Praxis 5621 Principles of Learning and Teaching

Strategies for ELLs in the classroom (Pre & Early Production)

* Emphasize listening comprehension by using read-alouds and music. * Use visuals and have students point to pictures or act out vocabulary. * Speak slowly and use shorter words, but use correct English phrasing. * Model "survival" language by saying and showing the meaning. For example, say, "Open your book," and then open a book while the student observes. * Gesture, point and show as much as possible. * More advanced classmates who speak the same language can support new learning through interpretation. * Ask students to point to pictures and say the new word. * Ask yes/no and either/or questions. * Provide "play" opportunities to give the student a safe place to experiment with language. * Have students work in pairs or small groups to discuss a problem. Have literate students write short sentences or words in graphic organizers. * Model a phrase and have the student repeat it and add modifications. Teacher says, "This book is very interesting." The student repeats it and says, "This book is very boring." Continue with as many modifications as possible. * Avoid excessive error correction. Reinforce learning by modeling correct language usage when students make mistakes.

Response accommodations in the classroom

* Give responses in a form (oral or written) that's easier for him * Dictate answers to a scribe * Capture responses on an audio recorder * Use a spelling dictionary or electronic spell-checker * Use a word processor to type notes or give responses in class * Use a calculator or table of "math facts"

Strategies for Beginning Fluency ELLs in the classroom

* Have students work in pairs and groups to discuss content. * During instruction, have students do a "Think, pair, share" to give the student an opportunity to process the new language and concept. * Ask questions that require a full response with explanation. If you do not understand the student's explanation, ask for clarification by paraphrasing and asking the student if you heard them correctly. * Ask questions that require inference and justification of the answer. * Ask students if they agree or disagree with a statement and why. * Model more advanced academic language structures such as, "I think," "In my opinion," and "When you compare." Have students repeat the phrases in context. * Re-phrase incorrect statements in correct English, or ask the student if they know another way to say it. * Introduce nuances of language such as when to use more formal English and how to interact in conversations. * Have students make short presentations, providing them with the phrases and language used in presentations ("Today I will be talking about") and giving them opportunities to practice the presentation with partners before getting in front of the class. * Continue to provide visual support and vocabulary development. * Correct errors that interfere with meaning, and pre-identify errors that will be corrected in student writing, such as verb-tense agreement. Only correct the errors agreed upon. * You may want to assist in improving pronunciation by asking a student to repeat key vocabulary and discussing how different languages have different sounds.

Negative traits of intellectually gifted students

* Inattentiveness * Outbursts / Sass * Emotionally sensitive * Research indicates that giftedness also is associated with intellectual, emotional, imaginational, sensual, and psychomotor "over-excitabilities".

Strategies for Speech Emergent ELLs in the classroom

* Introduce more academic language and skills by using the same techniques listed above, but beginning to use more academic vocabulary. * Introduce new academic vocabulary and model how to use it in a sentence. * Provide visuals and make connections with student's background knowledge as much as possible. * Ask questions that require a short answer and are fairly literal. * Introduce charts and graphs by using easily understood information such as a class survey of food preferences. * Have students re-tell stories or experiences and have another student write them down. The ELL student can bring these narratives home to read and reinforce learning. * In writing activities, provide the student with a fill-in-the blank version of the assignment with the necessary vocabulary listed on the page. * Provide minimal error correction. Focus only on correction that directly interferes with meaning. Reinforce learning by modeling the correct usage.

Presentation accommodations in the classroom

* Listen to audio recordings instead of reading text * Learn content from audiobooks, movies, videos and digital media instead of reading print versions * Work with fewer items per page or line and/or materials in a larger print size * Have a designated reader * Hear instructions orally * Record a lesson, instead of taking notes * Have another student share class notes with him * Be given an outline of a lesson * Use visual presentations of verbal material, such as word webs and visual organizers * Be given a written list of instructions

Scheduling accommodations in the classroom

* Take more time to complete a project * Take a test in several timed sessions or over several days * Take sections of a test in a different order * Take a test at a specific time of day

Timing accommodations in the classroom

* Take more time to complete a task or a test * Have extra time to process oral information and directions * Take frequent breaks, such as after completing a task

Meeting the classroom needs of gifted students

* Understand the student's needs * Utilize ability groups (homogeneous to stimulate learning challenges) * Provide opportunities for content acceleration (pace and enrichment activities) (self-directed reading & independent study) * Give authentic assessments (hands on; ongoing; real-world connections; requires multiple skills to complete). Examples: KWL chart, concept maps, discussions, interviews, graphic organizers, & open-ended questions. * Opportunities to explore in areas of strength & interest (motivation). * Don't give more work (stamina is the same as other students). Adjust the work requirements to be appropriately challenging.

Organization skills accommodations in the classroom

* Use an alarm to help with time management * Mark texts with a highlighter * Have help coordinating assignments in a book or planner * Receive study skills instruction

Setting accommodations in the classroom

* Work or take a test in a different setting, such as a quiet room with few distractions * Sit where he learns best (for example, near the teacher) * Use special lighting or acoustics * Take a test in small group setting * Use sensory tools such as an exercise band that can be looped around a chair's legs (so fidgety kids can kick it and quietly get their energy out)

Needs of intellectually gifted students

1. Being with others like themselves. A good deal of research indicates that gifted adults who are in frequent contact with other gifted individuals are more likely to feel belongingness and satisfaction, whereas those whose social environments do not include other gifted adults feel isolated and dissatisfied. 2. Education settings that challenge them intellectually. Educational achievement was the major determiner of success in adulthood. (Advanced placement classes) 3. Not being treated differently. We need to remember that they are gifted in only one area and are normal children in every other area. The factors that predicted life outcome for the labeled and unlabeled gifted groups were hard work, emotional support, and a positive, open personal outlook.

