in a story.

Frame story

Frame story is a story set within a story, narrative, or movie, told by the main or the supporting character. A character starts telling a story to other characters, or he sits down to write a story, telling the details to the audience. This technique is also called a "frame narrative," and is a very popular form of literary technique employed in storytelling and narration (ex: Like in Titanic how Rose is the main character in a story telling the story of her life)

Free Verse

Free verse is a literary device that can be defined as poetry that is free from limitations of regular meter or rhythm, and does not rhyme with fixed forms. Such poems are without rhythm and rhyme schemes, do not follow regular rhyme scheme rules, yet still provide artistic expression. In this way, the poet can give his own shape to a poem however he or she desires. However, it still allows poets to use alliteration, rhyme, cadences, and rhythms to get the effects that they consider are suitable for the piece

Prologue in a Greek play Prologue in an Elizabethan play

Greek - an introduction to a literary work provided by a dramatist, to tell how the idea of the story developed. Therefore, in Greek dramas, prologue was a complete episode, or the first act, which was succeeded by the remaining acts of a play. kinda ex: Euripides invented prologue - made an explanatory 1st act that made the later events in the play become more comprehensible. This became the formula for many Greek playwrights and plays Elizabethan - usually served to quieten and settle down an audience before the commencement of a play. It then introduced the themes of the play and other particulars to the audience, making them mentally prepared for the events they were to witness in the performance. Also, it was considered necessary to beg their leniency for any error that might occur in the writing of the play, or in the performances of actors on stage. Usually, the character who uttered the prologue was dressed in black, in order to differentiate him from the rest of the actors who wore colorful costumes during their performances ex: prologue of Romeo and Juliet

Difference between Greek and English tragedies

Greek - focused on a single plot and theme, "great" characters who are mortals but are equal to gods in the ways they are portrayed/their significance, subject matters are normally serious and treated in a dignified manner, have a purpose of religious teaching Tragedies are Greek in origin, appearing first in 5th CENTURY B.C. The most famous and trend-setting (of serious subject matter) being Homer's Iliad and Odyssey English - have several stories (plots and subplots) happening at the same time, heroes come from all walks of life, mixed with tragic and comic events (argued that this mix is close to the reality of life, not really teaching a lesson... their primary objective is to entertain English tragedy appeared in 1561 (transformed writing in the ELIZABETHAN ERA)

Half Rhyme

Half rhyme is one of the major poetic devices. It is also called an "imperfect rhyme," "slant rhyme," "near rhyme," or "oblique rhyme." It can be defined as a rhyme in which the stressed syllables of ending consonants match, however the preceding vowel sounds do not match ex: Shape and Keep

Hamartia

Hamartia is a personal error in a protagonist's personality, which brings about his tragic downfall in a tragedy. This defect in a hero's personality is also known as a "tragic flaw."

Homily

Homily is a sermon or speech that a religious person or priest delivers before a group of people to offer them moral correction. The primary purpose of this speech is not doctrinal instruction, but spiritual edification. Simply, homily is a public discourse on a moral or religious subject. Priests read it from the Bible, or other religious text, to give an insight into the exact meanings of the scriptures. Afterward, they relate it to the lives of followers

Absurdist fiction

Humanly impossible, Finds sense in the unreal Focuses on the experiences of characters in a situation where they cant find and inherent purpose in life which is shown through meaningless actions and events. Common Elements: satire, dark humor, incongruity, abasement of reason.

Hypophora

Hypophora is a figure of speech in which a writer raises a question, and then immediately provides an answer to that question. Commonly, a question is asked in the first paragraph, and then the paragraph is used to answer the question. It is also known as "antipophora," or "anthypophora." Different from a rhetorical question because the question is actually answered in a hypophora.

Types of foot

Iamb - combination of unstressed and stressed syllables (da-DUM) Trochee - Combination of stressed and unstressed syllables (DUM-da) Spondee - Combination of two stressed syllables (DUMDUM) Anapest - two unstressed and a stressed syllable (dadaDUM) Dactyl - stressed and two unstressed syllables (DUMdada) Amphibrach - unstressed, stressed, and unstressed (daDUMda) Pyrrich - combination of two unstressed syllables (dada)

Iambic Pentameter

Iambic Pentameter is made up of two words, where pentameter is a combination of 'pent,' which means five, and 'meter,' which means to measure. Iambic, on the other hand, is a metrical foot in poetry in which a stressed syllable is followed by an unstressed syllable. It means iambic pentameter is a beat or foot that uses 10 syllables in each line. Simply, it is a rhythmic pattern comprising five iambs in each line, like five heartbeats

Implied metaphor

Implies or suggests the comparison between the two thing without stating it directly Implied Metaphor is a literary device used in prose and poetry to compare two unlikely things, with common characteristics without mentioning one of the objects of comparison. It is implied in the texts to make imagery rich and effective and also to make subjects relatable and understandable to the readers. In this sense, it enables them to grasp the complex phenomenon discussed in the text. (ex: Maya Angleou's I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings is a poem that is about racism but it does not directly say it but uses the metaphor of a caged bird to say it)

Coherence

In a composition, coherence is a literary technique that refers to logical connections, which listeners or readers perceive in an oral or written text. In other words, it is a written or spoken piece that is not only consistent and logical, but also unified and meaningful. It makes sense when read or listened to as a whole. The structure of a coherent paragraph could be general to particular and particular to general or any other format

Comparitives

In grammar, a comparative is an adjective or adverb form used to make a comparison between two nouns, such as people, places, or things, to describe actions (verbs), or the words describing verbs (other adverbs) "This dress id brighter than that dress"

Active voice

In grammar, an active voice is a type of a clause or sentence in which a subject performs an action and expresses it through its representative verb. To simply put it, when a subject performs an action directly, it is in active voice. It then uses transitive verb to show the action.

Epiphany

In literary terms, an epiphany is that moment in the story where a character achieves realization, awareness, or a feeling of knowledge, after which events are seen through the prism of this new light in the story

Doppleganger

In literature, a doppelganger is usually shaped as a twin, shadow, or a mirror-image of a protagonist. It refers to a character who physically resembles the protagonist, and may have the same name as well. Several types of doppelganger can be spotted in world literature. It may take the form of an evil twin, not known to the actual person, who confuses people related to that original person. It may also be figured as one person existing in two different places at the same time. Sometimes, a doppelganger is a person's past or future self. In some cases, it may simply be a person's look-alike

Foil

In literature, a foil is a character that shows qualities that are in contrast with the qualities of another character. The objective is to highlight the traits of the other character. The term foil, though generally being applied to a contrasting character, may also be used for any comparison that is drawn to portray a difference between two things

Inciting conlfict

Inciting incident in a plot is an event or a point that arrives at the beginning of a play, story book, or a film that disturbs the actions and life of a protagonist, and sets him to pursue the mission vigorously. ex: the inciting incident of William Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet" happens when the lovers meet and fall in love at first sight at a ball. You can easily recognize it because it introduces the major conflict between protagonist and antagonist

Incorrect subject verb agreement

Incorrect subject verb agreement is when the subject and verb do not agree in number. An example of this is "Stephanie and Molly walks to the farm." Matching singular verbs with singular nouns. Ex: "The team of Americans was the best in the world."

Inversion

Inversion, also known as "anastrophe," is a literary technique in which the normal order of words is reversed, in order to achieve a particular effect of emphasis or meter ex: "to me alone there came a thought of grief" (Wordsworth and Twain)

Prologue

Is an opening of a story that establishes the setting, and gives background details. the main function of a prologue tells some earlier story, and connects it to the main story. Similarly, it serves as a means to introduce characters of a story, and sheds light on their roles. In its modern sense, a prologue acts as a separate entity, and is not considered part of the current story that a writer ventures to tell

Isolcolon

Isocolon is a rhetorical device that involves a succession of sentences, phrases, and clauses of grammatically equal length. In this figure of speech, a sentence has a parallel structure that is made up of words, clauses, or phrases of equal length, sound, meter, and rhythm. Isocolon is the repetition of similar grammatical forms. ex: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness." A Tale of Two Cities -- Charles Dickens (has balanced sentence structure and clauses and repeated phrase that focuses readers on the age)

Tragicomedy

It contains both tragedy and comedy. Mostly, the characters in tragicomedy are exaggerated, and sometimes there might be a happy ending after a series of unfortunate events. It is incorporated with jokes throughout the story, just to lighten the tone

Archaism

It is a figure of speech in which a used phrase or word is considered very old fashioned and outdated. It can be a word, a phrase, a group of letters, spelling, or syntax. ex: stoppeth

Riddle

It is a folklore genre as well as rhetorical device, often having veiled or double meanings. When someone uses it as a puzzle or a question, it could be a thought-provoking challenge for the audience to figure it out themselves, or it could be a funny comment intended to make the audience laugh

Aposiopesis

It is a rhetorical device that can be defined as a figure of speech in which the speaker or writer breaks off abruptly, and leaves the statement incomplete. It is as if the speaker is not willing to state what is present in his mind, due to being overcome by passion, excitement, or fear. In a piece of literature, it means to leave a sentence unfinished, so that the reader can determine his own meanings.

Adynaton

It is a rhetorical device that is a form of hyperbole in which exaggeration is taken to a great extreme where it seems impossible. In other words, when hyperbole is magnified to such an extent that it is completely unfeasible, it is called adynaton. Ideas in the use of adynaton are exaggerated in order to emphasize something. (ex: "Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood Clean from my hand?" Macbeth - Shakespeare, big oceans can't wash it away)

Anacouluthon

It is a stylistic device defined as a syntactic deviation, and interruption within a sentence from one structure to another. In this interruption, the expected sequence of grammar is absent. The grammatical flow of sentences is interrupted in order to begin more sentences.

Cadence

It is the term used to signal the rising and falling of the voice when reading a literary piece. In poetry, it is the momentary changes in rhythm and pitch. Cadences help set the rhythmic pace of a literary piece

Malapropism

It is the use of an incorrect word in place of a similar-sounding word, which results in a nonsensical and humorous expression A word humorously misused

Romance

It means romantic stories with chivalrous feats of heroes and knights. Romance describes chivalry and courtly love, comprising stories and legends of duty, courage, boldness, battles, and rescues of damsels in distress

Pride and Prejudice

Jane Austen, 1813 A popular novel in the English language, it is regarded as the first "chic-lit" novel. The novel encompasses strong female protagonists and their journeys to find love, in a world centered around marriage. Austen provides a spot on view of propriety in society as well as well-rounded, believable characters. Comedy of Manners; the story follows the Main Character Elizabeth Bennet as she deals with issues of manners, upbringing, moral rightness, education, and marriage in her aristocratic society of early 19th century England Themes of moral blindness and self-knowledge. Pride and Prejudice cloud moral judgement In Pride and Prejudice, Mr. Collin's is a static character. Mr. Collins, Mr. Bennet's heir and proposed suitor of the Bennet sisters, is fully described in the story but does not change during the course of the plot. He remains unctuous and odious to Elizabeth. Mr. Darcy and Elizabeth are both round and dynamic characters who change during the course of the plot. Charles Bingley is also a dynamic character because he changes his mind about Jane when he is swayed by Mr. Darcy and then returns to his original admiration of her.

The Flea

John Donne; Founder of Metaphysical poets Poem; The marriage bed; the flea takes blood from two people and so they become one

Heart of Darkness

Joseph Conrad, 1902 . The story reflects the physical and psychological shock Conrad himself experienced in 1890, when he worked briefly in the Belgian Congo.

The Horse's Mouth

Joyce Cary Anglo-Irish novellist

The Awakening

Kate Chopin American author Considered a forerunner of 20th century American feminist authors

Dialect or slang

Language used by a specific group of people

Dynamic Character

Like a round character, a dynamic character also undergoes changes throughout the narrative, due to conflicts he encounters on his journey. A dynamic character faces trials and tribulations, and takes time to learn from his encounters, his experiences, and his mistakes, as well as from other characters. Sometimes a character learns a lesson, and gains maturity, such as Prince Hal in Shakespeare's Henry IV

Meiosis

Meiosis can be defined as a witty understatement that belittles or dismisses something or somebody; particularly by making use of terms that give an impression that something is less important than it is or it should be. Meiosis examples are sometimes used in the sense of a synonym of litotes

John Donne

Metaphysical poet

Meter

Meter is a stressed and unstressed syllabic pattern in a verse, or within the lines of a poem. Stressed syllables tend to be longer, and unstressed shorter. In simple language, meter is a poetic device that serves as a linguistic sound pattern for the verses, as it gives poetry a rhythmical and melodious sound. For instance, if you read a poem aloud, and it produces regular sound patterns, then this poem would be a metered or measured poem. ****A meter is a sequence of several feet

Anapest

Metrical foot in a line of poem where the first two syllables are unstressed and the third is stressed Poetic device that goes: unstressed, unstressed, stressed Opposite of a dactyl

Mock epic

Mock epics are long humorous poems with absurd qualities written in a mock-heroic style. (Parody of Classic Epic). These absurd epics often put fools in the role of the hero

Modernist fiction

Modernist fiction is marked by a few qualities such as experimentation. Modernist literature breaks tradition and often reacts strongly against established religious, political, and social views. Modernist literature celebrates the individual and uniqueness seeing individualism as a good thing. fiction and writings are characterized by a break from traditional writing, including omitted standard beginnings, transitions, and endings in order to tell stories that reproduced the complex ways in which people think. ((World War I))((Prohibition))

Myth

Myth is a legendary or a traditional story that usually concerns an event or a hero, with or without using factual or real explanations. These particularly concern demigods or deities, and describes some rites, practices, and natural phenomenon. Typically, a myth involves historical events and supernatural beings Myth usually features ruling gods, goddesses, deities, and heroes having god-like-qualities, but status lower than gods Myths are mostly very old, and happen to have ruled the world when science, philosophy, and technology were not very precise, as they are today

Narrative writing

Narrative writing tells a story, creates different characters, and shows what happens to them. In narrative writing a person (narrator) tells the story which has a beginning and end. Narrative writing also incorporates dialogue

Naturalism (and when it occurred in history)

Naturalism is a literary genre that started as a movement in late nineteenth century in literature, film, theater, and art. It is a type of extreme realism. This movement suggested the roles of family, social conditions, and environment in shaping human character. Thus, naturalistic writers write stories based on the idea that environment determines and governs human character We also see use of some of the scientific principles in naturalistic works, and humans struggling for survival in hostile and alien society. In fact, naturalism took its cue from Darwin's theory of evolution, which holds that life is like a struggle and only the fittest survive

Naturalism vs Realism

Naturalism suggests a philosophical pessimism in which writers use scientific techniques to depict human beings as objective and impartial characters; whereas realism focuses on literary technique. Realism depicts things as they appear, while naturalism portrays a deterministic view of a character's actions and life. Naturalism concludes that natural forces predetermine a character's decisions, making him/her act in a particular way. Realism poses that a decision of a character comes from his response to a certain situation

Neoclassicism

Neoclassicism relates to the style of poetry and prose that was developed in the 17th and 18th centuries. This style finds meaning in order (religious order, social order, order of nature, governmental authority/order etc.) and subordinates individual passions to the needs of society. In neoclassicism reason is the center of authority, this stressed logic and reason while mirroring the earlier Greek/Roman style revival of a classical style (in art or literature or architecture or music) but from a new perspective or with a new motivation

Verbal irony

Occurs when a speaker speaks something contradictory to what he intends to say. It is an intentional product of the speaker, and is contradictory to his/her emotions and actions. To define it simply, it occurs when a character uses a statement with underlying meanings that contrast with its literal meaning; it shows that the writer has used verbal irony. Writers rely on the audience's intelligence for discerning the hidden meanings they intend to convey. Writers also use ironic similes to convey exactly the opposite of what they intend to say, such as "soft as concrete."