Disadvantages of student teacher conferences

1. Can focus too much on problems (negative) - decreases motivation;

3 strategies to reduce cognitive dissonance

1. Change one or more of the attitudes, behavior, beliefs, etc., to make the relationship between the two elements a consonant one. When one element is a behavior, can change the behavior (ex. quite smoking). Often difficult to change well-learned behavior. 2. Acquire new information that outweighs the dissonant beliefs. (Smoking causes cancer = dissonance. However, "research cannot definitively say that smoking causes cancer." reduces the dissonance between the behavior and the information. 3. Reduce the importance of the cognitions (i.e., beliefs, attitudes). A person could convince themself that it is better to "live for today" than to "save for tomorrow." In other words, he could tell himself that a short life filled with smoking and sensual pleasures is better than a long life devoid of such joys. In this way, he would be decreasing the importance of the dissonant cognition (smoking is bad for one's health).

Advantages of a Rubric

1. Clearly defined set of expectations; 2. Removes student anxiety about expectations; 3. Provides consistent feedback from one student or class to another; 4. Easier to communicate student performance to the student, parents, and others; 5. Provides detailed feedback while managing teacher time; 6. Provides student self-evaluation feedback and peer feedback; 7. Helps students develop vocabulary to talk and think about their work; 8. Promotes self-awareness of strengths and weaknesses and self-reflection.

Advantages of student teacher conferences

1. Develops the student-teacher relationship and builds trust; 2. Allows teacher to work individually with the student; 3. Encourages student to be honest about his work habits and behaviors; 4. Encourages self-awareness and evaluation; 5. Increases motivation; 6. Allows the teacher to identify strengths and weaknesses individually in each expected area of learning; 7. Develops the student's skill of being able to set goals, develop a plan to make it happen and then to identify quality work; 8. Private environment reduces anxiety for open questioning by the student.

Advantages of a portfolio assessment

1. Display a wide variety of skills and attributes; 2. Demonstrate progress in learning; 3. Can promote self-evaluation skills (Is this an example of my best work? Why?); 4. Promotes intrinisc motivation; 5. Reflects a students' individual strengths and interests

Advantages of performance assessment

1. Easy to show the child's strengths and weaknesses to inform planning; 2. Easy for the school to document classroom/student performance; 3. Wide-variety of options for performance assessments; 4. Can increase motivation and engagement when combined with creativity or real-life scenarios. (Math problem/coloring sheet; Adding and subtracting - in-class store).

Advantages of self and peer assessment

1. Emphasizes student learning; identifying their strengths and weaknesses; 2. Helps students critically reflect on their own learning progress; 3. Develops students ability to realistically evaluate work (lifelong skill); 4. Promotes learner responsibility and independence; 5. Encourages student involvement and ownership of learning; 6. Deepens student understanding of what constitutes quality outcomes in a specific area; 7. Students tend to put in extra effort in front of their peers; 8. Provides a chance for students to learn from each other.

Disadvantages of an essay assessment

1. Grading can be subjective (halo effective, teacher bias, etc.); 2. Students can be rewarded for simply re-stating all they know; 3. Student learning may not be accurately reflected for those students who do not possess good writing skills; 4. Time consuming for the student and the teacher.

Self-determination strategies for the classroom

1. Identify and nurture what the students want and need 2. Let the students' internal state guide their behavior. (W/o external motivators. Base on the students interests) 3. Encourage active participation: Small groups, share groups, etc. 4. Encourage students to accept more responsibility for their learning (enrichment activities) 5. Provide structured guidance - teacher as guide - Combine highly structured lesson plans with an autonomy-supportive environment for high results. 6. Provide optimal challenges - not too difficult, not to easy. Investigate and present 7. Give positive and constructive feedback - suggestions for point of improvement in learning 8. Give emotional support - create an environment that creates a warm, positive, and sharing atmosphere. Encourage positive interactions with the teacher. Feelings of "relatedness" with the teacher increases intrinsic motivation. 9. Acknowledge students' expression of negative effect - students need to feel heard & feel like their voice makes some difference. 10. Communicate value in uninteresting activities - rather than motivating learning through teacher expectations, connect meaning & personal value to the learning. 11. Give choices - increases autonomy in learning. Work order, volunteer presentations, type of assessment (short evaluation or presentation) 12. Direct with 'can, may, could' instead of 'must, need, should' - Word choice is important. Autonomy-supportive teaching behaviour would entail the use of words like: 'you can learn this', 'maybe you could do it in this way', 'it is your choice', 'if you want to know this topic well, it would help to include this in your study', 'if you study this, it will increase your understanding of related conditions', 'if you don't study this, you may lose out on understanding some topics in the future sessions', etc. Phrasing comments and suggestions in the right way, i.e. which is not binding on the students, but gives them the chance to decide for themselves (hence autono- mous), is very effective in enhancing their intrinsic motivation.

Disadvantages of an analytical checklist

1. May not accurately reflect student growth and learning; 2. Limits creativity; 3. Time-consuming; 3. Ambiguity in skill assessment

Disadvantages of selected response assessment

1. Multiple choice questions do not test higher order thinking skills (applying, analyzing, creating, evaluation); 2. Favor students that are test-wise; 3. Reward guessing rather than knowing; 4. Are not authentic (real-world situations); 5. Limited feedback to the students.