Static character (and difference between a static character and flat character)

One that does not undergo inner changes, or undergoes a little change. It is a character that does not develop or grow, such as Sherlock Holmes and James Bond A static character does not also have to be a flat character... just because a character doesn't change does not mean they are one-dimensional and not interesting

Pathetic fallacy vs. personification

Pathetic fallacy is a kind of personification that gives human emotions to inanimate objects of nature; for example, referring to weather features reflecting a mood. Personification, on the other hand, is a broader term. It gives human attributes to abstract ideas, animate objects of nature, or inanimate non-natural objects. For example, the sentence "The somber clouds darkened our mood" is a pathetic fallacy, as human attributes are given to an inanimate object of nature reflecting a mood. But, the sentence "The sparrow talked to us" is a personification because the animate object of nature - the sparrow - is given the human quality of "talking."

Persuasive writing/essay

Persuasive writing is opinionated and works to gain the reader's agreement. Persuasive writing in essays advertisements, commercials, etc. often incorporates (and in most cases should incorporate) a call to action. A persuasive essay is full of all the convincing techniques a writer can employ. It presents a situation, and takes a stand - either in its favor, or against it - to prove to readers whether it is beneficial or harmful for them

Realism

Realism entered literature around the mid nineteenth century. Its real objective was to root out what is called fantastic and romantic in literature and art, to insert what is real. writers use realism as a literary technique to describe story elements, such as setting, characters, themes, etc., without using elaborate imagery, or figurative language, such as similes and metaphors. Through realism, writers explain things without decorative language or sugar-coating the events. Realism is something opposite to romanticism and idealism ex: Rape of the Lock (?) and The Crucible

Realistic fiction

Realistic fiction stories could have occurred in a believable setting. Work categorized as this type of fiction resembles real life and depicts the real world.

Idiom

Refers to a set expression or a phrase comprising two or more words. An interesting fact regarding the device is that the expression is not interpreted literally. The phrase is understood to mean something quite different from what individual words of the phrase would imply. Alternatively, it can be said that the phrase is interpreted in a figurative sense. Further, idioms vary in different cultures and countries A common expression that doesn't make sense if you take it literally ex: "If we play our cards right, we may be able to find out when those whales are being released." "Raining cats and dogs"

What is a relative clause Two types of relative clauses and what they are

Relative clauses are words connected to the main clause of the sentence by a word such as who, whom, which, that, or whose 1. Restrictive (or defining): provides essential information about the noun to which it refers. It cannot be left out of the sentence without affecting the meaning. ex: "It reminded him of the house that he used to live in." 2. Non-restrictive: provides information that can be left out without affecting the meaning or structure of the sentence.

Renaissance sonnet

Renaissance sonnets are 14 lines in iambic pentameter broken into two parts. (Petrarchan)

Anadoplosis

Repeating a word in the same sentence, at the end of the first clause and the beginning of the second clause. Often list-like. "The slave who became a general. The general who became a gladiator"

Anaphora

Repetition of a word of phrase at the beginning of a sentence or clause. (ex: Oh lord save us. Oh lord forgive us.)

Antanaclasis

Repetition of the same word/phrase, with a different meaning the second time it is said (ex: "put out the light, then put out the light..." Shakespeare's Othello, saying turn off the light then go kill her/put out her light)

My Last Duchess

Robert Browning, Victorian Period 1842 28 rhyming couplets

Dejection, an Ode

Samuel Taylor Coleridge

Frost at Midnight

Samuel Taylor Coleridge

Kubla Khan

Samuel Taylor Coleridge Founder of Romantic Movement in England

Semantic teaching

Semantic teaching the process of teaching how meaning is created by words.

Semantics

Semantics is one of the important branches of linguistics, and deals with interpretation and meaning of the words, sentence structure, and symbols. It deals with the reading comprehension of the readers, in how they understand others and their interpretations. In addition, semantics constructs a relation between adjoining words and clarifies the sense of a sentence, whether the meanings of words are literal or figurative The study of the meaning of language or text.

Shakespearean Sonnet vs Petrarchian/Italian Sonnet

Shakespearean sonnet ends with a couplet Petrarchian/Italian (Francesco Petrarch) sonnet has an 8-line octave and a 6-line sestet (the sestet being the supposed "answer" to the octave, or the beginning of the poem)

William Cullen Bryant

Thanatopsis American romantic poet

Explication

The act of interpreting or discovering the meaning of a text. Explication is a literary technique in criticism and research, used for a close analysis of an excerpt or text taken from a lengthy piece of work It is neither a summary, nor a rewording, nor a paraphrase, but a commentary that reveals the meanings of a literary work. It usually tells about figures of speech, tone, setting, connotations, points of view, themes, contrasts, and anything else that could add to the meaning of a text

Sentence structure

The arrangement of the parts of a sentence. A sentence may be simple, compound, or complex. Sentences may also contain any of these structures in combination with each other. Each variation leaves a different impression on the reader, and along with other rhetorical devices, may create a countless array of effects. Sentence structure is the way a sentence is arranged grammatically. Synonym for Syntax.

Sestet

The famous Italian poet Petrarch was the first to have introduced this poetic form in Italian sonnet. This is the second part of the sonnet, while the first part is called "octave," and comprises of eight lines. It has six lines, and also refers to a poem of six lines, or a six-lined stanza in a poem, which can be distinguished from other units by line breaks. Hence, a sestet could also be a complete poem of six lines, or could be a stanza in a poem Either the six line stanza of a sonnet OR a six line poem all by itself

Foot

The literary device "foot" is a measuring unit in poetry, which is made up of stressed and unstressed syllables. The stressed syllable is generally indicated by a vertical line ( | ), whereas the unstressed syllable is represented by a cross ( X ). The combination of feet creates meter in poetry. Later, these meters are joined for the composition of a complete poem. Therefore, a foot is the formative unit of the meter

Euphony

The literary device euphony is derived from the Greek word euphonos, which means "sweet-voiced." It can be defined as the use of words and phrases that are distinguished as having a wide range of noteworthy melody or loveliness in the sounds they create. It gives pleasing and soothing effects to the ear due to ***repeated vowels and smooth consonants***. It can be used with other literary devices like alliteration, assonance and rhyme to create more melodic effects. Examples of euphony are commonly found in poetry and literary prose

Utopia

The literary term utopia denotes an illusionary place that projects the notion of a perfect society to the reader. Here, the "perfect society" refers to ideal conditions achieved within the material world Utopia coined by THOMAS MOORE in 1516 means no place and good place an ideal society

Scansion

The process of marking lines of poetry to show the type of feet and the number of feet they contain Scanning a line of verse to determine its rhythm scansion means to divide the poetry or a poetic form into feet by pointing out different syllables based on their lengths. Scansion is also known as "scanning," which is, in fact, a description of rhythms of poetry through break up of its lines or verses into feet, pointing the locations of accented and unaccented syllables, working out on meter, as well as counting the syllables

Antistrophe

The repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of successive clauses. (Selfishness is not living as one wishes to live. It is asking others to live as one wishes to live ...")... the AS ONE WISHES TO LIVE is repeated at the end of each sentence/clause

Euphemism

The term euphemism refers to polite, indirect expressions that replace words and phrases considered harsh and impolite, or which suggest something unpleasant. Euphemism is an idiomatic expression, which loses its literal meanings and refers to something else, in order to hide its unpleasantness. For example, "kick the bucket" is a euphemism that describes the death of a person. In addition, many organizations use the term "downsizing" for the distressing act of "firing" its employees a mild or indirect word substituted for a word that is harsh or blunt. Example: Adult beverages instead of liquor.

Incentive

The term invective denotes speech or writing that attacks, insults, or denounces a person, topic, or institution. It involves the use of abusive and negative language. The tool of invective is generally employed in both poetry and prose, to reiterate the significance of the deeply felt emotions of the writer ex: "A knave, a rascal; an eater of broken meats; a base, proud, shallow, beggarly, three-suited, hundred-pound, filthy, worsted-stocking knave ... and art nothing but the composition of a knave, beggar, coward, pandar, and the son and heir of a mongrel bitch ..." - King Lear -- Shakespeare

Ballad

The word ballad is of French provenance. It is a type of poetry or verse which was basically used in dance songs in ancient France. Later on, during the late 16th and 17th centuries, it spread over the majority of European nations. Owing to its popularity and emotional appeal, it remained a powerful tool for poets and lyricists to prepare music in the form of lyrical ballads, and earn a handsome income from it. Lost popularity during the latter half of the 19th century. Ballads, no matter which category they fall into, mostly rely on simple and easy-to-understand language, or dialect from its origin. Stories about hardships, tragedies, love, and romance are standard ingredients of the ballad. This is irrespective of geographical origins. Another conspicuous element of any ballad is the recurrence of certain lines at regular intervals. Ballads can also be in interrogative form, with appropriate answers to every question asked. Ballads seldom offer a direct message about a certain event, character, or situation. It is left to the audience to deduce the moral of the story from the whole narration

Difference between Eulogy, Elegy, and Obituary

These three terms are often confused due in their meanings. A eulogy and an elegy are similar because both are written for the dead. An elegy is a song or a poem with a lamenting tone that expresses loss of a family member or a loved one. A eulogy, by contrast, is a speech or written tribute to the deceased, or perhaps to a living person, and it is not necessarily in the form of a poem. However, an obituary is a completely different term than eulogy and elegy, as it is a published biography intended to recount the life of someone who recently died.

Anne Bradstreet

To My Dear and Loving Husband" "Upon the Burning of Our House" Antinomialism Not following rules of the law Tones of secularism in a puritan world

Background (teaching)

This is knowledge that a students has from experiences and classes including content knowledge and vocabulary.

Faulty comma placement

This is when a sentence requires a semicolon, colon, or period to separate a relative clause, and a comma is used instead.

Diacope

This literary device is a repetition of a phrase or word, broken up by other intervening words. For instance, a very popular example of diacope is in William Shakespeare's Hamlet, "to be, or not to be!" In this line, you can notice that the speaker has repeated the phrase "to be," which is separated by another phrase "or not." This is called diacope

Reciprocal teaching

This refers to an instructional activity in which students become the teacher in small group reading sessions. The teacher models then helps students learn to lead the group by using the four strategies of summarizing, question generating, clarifying, and predicting.

Paraphrase

To state some else's ideas in our own words to restate a statement in different words than the original text, while keeping the meaning and sense of the original source the same

Canon

Traditional collection of writings Literature generally thought of as suitable for academic use Rules applied to certain types of genres Literary rule used for evaluation of texts

Trancendentalism

Transcendentalism stressed the divinity of the individual over establishments and society. Transcendentalists critiqued unthinking conformity based on the idea that, in order to understand the nature of reality, one must first examine and analyze the reasoning process which governs the nature of experience.

Gwendolyn Brooks

We Real Cool Poet of the 20th century First African American to receive a Pulitzer Prize

Tragic hero

When a hero confronts downfall, he is recognized as a tragic hero or protagonist. Aristotle, the Greek philosopher, characterizes these plays or stories, in which the main character is a tragic hero, as tragedies. Here, the hero confronts his downfall whether due to fate, or by his own mistake, or any other social reason

Appositive

When a noun or word is followed by another noun or phrase that renames or identifies it, this is called appositive. This is a literary device that appears before or after a noun or noun phrase. It is always used with a comma. Simply, we can define it as a noun phrase or a noun that defines or explains another noun, which it follows ex:"We were waiting outside the condemned cells, a row of sheds fronted with double bars, like small animal cages." (A Hanging, by George Orwell) --- The condemned cells is a noun phrase and the row of sheds is an appositive that explains the noun phrase ex: John, my friend (the appositive is my friend)

Poetic justice

When characters "get what they deserve" in the end of a story. Poetic justice is an ideal form of justice, in which the good characters are rewarded and the bad characters are punished, by an ironic twist of fate. It is a strong literary view that all forms of literature must convey moral lessons. Therefore, writers employ poetic justice to conform to moral principles

Epitaph

When somebody from our family, or a friend dies, we want to commemorate his or her memory. For this, we use an epitaph, which is a brief writing or saying inscribed on a grave. Generally, it is a brief composition, having figurative sense in a verse or in prose form, written to pay tribute to a deceased person, or to remember a past event

Assertion

When someone makes a statement investing his strong belief in it, as if it is true, though it may not be, he is making an assertion. Assertion is a stylistic approach or technique involving a strong declaration, a forceful or confident and positive statement regarding a belief or a fact. Often, it is without proof or any support. Its purpose is to express ideas or feelings directly, for instance, "I have put my every effort to complete this task today."

Perspective

While reading a fiction or non-fiction book, readers see and experience the events and feelings about the characters through a certain point of view, which is called a "perspective." A perspective is a literary tool, which serves as a lens through which readers observe characters, events, and happenings. A writer may narrate the story from his perspective, or from a character's perspective. Its purpose is to make the voice of a writer distinctive from other writers

My Antonia O Pioneers!

Willa Cather American Novelist

Slang

Words that are not a part of standard vocabulary or language, and which are used informally, are called "slang." These words are more commonly used in speech than in writing

Surrealism (and when did surrealism occur in history)

a 20th-century (1920s-1940s) avant-garde movement in art and literature that sought to release the creative potential of the unconscious mind, for example by the irrational juxtaposition of images indicates a specific thought and movement in literature, the arts, and theatre, which tries to integrate the confused realms of imagination and reality. The proponents of surrealism endeavor to mix up the differences of conscious and unconscious thought through writing and painting by using irrational juxtaposition of images Vivid images, dream-like

ad hominem

a Latin word that means "against the man." As the name suggests, it is a literary term that involves commenting on or against an opponent, to undermine him instead of his arguments. Slandering someone rather than their work or disregarding what they are saying because of their personhood or lifestyle.

I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings

a black girl growing up in the South struggles against racism, sexism, and lack of power. Written by Dr. Maya Angelou Maya Angelou - A black female writer.

allusion

a brief, indirect reference to a person, place, thing, or idea in a cultural, historical, literary, or political context/significance. It does not describe in detail the person or thing that it refers to

Epilogue

a chapter at the end of a work of literature, which concludes the work

Run on sentence

a combination of two independent clauses, joined together without a conjunction or punctuation mark. Both of these independent clauses form a complete sense or thought; however, when they group together, they need proper punctuation for clarity. For instance, in the sentence, "It is now ten we cannot go there before early morning," two complete thoughts are joined together in a confusing manner

Allegory

a complete narrative that involves characters and events that stand for an abstract idea or event. Ex: Animal Farm by George Orwell Pilgrim's Progress (By John Bunyan) Faerie Queen (By Edmund Spenser)

Poem

a composition written in metrical feet forming rhythmical lines a collection of spoken or written words that expresses ideas or emotions in a powerfully vivid and imaginative style. A poem is comprised of a particular rhythmic and metrical pattern. In fact, it is a literary technique that is different from prose or ordinary speech, as it is either in metrical pattern or in free verse.

Refutation

a denial of the validity of an opposing argument refers to that part of an argument where a speaker or a writer encounters contradicting points of view. Alternatively, refutation can be described as the negation of an argument, opinion, testimony, doctrine, or theory, through contradicting evidence. It normally constitutes a part of an essay that disproves the opposing arguments

Stanza

a division of four or more lines having a fixed length, meter, or rhyming scheme. Stanzas in poetry are similar to paragraphs in prose. Both stanzas and paragraphs include connected thoughts, and are set off by a space. The number of lines varies in different kinds of stanzas, but it is uncommon for a stanza to have more than twelve lines. The pattern of a stanza is determined by the number of feet in each line, and by its metrical or rhyming scheme

Understatement

a figure of speech employed by writers or speakers to intentionally make a situation seem less important than it really is Can have an ironic effect ex: "I have to have this operation. It isn't very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain." - Catcher in the Rye, by J.D. Salinger

Personification

a figure of speech in which a thing - an idea or an animal - is given human attributes

Oxymoron

a figure of speech in which two opposite ideas are joined to create an effect. The common oxymoron phrase is a combination of an adjective proceeded by a noun with contrasting meanings, such as "cruel kindness," or "living death"

Litotes

a figure of speech that employs an understatement by using double negatives or, in other words, a positive statement expressed by negating its opposite expressions Understatement to emphasize an idea or situation ex: They do not seem the happiest couple around

Reductio as absurdum

a figure of speech that is defined as a manner of arguing something for one's own position by showing the absurdity of the position of his opponent. In simple words, it means to reduce an argument to absurdity, by drawing conclusions with logical limits, or by showing ridiculous consequences. Reductio ad absurdum in satires breaks down an idea to the point of absurdity