Advantages of anecdotal notes

1. No special forms; 2. anyone can look back and "see" the event; 3. separate judgement; 4. useful in any area of development.

Advantages of selected response assessment

1. Objective scoring; 2. Easy to automate; 3. Quick to respond to so more information can be included on the exam; 4. Easy to analyze; 5. Easy to construct and modify.

Problem solving

1. Presentation of a real-world problem; 2. Provide only a small amount of information; 3. Divide students into small groups; 4. Meet with each group; 5. Students identify what they already know about the problem (previously learned information); 6. Identify possible solutions (If, then, because); 7. Identify the areas for additional research; 8. Divide research among group members; 9. Group members perform research using a variety of media tools in self-directed manner; 10. Group reconvenes to share new information; 11. Group decides on optimal solution; 12. Presents solution to the other groups.

Disadvantages of a portfolio assessment

1. Takes a lot of time (long range view of learning); 2. Takes a lot of time to evaluate; 3. Authenticity of evidence can be judge; 4. Hard to "grade" objectively. May be judged on presentation and not content.

Disadvantages of performance assessment

1. Teaching to the test; 2. Can reduce creativity in teaching and limiting "teachable moments". 3. Time consuming

Limitations of anecdotal notes

1. The incidents may be taken out of context; 2. missing some of the children's behaviors; 3. the observing only has the interest of the observer; 4. information written cannot always be used for research purposes.

Limitations of a Rubric

1. They have a bias toward what is easy to measure and document; 2. Can place too much emphasis on the technical aspects of a student's work and miss the deeper aspects of a student's ideas; 3. Risk turning papers and projects into exercises of following the rules and meeting element criteria; 4. Create narrow, rule-following learners; 5. Leave less room for creativity and imaginative thought; 6. Can be used as a substitute for rich conversation and feedback between the teacher and student; 7. May not accurately reflect student learning of content or progress; 8. Can make learning deficiency focused instead of growth focused; 9. Inter-rater reliability. (Metaphor - limit Picasso to a paint by numbers).

Disadvantages of observation

1. Time consuming; 2. Can only observe what the students can show - some learning is not observable; 3. Observer bias;

Scoring guide

A chart listing each criterion for a project, speech, essay, etc. Divide proficiency of criterion into levels. Describe each level according to accomplishment and proficiency.

Exceptionality

A child has some area of functioning in which he or she is significantly different from an established norm.

Peer assessment

A collaborative learning technique, students evaluate their peers' work and have their work evaluated by peers. Often used as a learning tool, gives students feedback on the quality of their work, often with ideas and strategies for improvement. At the same time, evaluating peers' work can enhance the evaluators' own learning and self-confidence. Peer involvement personalizes the learning experience, potentially motivating continued learning. To give effective, valid and reliable feedback to fellow learners, students need clear guidelines, training on assessment criteria and scoring rules, and practice with examples. Before students are ready to give feedback to others, their assessments should be compared to staff-grading of the same examples for quality assurance.

Concept learning

A complex cognitive process in which learning originates from a "big idea" concept. New information is categorized and organized as part of this broad concept (environmental sustainability - Exxon Valdez oil spill as an example of the negative impact on e.s.). The big idea is in the form of a real-world concept to provide connections to the learning. Teacher identifies skills to be learned within the concept.

Critical thinking

A complex cognitive process which occurs when students are analyzing, evaluating, interpreting, or synthesizing information and applying creative thought to form an argument, solve a problem, or reach a conclusion.

Individualistic paradigm

A form of education where each student works on their own, separately from the rest of the class.

Deductive reasoning

A logical process that starts with a general theory, statement, or hypothesis and then works its way down to a conclusion based on evidence. Evaluated in terms of validity and soundness. An argument is "valid" if it is impossible for its premises to be true while its conclusion is false. In other words, the conclusion must be true if the premises are true.

Student Teacher conference

A meeting between individual students and teachers in which they mutually discuss progress, student interests, and reflect on student work. The teacher demonstrates strategies to improve and guide student learning. A way to provide students with clear expectations

Optimistic attributional style

A person holding a this style will attribute negative outcomes to external events and positive outcomes to internal events. This is known as a self-serving attributional style. A student, therefore, will attribute failure on an exam to something outside of themselves; perhaps the exam paper was extraordinary hard that year or the teacher hadn't covered the content in enough depth. Success, on the other hand, would be attributed to their own effort, superior preparation and stable measures such as innate intelligence.

Pessimistic attributional style

A person holding this style will tend towards explaining negative outcomes in terms of internal and stable factors. A student who fails an exam, therefore, would attribute their failure to something about themselves and to something they couldn't change (such as their level of intelligence). In the event of success they would attribute the outcome to something external and unstable such as luck.

Post-Conventional Morality

A person's sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should be changed or eliminated. (Formal Operational Period age 11-adult). Stage 1: Social Contract - behavior is driven by balance of social order and individual rights. "Democracy - the greater good" Stage 2: Universal Ethics - behavior is driven by internal moral principles. Few reach this stage.