Simile

a figure of speech that makes a comparison, showing similarities between two different things. Unlike a metaphor, a simile draws resemblance with the help of the words "like" or "as." Therefore, it is a direct comparison

Metaphor

a figure of speech that makes an implicit, implied, or hidden comparison between two things that are unrelated, but which share some common characteristics. In other words, a resemblance of two contradictory or different objects is made based on a single or some common characteristics

Trope

a figure of speech through which speakers or writers intend to express meanings of words differently than their literal meanings. In other words, it is a metaphorical or figurative use of words in which writers shift from the literal meanings of words to their non-literal meanings. The trope, in fact, could be a phrase, a word, or an image used to create artistic effect. We may find its use almost anywhere, such as in literature, political rhetoric, and everyday speech ex: "The grave's a fine a private place, But none, I think, do there embrace." - To His Coy Mistress, Andrew Marvell (has a figurative meaning behind the literal one)

Catastrophe

a final resolution that appears in a narrative plot or a long poem. It unravels the mystery or intrigue, and brings the story toward a logical end. In a tragedy, it could be the death of a protagonist or other character; and in a comedy, it could be the union of major characters. Catastrophe is a synonym of denouement. It is, in fact, the final part following protasis, epitasis, and catatasis. Can be a happy thing, but it just means the resolution at the end.

Straw man

a form of informal fallacy used in arguments and debates. A type of rhetorical device, straw man is based on refuting the argument of one's opponent on a view he doesn't share. When the subject wants to prove that his or her perspective or argument is superior to an opposing argument, he uses straw man argumentative fallacy

Prose

a form of language that has no formal metrical structure. It applies a natural flow of speech, and ordinary grammatical structure, rather than rhythmic structure, such as in the case of traditional poetry

Short story

a fully developed story which is shorter than a novel and longer than a fable. It typically takes just a single sitting for reading. Short Story focuses on the incidents bigger or smaller and evokes strong feelings from its readers. A short story often has a few characters in the plot

Maxim

a general truth or rule of conduct; a short saying a simple and memorable line, quote, or rule for taking action and leading a good life. Simply put, it is a thought with moralistic values that intends to motivate individuals. Maxim is, in fact, a type of saying, or a brief statement of a great thought about life, especially a sententious or aphoristic one such as, "He who hesitates is lost." It helps in characterizing characters

Red herring

a kind of fallacy that is an irrelevant topic introduced in an argument to divert the attention of listeners or readers from the original issue. In literature, this fallacy is often used in detective or suspense novels to mislead readers or characters, or to induce them to make false conclusions

Legend

a legend is a narrative that focuses on a historically or geographically specific figure, and describes his exploits. Similar to a myth, a legend can provide an etymological narrative, often filling in historical gaps ex: Beowulf

Synecdoche

a literary device in which a part of something represents the whole, or it may use a whole to represent a part. Synecdoche may also use larger groups to refer to smaller groups, or vice versa. It may also call a thing by the name of the material it is made of, or it may refer to a thing in a container or packaging by the name of that container or packing. ex: bread referring to money gray beard representing an old man

Eristic

a literary device in which the writers and speakers engage in a heated argumentation without reaching a conclusion or solving a particular issue. Also, this device has been used as a manner of argumentation in classical texts, which are usually based on specious reasoning and poor conclusions (ex: the argument between Macbeth and Lady Macbeth about killing the King)

Portmanteau

a literary device in which two or more words are joined together to coin a new word, which refers to a singe concept the new word formed in the process shares the same meanings as the original words. It is different from a compound word, which could have a completely different meaning from the words that it was coined from. ex: telephone + marathon = telethon

Pathetic fallacy

a literary device that attributes human qualities and emotions to inanimate objects of nature

Suspense

a literary device that authors use to keep their readers' interest alive throughout the work. It is a feeling of anticipation that something risky or dangerous is about to happen. The purpose of using this type of anxiety in literature is to make readers more concerned about the characters, and to form sympathetic association with them. Therefore, authors create scenarios that could force readers to understand, and to want to read on to see what their beloved characters face the next

Tragic flaw

a literary device that can be defined as a trait in a character leading to his downfall, and the character is often the hero of the literary piece. This trait could be the lack of self-knowledge, lack of judgment, and often it is hubris (pride) ex: Hamlet's indecisiveness leads to his downfall

Syncope

a literary device that can be defined as the contraction or the shortening of a word by omitting sounds, syllables or letters from the middle of the word, such as bos'n for the word "boatswain." Similarly, ne'er for the word "never," and fo'c'sle' for the word "forecastle" are also used. From these examples, syncope can also be defined as the dropping of the unstressed vowels, letters, or syllables, or dropping the consonants from the middle of a word Mostly to keep the meter of the poem, play, etc.

Rhythm

a literary device that demonstrates the long and short patterns through stressed and unstressed syllables, particularly in verse form

Non sequitur

a literary device that includes statements, sayings, and conclusions that do not follow the fundamental principles of logic and reason. They are frequently used in theater and comedies to create comedic effect

Prosthesis

a literary device that involves the addition of an extra sound or syllable to the beginning of a word, which helps in making it easier to pronounce ex: "Old fond eyes, beweep this cause again...." (King Lear, by William Shakespeare). Adding the "be" syllable before "weep"

Snark

a literary device that is meant to be sarcastic speech. Depending on the subject, the audience, and the speaker, snark can be taken as sophisticated, witty, or asinine

Catalog

a literary device used in poetry and prose to give a list of things and create a rhetorical effect. Writers use it to make a list of multiple thoughts in a unified form. However, the poet's do not add Catalogs randomly, and they are well thought. The list is deliberately inserted to make the audience enjoy the conventional style of poetry. "Houses and rooms are full of perfumes, the shelves are crowded with perfumes,I breathe the fragrance myself and know it and like it,The distillation would intoxicate me also, but I shall not let it. The atmosphere is not a perfume, it has no taste of the distillation, it is odorless,It is for my mouth forever, I am in love with it,I will go to the bank by the wood and become undisguised and naked,I am mad for it to be in contact with me." Walt Whitman - Song of Myself. Listing things that are his, does so through a chain of unique thought that is thoughtful

Wit

a literary device used to make the readers laugh. Over the years, its meanings have kept changing. Today, it is associated with laughter and comedy. It is, in fact, a clever expression of thought; whether harmless or aggressive, with or without any disparaging intent toward something or someone

Pastiche

a literary piece that imitates a famous literary work by another writer. Unlike parody, its purpose is not to mock, but to honor the literary piece it imitates ex: Many form of detective novels following Sherlock Holmes

Rebuttal

a literary technique in which a speaker or writer uses argument, and presents reasoning or evidence intended to undermine or weaken the claim of an opponent Refutation, response with contrary evidence

Zoomorphism

a literary technique in which animal attributes are imposed upon non-animal objects, humans, and events; and animal features are ascribed to humans, gods, and other objects. ex: "I have had a dream, past the wit of man to say what dream it was: man is but an ass, if he go about to expound this dream ..." - A Midsummer Night's Dream, Shakespeare

Juxtaposition

a literary technique in which two or more ideas, places, characters, and their actions are placed side by side in a narrative or a poem, for the purpose of developing comparisons and contrasts

Persuasion

a literary technique that writers use to present their ideas through reason and logic, in order to influence the audience. Persuasion may simply use an argument to persuade the readers, or sometimes may persuade readers to perform a certain action. Simply, it is an art of effective speaking and writing in which writers make their opinions believable to the audience through logic, by invoking emotions, and by proving their own credibility

Jargon

a literary term that is defined as the use of specific phrases and words in a particular situation, profession, or trade. These specialized terms are used to convey hidden meanings accepted and understood in that field. Jargon examples are found in literary and non-literary pieces of writing

Plot

a literary term used to describe the events that make up a story, or the main part of a story. These events relate to each other in a pattern or a sequence. The structure of a novel depends on the organization of events in the plot of the story

Novel

a long narrative work of fiction with some realism. It is often in prose form and is published as a single book Similar to a short story, a novel has some features like a representation of characters, dialogues, setting, plot, climax, conflict, and resolution. However, it does not require all the elements to be a good novel

Theme

a main idea or an underlying meaning of a literary work, which may be stated directly or indirectly

Villanelle

a nineteen-line poem with two rhymes throughout, consisting of five tercets and a quatrain, with the first and third lines of the opening tercet recurring alternately at the end of the other tercets and with both repeated at the close of the concluding quatrain. First and third lines of first stanza are repeated at the end of every other tercet and at the end of the final quatrain villanelle is a dance song coupled with pastoral themes. In literature, it is defined as a poetic device that which requires a poem to have 19 lines and a fixed form. It has five tercets (first 15 lines), a quatrain (last four lines), and a couplet at the end of the quatrain

Novella

a novella is a type of prose fiction, which is shorter than full length novels and longer than short stories. It originates from an Italian word "novella", which means "new." It is a well-structured yet short narrative; often satiric or realistic in tone. It usually focuses on one incident, or issue with one or two main characters and takes place at a single location ex: Heart of Darkness

Palindrome

a number, a word, a sentence, a symbol, or even signs that can be read forward as well as backward, or in reverse order with the same effects and meanings

Misplaced modifier

a phrase or clause that is improperly separated from the word it modifies making the sentence awkward. Example: "On her way home, Liz found a gold man's watch" (wrong/misplaced) instead of "On her way home, Liz found a man's gold watch" (correct). a phrase or clause placed awkwardly in a sentence so that it appears to modify or refer to an unintended word.

Pathos

a quality of an experience in life, or a work of art, that stirs up emotions of pity, sympathy, and sorrow. Pathos can be expressed through words, pictures, or even with gestures of the body Appeal to emotion

Rhyme

a repetition of similar sounding words, occurring at the end of lines in poems or songs. A rhyme is a tool utilizing repeating patterns that bring rhythm or musicality to poems. This differentiates them from prose, which is plain. A rhyme is employed for the specific purpose of rendering a pleasing effect to a poem, which makes its recital an enjoyable experience. Moreover, it offers itself as a mnemonic device, smoothing the progress of memorization

Narrative

a report of related events presented to listeners or readers, in words arranged in a logical sequence. A story is taken as a synonym of narrative. A narrative, or story, is told by a narrator who may be a direct part of that experience, and he or she often shares the experience as a first-person narrator. Sometimes he or she may only observe the events as a third-person narrator, and gives his or her summation

Chiasmus

a rhetorical device in which two or more clauses are balanced against each other by the reversal of their structures in order to produce an artistic effect. ex:"Do I love you because you're beautiful?Or are you beautiful because I love you?"

Pleonasm

a rhetorical device that can be defined as the use of two or more words (a phrase) to express an idea. These words are redundant, such as in these examples of pleonasm" "burning fire," and "black darkness." Sometimes, pleonasm is called "tautology," which is the repetition of words

Tmesis

a rhetorical device that involves the breaking down of a phrase or a word into two parts. In simpler words, tmesis is an insertion of a word between the parts of a word, a compound word, or a phrase (phrasal verbs usually). It is a practice of dividing a phrase or word into its components by inserting another word in the middle of that phrase or word. Tmesis is commonly employed in words that have more than three syllables ex: "some other where" putting other between somewhere - Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare

Syllogism

a rhetorical device that starts an argument with a reference to something general, and from this it draws a conclusion about something more specific ex: Men are mortal John is a man so therefore John is mortal

Parataxis

a rhetorical term in which phrases and clauses are placed one after another independently, without coordinating or subordinating them through the use of conjunctions. It is also called "additive style." Parataxis is sometimes used as asyndeton, in which the phrases and clauses are coordinated without conjunctions No conjunctions or joining words "Veni, vidi, vici" - Life of Caesar, by Plutarch

Tricolon

a rhetorical term that consists of three parallel clauses, phrases, or words, which happen to come in quick succession without any interruption. These three parallel words, phrases, or clauses have almost the same length, though this condition is not strictly followed ex: "Every gun that is made, every warship launched, every rocket fired" -Eisenhower speech

Simple sentence

a sentence consisting of only one clause, with a single subject and predicate (no dependent clause attached) A simple sentence is a sentence containing only one clause with a single subject and predicate (action(verb)). Example: Stephanie pet Stella (independent clause).

Exclamatory sentence

a sentence expressing strong feeling/emotion, usually punctuated with an exclamation mark

Compound complex sentence

a sentence having two or more coordinate independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. A compound complex sentence is a sentence that contains two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clause. This is an extended complex sentence. Example: The lightning flashed (independent clause) and (conjunction) the rain fell (independent clause) as he entered the house (dependent clause).

Declarative sentence

a sentence that makes a statement (opposite of a question)

Compound sentence

a sentence with two or more coordinate independent clauses, often joined by one or more conjunctions A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses but no dependent clause - the independent clauses in this type of sentence are joined by a conjunction. Example: The lightning flashed (independent clause) and (conjunction) the rain fell (independent clause)

Rising action

a series of relevant incidents that create suspense, interest, and tension in a narrative. In literary works, a rising action includes all decisions, characters' flaws, and background circumstances that together create turns and twists leading to a climax. We find it in novels, plays, and short stories. Rising action is one of the elements of plot, which begins immediately after its exposition Events leading up to the climax

Syntax

a set of rules in a language. It dictates how words from different parts of speech are put together in order to convey a complete thought

Passive voice

a type of a clause or sentence in which an action (through verb), or an object of a sentence, is emphasized rather than its subject. Simply, the subject receives the action of the verb. The emphasis or focus is on the action, while the subject is not known or is less important ex: The book was written by her. Passive voice is when the subject is acted on by the verb. An example of this is "The ball was thrown by the pitcher." The ball, which is the subject, receives the action of the verb and "was thrown" in the passive voice. Active voice, on the other hand, would read "The pitcher threw the ball."

Persona

a voice or an assumed role of a character, which represents the thoughts of a writer, or a specific person the writer wants to present as his mouthpiece Most of the time, the dramatis personae are identified with the writer, though sometimes a persona can be a character or an unknown narrator.

Lampoon

a written satire used to ridicule or attack someone a form of virulent satire in verse or prose, which is sometimes a malicious or unjust attack on a person, an institute, or an activity. Simply, when a writer or an artist makes fun of someone or something, by imitating the same thing in a funny way, it is called "lampooning." ex: A Modest Proposal

Omniscient

all-knowing a literary technique of writing a narrative in third person, in which the narrator knows the feelings and thoughts of every character in the story. Through omniscient narrative, the author brings an entire world of his characters to life, and moves from character to character, allowing different voices to interpret the events, and maintaining omniscient form — that is keeping a distance. Omniscient narrative tells the story of every character by demonstrating that only the narrator possesses information

Overstatement

an act of stating something more profoundly than it actually is, in order to make the point more serious or important or beautiful. In literature, writers use overstatement as a literary technique for the sake of humor, and for laying emphasis on a certain point. For instance, when in his poem I wandered lonely as a cloud, Wordsworth reports daffodils as, "stretched in never-ending line." In fact, he is not saying this statement literally; rather he is merely using overstatement to add emphasis on the long line of daffodils

SQ3R

an active reading activity: Survey, Question, Read, Respond, Review

Setting

an environment or surrounding in which an event or story takes place. It may provide particular information about placement and timing, such as New York, America, in the year 1820. Setting could be simply descriptive, like a lonely cottage on a mountain. Social conditions, historical time, geographical locations, weather, immediate surroundings, and timing are all different aspects of setting

Parody

an imitation of a particular writer, artist, or genre, exaggerating it deliberately to produce a comic effect. The humorous effect in parody is achieved by imitating and overstressing noticeable features of a famous piece of literature, as in caricatures, where certain peculiarities of a person are highlighted to achieve a humorous effect ex: Sonnet 130 Shakespeare (My misstress eyes are nothing like the sun) - it mocks the traditional sonnet because the woman does not have all these impossible features like the sonnets of that time -- Shakespeare possibly poking fun at the poems and authors who do this