Problem-solving

A process—an ongoing activity in which we take what we know to discover what we don't know. It involves overcoming obstacles by generating hypo-theses, testing those predictions, and arriving at satisfactory solutions. Examples: Using different, previously learned strategies to identify a new word in reading. (break into chunks, sentence context, picture clues, phonics, etc.). Indirect instructional strategy

concept mapping

A special form of a web diagram for exploring knowledge and gathering and sharing information. Concept mapping is the strategy employed to develop a concept map. A concept map consists of nodes or cells that contain a concept, item or question and links. The links are labeled and denote direction with an arrow symbol. The labeled links explain the relationship between the nodes. The arrow describes the direction of the relationship and reads like a sentence. (Indirect instructional strategy)

Placement

A term used in the elementary and secondary school context; refers to regular and/or special educational program in which a student receives educational and/or related services

Creative thinking

A way of looking at problems or situations from a fresh perspective that suggests unorthodox solutions (which may look unsettling at first). Can be stimulated both by an unstructured process such as brainstorming, and by a structured process such as lateral thinking. Is characterised by the ability to perceive the world in new ways, to find hidden patterns, to make connections between seemingly unrelated phenomena, and to generate solutions.

Planning

An executive function skill that is the mental process that allows us to choose the necessary actions to reach a goal, decide the right order, assign each task to the proper cognitive resources, and establish a plan of action. Deficits in this ability can appear as disorganization, easily distracted, poor decision making, lack of creativity, lack of consequence anticipation, low productivity, difficulty staying on task.

Cloze procedure

An indirect instructional strategy - a reading comprehension activity in which words are omitted from a passage and students are required to fill in the blanks. This procedure is incredibly useful in reading instruction because it can be easily done by any teacher and provides valuable reading comprehension information. Commonly used to assess reading comprehension.

Conventional Morality

An individual's sense of morality is tied to personal and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now because they believe that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal order. (Early adolescence). Stage 1: Interpersonal relationships - behavior is driven by societal relationships. "Good boy, Nice girl" Stage 2: Authority: behavior is driven by obedience to authority and conforming to social order. "Law and Order"

Modeling

An instructional strategy in which the teacher demonstrates a new concept or approach to learning and students learn by observing. Can apply to academics, social skills, classroom procedures and rules.

Questioning

An instructional tool that helps students think more deeply and critically. Teachers can follow Bloom's taxonomy to develop their use of this tool based on increasing cognitive demand. Socratic seminars, KWL charts & QtA, think-aloud strategies are examples. Encourages independent thinking and learning as well as self-evaluation skills.

Debate

An interactive instructional strategy which includes an oral exchange of ideas through a specified structure. Competitive version is broken into 3 main styles: discussion, cross-examination, a.nd parliamentary. Each of these styles depends upon good speaking style, strong research skills, the ability to construct argumentation and clash. Clash is directly arguing with the assertion of an opponent.

Learning centers

Areas created within the classroom where students learn through a designated activity and/or play. Play is an active form of learning that involves the whole child. Even cognitive development is also enhanced by child-initiated exploration and discovery. Students learn to make decisions, cooperate and share with others, and problem-solve. The role of the teacher is to (1) observe, listen, and ask questions; (2) demonstrate, participate, or help as needed; and (3) discuss and make connections. Independent instructional strategy

Ability tests

Assess cognitive and motor skill sets that have been acquired over a long period of time and that are not attributable to any specific program of instruction. Assesses INNATE potential. Are descriptive in that they assess people's knowledge and skills, but they are also predictive because they measure qualities that are presumed to influence the person's ability to learn new skills and to solve novel problems. Examples: Wechsler intelligence test; Adult Intelligence Scale—Third Edition (WAIS-III) and the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edition (SB5)

Stable and unstable attributions

Attributions are also classified in terms of stability, from stable to unstable. Stable causes are those that are difficult to change such as intelligence; unstable causes can be changed. For example, a student might fail a test because they didn't put enough effort into preparation. Effort, therefore, is an unstable cause of the failure (it can be changed), intelligence, however, is often thought of as stable (it doesn't change).

Locus of causality

Attributions are classified along a dimension known from internal to external. If we attribute behaviour to an internal cause we assume that outcomes resulted from something within us; if we attribute the outcomes to an external cause we view it as caused by something outside ourselves.

Negative reinforcement

Behavior is stimulated by the removal of a negative consequence to increase the likelihood of a response. Washing the dishes to avoid a fight with your roommate or taking an aspirin to remove a headache. Reinforcement always increases the occurrence of a response. Punishment decreases the occurrence of a response.

Abraham Maslow

Best known for developing a theory of human motivation in which he proposed that motivation is the result of a person's attempt at fulfilling five basic needs: 1. physiological: air, food, water, sleep, clothing shelter, sex 2. safety: personal, financial, health & well-being security 3. social: friendship, family, intimacy 4. esteem: human desire to be accepted and valued by others 5. self-actualization: what a person's full potential is and the realization of that potential His theory suggests that the most basic level of needs must be met before the individual will strongly desire (or focus motivation upon) the secondary or higher level needs

Aptitude test

Cognitive test. Aptitude is the natural capability of an individual to perform a certain task successfully without previous knowledge or formation. Used to assess cognitive and motor skills. Therefore these tests are standardized exams designed to measure and assess your aptitude and define your strengths. Some of these tests are designed to measure wide ranges of knowledge, others are more specific. The scoring is based on the average of a group. So, aptitude, ability or skill is evaluated based on the result of a group just like you, in gender, age and level of education. An "average" is enough to pass an aptitude test, but a higher score indicates that you are "above average", enhancing your chances of getting a place in college or improving your possibilities of getting a job. Used to predict FUTURE behaviors and ability to learn. Useful for identifying gifted or special education students, or special aptitudes such as numerical reasoning or foreign language aptitude. Used in high school to help with career planning.