Innuendo

an indirect or a subtle observation about a thing or a person. It is generally critical, disparaging, or salacious in nature, and its use is almost always derogatory. However, it must be kept in mind that it is the most thinly-veiled form of satire, and when it is strong, it takes the shape of criticism

Motif

an object or idea that repeats itself throughout a literary work Contributes to the development of a theme

Solecism

an ungrammatical combination of words in a sentence Also can be an act that is not proper etiquette

Procatalepsis

anticipating an objection and answering it a figure of speech that is also known as "prebuttal," or a "prolepsis," in which the speaker or writer gives response to the objection of an opponent in his speech by repeating his objection ex: " 'I know what you're going to say' ... 'That if they look at it properly they'll see that it wasn't our fault. But will they look at it properly? Of course they won't. You know what cats they are ...' " - The Captives by Hugh Walpole

Biography

biography is simply an account or detailed description about the life of a person. It entails basic facts, such as childhood, education, career, relationships, family, and death. Biography is a literary genre that portrays the experiences of all these events occurring in the life of a person, mostly in a chronological order. Unlike a resume or profile, a biography provides a life story of a subject, highlighting different aspects of his of her life. A

Proverb

brief, simple, and popular saying, or a phrase that gives advice and effectively embodies a commonplace truth based on practical experience or common sense. A proverb may have an allegorical message behind its odd appearance. The reason of popularity is due to its usage in spoken language, as well as in folk literature

Parenthesis

insertion of some verbal unit in a position that interrupts the normal syntactical flow of the sentence a qualifying or explanatory sentence, clause, or word that writers insert into a paragraph or passage. However, if they leave it out, even then it does not grammatically affect the text, which is correct without it

Verb "number"

can be used as a singular verb or a plural verb "the number of people..." "a number of people"

Colloqualism

colloquialism is the use of informal words, phrases, or even slang in a piece of writing. Colloquial expressions tend to sneak in as writers, being part of a society, are influenced by the way people speak in that society. Naturally, they are bound to add colloquial expressions to their vocabulary

Metaphyscial

describes the things that are beyond the description of physical existence. It is intended to elucidate the fundamental nature of being and the world and is often used in the form of argument to describe the intellectual or emotional state an individual goes through. It is deliberately inserted to make the audience think about the things they had never imagined.

Synesthesia

describing one kind of sensation in terms of another ("a loud color", "a sweet sound") a technique adopted by writers to present ideas, characters, or places in such a manner that they appeal to more than one sense, like hearing, sight, smell, and touch at a given time

The Red Badge of Courage

is a war novel by American author Stephen Crane (1871-1900). Taking place during the American Civil War, the story is about a young private of the Union Army, Henry Fleming, who flees from the field of battle. Overcome with shame, he longs for a wound—to counteract his cowardice. When his regiment once again faces the enemy, Henry acts as standard-bearer.

Canto

division of a long poem Canto is a subdivision or part in a narrative or epic poem, consisting of five or more lines such, as a stanza, which could also be a canto. The word "canto" originates from the Latin word cantus, which means "a song. Dividing poems into shorter sections for better understanding

types of lyric poetry

elegy, ode, sonnet, dramatic monologue, occasional poetry

Ethos

ethos represents credibility, or an ethical appeal, which involves persuasion by the character involved

Hyperbole

exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally. a figure of speech that involves an exaggeration of ideas for the sake of emphasis ex: "It's been ages since I last saw you"

Process Essay

explains a process of making or breaking something. These essays are often written in chronological order, or in numerical order to show step-by-step processes. They are written in descriptive or prescriptive modes. Although it is not a technical communication, it sounds like having all the qualities of a technical document. The only difference is that it is often written in descriptive mode, while a technical document is mostly in imperative mode

Limereck

is a comic verse, containing five anapestic (unstressed/unstressed/stressed) lines, in which the first, second, and fifth lines are longer, rhyme together, and follow three metrical feet. The third and fourth lines rhyme together, are shorter, and follow two metrical feet. However, sometimes it may vary, and amphibrachic (unstressed/stressed/unstressed) form can replace anapestic. In fact, it is a bawdy, humorous, or nonsensical verse written in the form of five anapests, with an aabba rhyme scheme. Since it has a special structure and format, it is called fixed or closed form of poetry

Hubris

extreme pride and arrogance shown by a character, which ultimately brings about his downfall a typical flaw in the personality of a character who enjoys a powerful position; as a result of which, he overestimates his capabilities to such an extent that he loses contact with reality. A character suffering from hubris tries to cross normal human limits, and violates moral codes. Examples of hubris are found in major characters of tragic play

Pentameter

five feet a literary device that can be defined as a line in verse or poetry that has five strong metrical feet or beats. There are different forms of pentameter: iamb, trochaic, dactylic, and anapestic. The most commonly used pentameter in English is iambic. It also can be described as a line that consists of ten syllables, where the first syllable is stressed, the second is unstressed, the third is stressed, and so on until it reaches the 10th line syllable

Parrhesia

freedom of speech It is saying something boldly and freely without leaving any doubt behind Direct expression shown through words ex: When Kent in King Lear back Cordelia up in her words (he later gets banished)

Tone

in written composition, is an attitude of a writer toward a subject or an audience. Tone is generally conveyed through the choice of words, or the viewpoint of a writer on a particular subject

Symbolism

the use of symbols to signify ideas and qualities, by giving them symbolic meanings that are different from their literal sense

Verisimilitude

is likeness to the truth, such as the resemblance of a fictitious work to a real event, even if it is a far-fetched one. Verisimilitude ensures that even a fantasy must be rooted in reality, which means that events should be plausible to the extent that readers consider them credible enough to be able to relate them somehow to their experiences of real life The appearance of being true or real ex: In Gulliver's Travels, by Jonathan Swift, he creates a satire around the parties in Lilliput by basing them off the two major political parties in England at the time.

Climax (and where it normally occurs in the structure of a play)

is that particular point in a narrative at which the conflict or tension hits the highest point. It is a structural part of a plot, and is at times referred to as a "crisis." It is a decisive moment or a turning point in a storyline at which the rising action turns around into a falling action. Thus, a climax is the point at which a conflict or crisis reaches its peak, then calls for a resolution or denouement (conclusion). In a five-act play, the climax is close to the conclusion of act 3. Later in the 19th century, five-act plays were replaced by three-act plays, and the climax was placed close to the conclusion or at the end of the play.

Audience

is the person for whom a writer writes, or composer composes. A writer uses a particular style of language, tone, and content according to what he knows about his audience.

Propoganda

is the spreading of rumors, false or correct information, or an idea, in order to influence the opinion of society. It may advance an idea or bring into disrepute an opposite idea. In literature, writers use propaganda as a literary technique to manipulate public opinion for or against one idea or another. In history, we can search a plethora of literary works used as propaganda to shape public perceptions, and direct their behavior to get a response. Generally, propaganda is a technique for convincing people, but which is misleading in nature, or promotes a false viewpoint ex: Animal Farm written after the Russian Revolution and has lots of anti-communist propaganda in it

Metalepsis

it is an advanced form of figurative speech in which one thing refers to another thing that is only slightly related to it. There are two ways to make this association. One is through showing causal relationship to seemingly unrelated things. The other is through indirect intermediate replacement of terms ex:"As he swung toward them holding up the handHalf in appeal, but half as if to keepThe life from spilling..." In these lines, the poet makes reference to keeping the "life from spilling," meaning the spilling of blood. He makes a connection between blood and life

Intertextuality

literary device making use of a textual reference within some body of text, which reflects again the text used as a reference. Instead of employing referential phrases from different literary works, intertextuality draws upon the concept, rhetoric, or ideology from other writings to be merged in the new text.

Verse

literary device verse denotes a single line of poetry. The term can also be used to refer to a stanza or other parts of poetry

Sound devices and types of sound devices

literary elements used in prose and poetry to stress certain sounds and create musical effects. The writers make their texts vibrant, emotive and pleasing with the use of these devices. Also, they create pointed and special effects in their writings that help the readers in understanding the literary piece at a deeper level. However, the writers intentionally stress some syllables to emphasize sound that appeals to the readers in a certain way Types: Assonance - repetition of vowel sounds in same line Consonance - repetition of consonant sounds in same line Alliteration - repetition of consonant sounds at beginning of word in same line Meter - unit of rhythm in poetry, pattern of beats Onomatopoeia - word which imitates the natural sound of things

Play

literary form of writing for theatre, which narrates a story with elements of conflicts, tensions, and actions through dialogues of characters. For dramatic significance, it is divided into acts and scenes. The writers present their feelings, emotions, and ideas through their characters and make them speak

Rhetorical devices

literary techniques used to heighten the effectiveness of expression are literary elements used to convince or persuade audiences using logos, pathos, and ethos. Their appropriate use makes the text rich, lifelike and enjoyable in prose and poetry. When carefully inserted, they transform an ordinary piece of writing into a memorable, evocative and pleasant literary work. It is due to these devices the readers feel aligned to the character or the writer. Also, the audiences understand the uniqueness and depth of the text. However, rhetorical devices appeal to one's sensibilities in four ways: logos, pathos, ethos, and kairos

In Medias Res

means narrating a story from the middle after supposing that the audiences are aware of past events demands beginning a narrative in the very middle of its action from some vital point when most of the action has occurred. The author then freely moves backward and forward at his leisure, connecting the dots of the story. All the explanations regarding the significance of setting, plot, characters and the minutiae of the story are gradually revealed in the form of a character's dialogues or thoughts, or flashbacks. The setting and environment also contribute to add to the details of the action introduced at the beginning of the story (ex: The Odyssey -- does not begin with the fall of troy but with Odysseus trapped on an island with Calypso)

Moral

moral means a message conveyed by, or a lesson learned from, a story, a poem, or an event. It is not necessary that the author or the poet has clearly stated it. It can be left for the audiences or the learners to derive. However, at times, moral is clearly stated in the shape of a proverb

alliteration

multiple words in a row that begin with the same sound

Neologism

new word or expression A neologism is a newly-created word used in expressions, in both writing and speaking. However, all neologisms are not entirely new. Some neologisms are built from new uses of old words, while others are combinations of old and new words ex: Shakespeare coined the word "bedazzled" in Taming of the Shrew when the sun gleamed off a character's rhinestone on a piece of clothing ex: Jabberwocky by Lewis Carrol.... literally all of it

Epizeuxis

repetition of one word (for emphasis) ex: "Hark, Hark!"

Polyptoton

repetition of words derived from the same root a stylistic device that is a rhetorical repetition of the same root word. However, each time the word is repeated in a different way ex: "No end to the withering of withered flowers" - the Dry Salvages, by T.S. Elliot

Cumulative sentence

sentence that completes the main idea at the beginning of the sentence and then builds and adds on A cumulative sentence is known as a "loose sentence," that starts with an independent clause or main clause, which is simple and straight, provides main idea, and then adds subordinate elements or modifiers. It adds subordinate or modifying elements after the subject and the predicate. Writers use these types of sentences when they want to put forth the main idea first, and provide details to elucidate the idea further thereafter. They use these details in the form of dependent or subordinate phrases or clauses.`

Parallelism

similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses the use of components in a sentence that are grammatically the same; or similar in their construction, sound, meaning, or meter adds balance and rhythm to sentences, giving ideas a smoother flow and thus persuasiveness, because of the repetition it employs. For example, "Alice ran into the room, into the garden, and into our hearts." We see the repetition of a phrase that not only gives the sentence a balance, but rhythm and flow as well. This repetition can also occur in similarly structured clauses, such as, "Whenever you need me, wherever you need me, I will be there for you."

Trochee

stressed, unstressed an adjective of trochee is a metrical foot composed of two syllables; stressed followed by an unstressed syllable. This rhythmic unit is used to make up the lines of poetry. However, it is deliberately inserted to make the text sound different. The material pattern of trochee is composed of "falling rhythm" as the stress is at the beginning of the foot. It, however, plays a great role when writing about dark subjects like madness and death.

Accumulation

stylistic device that is defined as a list of words which embody similar abstract or physical qualities or meanings, with the intention to emphasize the common qualities that words hold. It is also an act of accumulating the scattered points. Accumulation examples are found in literary pieces and in daily conversations. (essentially a list)

Synesis

the agreement of words according to logic, and not by the grammatical form a rhetorical device in which the traditional grammatical agreement of syntax is replaced by an agreement in its sense. In other words, synesis is a grammatical construction that is in agreement with the sense instead of the strict syntax. It is used to highlight the words' construction according to the sense not its morphosyntactic form A type of anacoluthon (which is a syntactic interruption)... but synesis is different because it draws attention the the word/phrase that is out of place ex: "What's the use you learning to do right, when it's troublesome to do right and it ain't no trouble to do wrong, and the wages is just the same?" - The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, by Mark Twain

Protaganist

the central character or leading figure in poetry, narrative, novel or any other story. A protagonist is sometimes a "hero" to the audience or readers.

Orthography

the conventional spelling system of a language - the set of common ways to spell words

Predicate

the part of a sentence or clause containing a verb and stating something about the subject ex: "John went home"

Prosody

the patterns of rhythm and sound used in poetry/study of versification prosody is the study of meter, intonation, and rhythm of a poetic work. It is a phonetic term that uses meter, rhythm, tempo, pitch, and loudness in a speech for conveying information about the meanings and structure of an utterance. In addition, prosody is an important element of language that contributes toward rhythmic and acoustic effects in a piece of writing. It includes different elements, such as scansion, sound, pace, and meaning

Point of View

the perspective from which a story is told Point of view is the angle of considering things, which shows us the opinion or feelings of the individuals involved in a situation. In literature, point of view is the mode of narration that an author employs to let the readers "hear" and "see" what takes place in a story, poem, or essay

Parallel structure

the repetition of words or phrases that have similar grammatical structures a stylistic device, and a grammatical construction having two or more clauses, phrases or words, with similar grammatical form and length. It is similar to parallelism. In parallel structure, sentences have a series of phrases or clauses, which start and end in almost a similar fashion, by keeping the rhythm of the lines. These structures are repetitions that offer an enjoyable time for the readers to absorb and understand ideas, facts, and concepts ex: "Read not to contradict and confute; nor to believe and take for granted; nor to find talk and discourse; but to weigh and consider." - Of Studies by Francis Bacon A parallel structure is the repetition of the same pattern of words or phrases within a sentence or passage to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. Example: The repeated phrase "I have a dream" in Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech

Tautology

the repetitive use of phrases or words that have similar meanings. In simple words, it is expressing the same thing, an idea, or saying, two or more times. A grammatical tautology refers to an idea repeated within a phrase, paragraph, or sentence to give an impression that the writer is providing extra information Can be needless repetition, or repetition for the sake of style "word, words, words" - Hamlet, by Shakespeare

Anthimeria

the substitution of one part of speech for another (like a noun for a verb) ex: "The thunder would not peace at my bidding" (King Lear)

Imagery

to use figurative language to represent objects, actions, and ideas in such a way that it appeals to our physical senses

Comma splice

two independent clauses joined incorrectly with only a comma

Zeugma

use of two different words in a grammatically similar way that produces different, often incongruous, meanings a figure of speech in which a word applies to two others in different senses figure of speech in which a word, usually a verb or an adjective, applies to more than one noun, blending together grammatically and logically different ideas ex "John has lost his coat and temper"

Paranomasia

use of words alike in sound but different in meaning a rhetorical device that can be defined as a phrase intentionally used to exploit the confusion between words having similar sounds but different meanings. It is like a word play, and is also known as a "pun." ex: "Not I, believe me. You have dancing shoes with nimble soles; I have a soul of lead ... So stakes me to the ground I cannot move..." Soul and Sole as a pun

Inference

used commonly in literature, and in daily life, where logical deductions are made based on premises assumed to be true. Another definition of inference suggests that it is rational but non-logical, which means that, through the observation of facts presented in a particular pattern, one ultimately sees different or new interpretations and perspectives

Explicatory Essay

used to explain and interpret a piece of literature such as a poem, a play, a novel, or a short story. It often examines sentences, verses, or passages extracted from longer literary works. Like all other types of essays, however, it also needs a clear thesis around which body parts focus, ending on a conclusion. The text is cited at different places to support the main claim and move the argument forward