Intermediate Fluency Stage of second language acquisition

Communicating in the second language is fluent, especially in social language situations. The individual is able to speak almost fluently in new situations or in academic areas, but there will be gaps in vocabulary knowledge and some unknown expressions. There are very few errors, and the individual is able to demonstrate higher order thinking skills in the second language such as offering an opinion or analyzing a problem.

Norm referenced assessment

Compares one student's performance on an assessment with the average performance of other peers. Scores are useful when educators want to make comparisons across large numbers of students or when making decisions on student placement (in K-12 schools or college) and grade advancement. Some familiar examples are the SAT, ACT and GRE.

Selected response assessment

Composed of a series of questions or statements (items) that the students must answer. The question or statement for each item is usually called the stem. The students pick from a variety of potential answers - the correct response and one or more incorrect choices (usually called the distractors). The number of distractors may vary. However, most instructors use between one and four.

Holistic rubric

Consists of a single scale with all criteria to be included in the evaluation being considered together (e.g., clarity, organization, and mechanics). The rater assigns a single score (usually on a 1 to 4 or 1 to 6 point scale) based on an overall judgment of the student work. The rater matches an entire piece of student work to a single description on the scale. (Above average, sufficient, developing, needs improvement)

Cultural-historical theory

Cultural-historical theories stress the importance of social interaction with the world. A central concept in this respect is Vygotsky's zone of proximal development. The basic idea is that children (and adult learners) learn by interacting with the world and with others, that is, by performing meaningful tasks. At the lower limit of the zone of proximal development are tasks that the learner can perform indepen- dently; at the upper limit of the zone are the tasks that the learner can only perform thanks to the support and guidance offered by others, such as a teacher, parent, or more experi- enced peer. Thus, the zone of proximal development cap- tures the skills that are in the process of maturing, and learning is optimized if tasks are in this zone and can be accomplished only thanks to support and guidance provided by others.

Equal access

Equal opportunity of a qualified person with a disability to participate in or benefit from educational aid, benefits, or services

Attribution theory

Has been used to explain the difference in motivation between high and low achievers. According to this theory, high achievers will approach rather than avoid tasks related to succeeding, because they believe success is due to high ability and effort which they are confident of. Failure is thought to be caused by bad luck or a poor exam and is not their fault. Thus, failure doesn't affect their self-esteem but success builds pride and confidence. On the other hand, low achievers avoid success-related chores because they tend to (a) doubt their ability and/or (b) assume success is related to luck or to "who you know" or to other factors beyond their control. Thus, even when successful, it isn't as rewarding to the low achiever because he/she doesn't feel responsible, it doesn't increase his/her pride and confidence. The way in which people attribute the causes of events, therefore, impact on their motivation and self-belief based on their expectations of how future events will turn out. Those students who explain their failures in terms of internal and stable (IQ, personality, etc.) factors will view the future in the same way as the present; as that nothing they do will make any difference. Success is dismissed as luck and effort rejected. Alternatively, those who view failure in terms of unstable factors (for example, lack of effort rather than lack of intelligence) are better equipped to view failure and setback as things to be overcome.

Section 504 and ADA Evaluation requirements

If the referral committee deems it likely that the child is eligible for Section 504 and ADA services, the school must conduct an evaluation to determine whether the student is eligible for Section 504 and ADA services and what services would be required to ensure a FAPE. The evaluation requirements for Section 504 and the ADA differ from those found in IDEA. Martin summarized the requirements of Section 504 regarding evaluations as requiring that schools: determine: 1. whether a physical or mental impairment is present, 2. determine whether the impairment results in a substantial limitation of a major life activity, and 3. determine the types of accommodations that are required to enable the student to receive a FAPE. Observations, anecdotal information., and judgments are considered legitimate sources of assessment data. Normreferenced, standardized tests are not required as part of the evaluation. If data from these sources are considered necessary to make eligibility decisions and decisions regarding accommodations and modifications, then they should be used, but only if the team needs such information. If school personnel believe that a medical evaluation or another evaluation from a specialist is needed in order to make an eligibility decision or to determine accommodations, then the school is obligated to obtain the evaluation and pay for the evaluation.

Simulations

Iinstructional scenarios where the learner is placed in a "world" defined by the teacher. They represent a reality within which students interact. The teacher controls the parameters of this "world" and uses it to achieve the desired instructional results. Students experience the reality of the scenario and gather meaning from it. Can take the form of case studies, role play, a game, an activity that acts as a metaphor. Promotes concept attainment through experience. Promotes critical thinking and evaluation skills through problem-solving. Develops cooperation with others.

Classroom practices utilizing cognitive dissonance

Individuals who experience a lack of consistency, which he defines as dissonance, experience a drive to restore consistency. This drive toward consistency can be harnessed for behavior change by purposefully inducing hypocrisy, or the act of making a person (1) mindful that he or she is not practicing what he or she preaches. This form of dissonance is comprised of two factors: commitment (i.e., publically advocating a position that one supports) and mindfulness (i.e., the act of bringing to mind instances when one behaved contrary to what one previously advocated. When an individual advocates a position that he or she supports, then is prompted to recall times when he or she personally violated the advocated behavior, the individual should experience dissonance. The discomforting feelings of dissonance, in turn, motivate the individual to change his or her behavior

Demonstration

Introduce a new specific learning objective (topic). Lecture style explanation of the concept. Then the teacher shows the skill. Example - teaching the concept of exchange in 2-digit subtraction. Can utilize songs, mnemonic tricks, etc. Followed by student practice.

Computer mediated instruction

Involves 2-way communication between 2 people through the use of a computer. Communication can by asynchronous (email, blog, electronic bulletin board, surveys, assessments) or synchronous (chat room, shared whiteboard, instant messaging) Independent instructional strategy.

Standard deviation

Is a widely used measurement of variability used in statistics. It shows how much variation there is from the average (mean). A low SD indicates that the data points tend to be close to the mean, whereas a high SD indicates that the data are spread out over a large range of values. Example: The mean is the class average and this measures how wide the grade distribution spreads out. A z-score of 0 means you're at the exact class average. A z-score of 1 means you are one standard deviation above the class average; -1 means you are one standard deviation below the class average.

Self-determination theory

Is concerned primarily with promoting in students an interest in learning, a valuing of education, and a confidence in their own capacities and attributes. These outcomes are manifestations of being intrin- sically motivated and internalizing values and regulatory processes. Research suggests that these processes result in high-quality learning and conceptual understanding, as well as enhanced personal growth and adjustment. To maintain intrinsic motivation of students in the classroom, must meet their need for competence AND autonomy. (Self-efficacy theory by Bandura believes in only competence) 1. Competence (seek to control the outcome & experience mastery. Being able to complete their schoolwork.) 2. Autonomy (the urge to be the causal agent in one's own life. Students willingly engage in their studies.) 3. Relatedness (the need to interact, be connected to & experience caring with others) If these universal needs are met, the theory argues that people will function and grow optimally. To actualize their inherent potential, the social environment needs to nurture these needs. Autonomy-supportive environments that emphasize the importance of allowing students to be more self-directed, to learn from their own successes and failures and to solve problems for themselves. Autonomy-supportive teaching is important, because it makes students feel autonomous and competent in their learning and also supported (relatedness) by their teachers.

Edward Thorndike

Is famous in psychology for his work on learning theory that lead to the development of operant conditioning within behaviorism. Whereas classical conditioning depends on developing associations between events, operant conditioning involves learning from the consequences of our behavior. The Law of Effect - "responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation. Reward and punishment as reinforcers of behavior.

Strength of the first language

Key indicator of the speed of second language acquisition. Generally it takes 5 to 7 years to acquire advanced fluency in a second language.

Learning continuum

Lets teachers see what students performing at a given RIT level on MAP assessments are typically ready to learn. From there, they can use the learning statements within the progression to drive instruction.

Analyzing

Level 4 of Bloom's Revised Taxonomy: Separates material or concepts into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. Distinguishes between facts and inferences. Examples - Troubleshoot a piece of equipment by using logical deduction. Recognize logical fallacies in reasoning. Gathers information from a department and selects the required tasks for training. Learning process - Fishbowls, debating, questioning what happened, run a test

Creating

Level 5 of Bloom's Revised Taxonomy: Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure. Examples - Write a company operations or process manual. Design a machine to perform a specific task. Integrates training from several sources to solve a problem. Revises and process to improve the outcome. Learning process - Create a new model, write an essay, network with others

Receiving Phenomena

Most simple behavior category when describing the Affective Domain. Awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention. Examples: Listen to others with respect. Listen for and remember the name of newly introduced people.

BF Skinner

One of the most influential of American psychologists. A behaviorist, he developed the theory of operant conditioning -- the idea that behavior is determined by its consequences, be they reinforcements or punishments, which make it more or less likely that the behavior will occur again. Believed that behavior is mostly automatic & unconscious. He considered free will an illusion and human action dependent on consequences of previous actions. If the consequences are bad, there is a high chance the action will not be repeated; if the consequences are good, the probability of the action being repeated becomes stronger. He called this the principle of reinforcement. To strengthen behavior, he used operant conditioning, and he considered the rate of response to be the most effective measure of response strength. To study operant conditioning, he invented the operant conditioning chamber, also known as the ________ Box.

Cognitive dissonance

Refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors. This produces a feeling of discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to reduce the discomfort and restore balance, etc. For example, when people smoke (behavior) and they know that smoking causes cancer (cognition), they are in a state of cognitive dissonance.

Reliability

Refers to stability of measurement over time. Consistency in measurement; the repeatability or replicability of findings.

Interactive instruction

Relies heavily on discussion and sharing among participants. Allows for a range of groupings and methods. These may include total class discussions, small group discussions or projects, or student pairs or triads working on assignments together.

Scaled score

Reported on standardized tests. Is useful for comparing student performance over time and across grades. Is calculated based on the difficulty of questions and the number of correct responses. Because the same range is used for all students, scaled scores can be used to compare student performance across grade levels.

Analytic rubric

Resembles a grid with the criteria for a student product listed in the leftmost column and with levels of performance listed across the top row often using numbers and/or descriptive tags. The cells within the center of the rubric may be left blank or may contain descriptions of what the specified criteria look like for each level of performance. When scoring, each of the criteria is scored individually. Can also be in the form or a checklist where the performance cells are blank. Also rating/sliding scale (often, sometimes, never)

Age equivalent score

Score indicates the approximate age level of students to whom an individual student's performance is most similar.

Grage equivalent score

Score indicates the approximate grade level of students to whom an individual student's performance is most similar.

Positive traits of intellectually gifted students

Some common traits of these students: * Many gifted children learn to read early, with better comprehension of the nuances of language. As much as half the gifted and talented population has learned to read before entering school. * Gifted children often read widely, quickly, and intensely and have large vocabularies. * Gifted children commonly learn basic skills better, more quickly, and with less practice. * They are better able to construct and handle abstractions. * They often pick up and interpret nonverbal cues and can draw inferences that other children need to have spelled out for them. * They take less for granted, seeking the "hows" and "whys." * They can work independently at an earlier age and can concentrate for longer periods. * Their interests are both wildly eclectic and intensely focused. * They often have seemingly boundless energy, which sometimes leads to a misdiagnosis of hyperactivity. * They usually respond and relate well to parents, teachers, and other adults. They may prefer the company of older children and adults to that of their peers. * They like to learn new things, are willing to examine the unusual, and are highly inquisitive. * They tackle tasks and problems in a well-organized, goal-directed, and efficient manner. * They exhibit an intrinsic motivation to learn, find out, or explore and are often very persistent. "I'd rather do it myself" is a common attitude.

Zone of Proximal development

Sometimes abbreviated ZPD, is the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help. It is a concept developed by Soviet psychologist and social constructivist Lev Vygotsky.

Cooperative learning groups

Sometimes called small-group learning, is an interactive instructional strategy in which small groups of students work together on a common task. The task can be as simple as solving a multi-step math problem together, or as complex as developing a design for a new kind of school. In some cases, each group member is individually accountable for part of the task; in other cases, group members work together without formal role assignments. Requires (1) Positive interdependence (all group members have a part); (2) Face-to-face interaction; (3) Individual and group accountability; (4) Group behaviors (instruction on the skills needed to work with others); (5) Group processing/analyzing Interactive instructional strategy

Speech Emergent Stage of second language acquisition

Speech becomes more frequent, words and sentences are longer, but the individual still relies heavily on context clues and familiar topics. Vocabulary continues to increase and errors begin to decrease, especially in common or repeated interactions.

Beginning Fluency Stage of second language acquisition

Speech is fairly fluent in social situations with minimal errors. New contexts and academic language are challenging and the individual will struggle to express themselves due to gaps in vocabulary and appropriate phrases.

Suggestions for treating the underachieving gifted student

Student Needs & Sample Responses (Always beneficial) 1. Mentoring, interest-based projects, organizational study skills training 2. Boredom, lack of acceleration opportunities - Curriculum compacting to make room for independent study or acceleration 3. Mismatch between student interests and school's curriculum - Schedule restructuring, mentoring in a field of interest, independent study 4. Poor academic environment at school - Allow student to enroll in a local college or community college course for credit 5. Learning styles clash with teacher, inappropriate teacher expectations -Conversation with teacher, schedule modification 6. Peer group challenges - Enrollment in extracurricular activities, bibliotherapy, lunchtime discussion groups 7. Perfectionism, asynchrony, other "gifted" social and emotional challenges - Group counseling through gifted program, bibliotherapy and cinematherapy 8. Poor self-concept, external locus of control - Break assignments into small parts to build confidence in abilities, then slowly expand 9. Learning disability present or suspected - Follow district's identification procedures, provide counseling and IEP changes 10. Excessive absence from class or school - Investigate causes, speak with parents, demonstrate school's importance to child 11. Parenting problems, poor parenting style, emotionally detached home life - Parent conference, connect student with the school counselor 12. Mental, emotional, or behavioral health - Individualized counseling, whether school-based or private 13. Drugs or alcohol suspicions - Follow district's protocol, ensure that counseling begins 14. Physical, emotional, or sexual abuse - Follow district and state protocols, involve proper authorities

Discipline issues under IDEA, Section 504 and ADA

Students served under Section 504 and the ADA are treated similarly to students served under the IDEA with regard to discipline. First, these students can definitely be disciplined; rules and standards can be - applied to these students just as they are applied to nondisabled students. The important thing to consider is that students served under Section 504 and the ADA have an equal opportunity to be successful with classroom rules and behavioral regulations. In order to ensure this with some students, a behavior intervention plan may be necessary. Disciplinary procedures for students under Section 504 and the ADA are similar to those under IDEA. Expulsion or suspensions of 10 or more days are considered a change of placement and require the same procedural requirements as the IDEA. Therefore, before a student can be suspended or expelled for more than 10 days, a manifest determination must be made. If a manifest determination shows no relationship between the behavior and disability, then the student can be disciplined as any other student. If a manifest determination shows that there is a relationship between the behavior and disability, then the student cannot be expelled or suspended; the school should consider the appropriateness of the current program and consider appropriate changes.

Self assessment

Students who can look at their work, and judge the degree by which it reflects explicitly stated goals or criteria, can assess the quality of their work and revise it accordingly. Helps students identify strengths and weaknesses in their learning and performance. Allows for independent correction. Goal is to provide deeper understanding of the learning objective. Students are actively involved in the learning process by increasing responsibility and autonomy.

Behaviors of Emotional and Behavioral Disorder

Students who have behavioral or emotional disorders can exhibit widely varied types of behavior, including both internalized behavior (such as depression or an eating disorder) and externalized behavior (such as verbal outbursts). Other common characteristics and behaviors include these: Hyperactivity (short attention span, impulsiveness) Aggression or self-injurious behavior (acting out, fighting) Withdrawal (failure to initiate interaction with others; retreat from exchanges of social interaction, excessive fear or anxiety) Immaturity (inappropriate crying, temper tantrums, poor coping skills) Learning difficulties (academic performance below grade level)

Positive Punishment

The addition of something undesirable to decrease a behavior. Example - spanking

Mean

The arithmetic average of a group of scores; that is, the scores are added up and divided by the number of scores. Best used with a large group. Small group - 2 extremely high scores can skew the data.

Formative assessment

The goal is to monitor student learning to provide ongoing feedback that can be used by instructors to improve their teaching or identify student needs. Can be used by students to identify their strengths and weaknesses and target areas that need work. Can be formal or informal.

Early Production Stage of second language acquisition

The individual begins to speak using short words and sentences, but the emphasis is still on listening and absorbing the new language. There will be many errors in this stage.

Advanced Fluency Stage of second language acquisition

The individual communicates fluently in all contexts and can maneuver successfully in new contexts and when exposed to new academic information. At this stage, the individual may still have an accent and use idiomatic expressions incorrectly at times, but the individual is essentially fluent and comfortable communicating in the second language.

Recall

The mental process of retrieval of information from the past.

Median

The middle score in a list of scores; it is the point at which half the scores are above and half the scores are below. Less sensitive to extreme scores and are probably a better indicator generally of where the middle of the class is achieving, especially for smaller sample sizes.

Intellectually gifted students

There are 4 domains of development: physical, cognitive, social, and emotional. In average and high achieving students, the 4 domains move at approximately the same rate. The domains develop "in sync" with each other. But for these students, the domains seem to each develop individually. * The physical domain may develop at a pace similar to an average student or even sometimes a little slower. * The cognitive domain develops at a much faster pace than the average student. * The social domain might develop at a similar or slower pace that an average student * The emotional domain develops faster that for an average student. It's the 5th grader who's physically a 4th grader, emotionally a 6th grader, cognitively a 7th grader, and socially a 4th grader. It's like having 4 different people all living inside this person at the same time. These students often find themselves in a setting where they have no common interests with any of the students around them. The more developed cognitive area is why these learners are able to work with abstract concepts, whereas the normal and high achieving students prefer and need more concrete concepts.

Pre-Production Stage of second language acquisition

This is also called "the silent period," when the student takes in the new language but does not speak it. This period often lasts six weeks or longer, depending on the individual.

Games

This learning strategy can include task-based simulations (Sim City) or role-play (The Sims). These video versions can be particularly effective learning tools because they give students open-ended environments in which to explore, play, and create. So students can learn by doing which enhance memorization and retention. Can also be table-top, specific learning focused, team-building, problem-solving, etc.

Role Play

This learning strategy provides students with opportunities to explore and practice new communication skills in a safe, nonthreatening environment, express feelings, and take on the role of another person by "walking in another's shoes." The spontaneous acting out of situations, without costumes or scripts. The context is presented and roles are selected. Students have minimal planning time to discuss the situation, choose different alternatives or reactions and plan a basic scenario. At the conclusion, students have an opportunity to discuss how they felt and what they learned about that particular situation. The most important part of this learning strategy is the follow-up discussion.

Brainstorming

This type of interactive instruction is typically performed in group sessions. The process is useful for generating creative thoughts and ideas. Brainstorming helps students learn to pull together.

Discussions

This type of interactive instructional strategy begins with the selection of a problem or issue. This issue may or may not have a particular solution. The problem or issue should be "based on material familiar to students and should conclude with consensus, a solution, clarification of insights gained, or a summary.

Peer practice

This type of interactive instructional strategy involves each student rehearsing skills or conceptual information with a peer.

Reasonable modifications

Under a regulatory provision implementing Title II of the ADA, public entities are required to make reasonable modifications in policies, practices, or procedures when the modifications are necessary to avoid discrimination on the basis of disability, unless the public entity can demonstrate that making the modifications would fundamentally alter the nature of the service, program, or activity

Analytical checklist

Usually offer a yes/no format in relation to student demonstration of specific criteria. This is similar to a light switch; the light is either on or off. They may be used to record observations of an individual, a group or a whole class.

Formal assessment

Usually referred to as standardized measures. These tests have been tried before on students and have statistics which support the conclusion such as the student is reading below average for his age. The data is mathematically computed and summarized. Scores such as percentiles, staines, or standard scores are most common. Used to compare a student's performance with their peers.

Inquiry

Working with students to develop a real-life issue to investigate that corresponds with the curriculum. The issue should be relative to the students and be of interest. Steps: Identify, investigate, make a decision, defend a position, take action, evaluate results. (Indirect instructional strategy)

Curriculum modifications in the classroom

* Learn different material (such as continuing to work on multiplication while classmates move on to fractions) * Get graded or assessed using a different standard than the one for classmates * Be excused from particular projects

Anecdotal notes

An observation that is written like a short story. They are descriptions of incidents or events that are important to the person observing. Are short, objective and as accurate as possible. Incidents that need to be remembered exactly how they happened, preserves details, prompt accurate, specific accounts of an event, interpretations are recorded separately from incident, focus on behaviors that are either typical or unusual for the child

Achievement tests

Also called content test and are designed to review knowledge you have already learned. Assess previous knowledge in a specific subject or area of knowledge and are usually applied when a grade or level of study has finished. Colleges use to verify the student's expected grade level of knowledge and as a predictor of future success. The SAT and the ACT are the most common examples. Assesses the student's PRESENT status.

Positive reinforcement

Behavior is stimulated by a praise or a treat.

Summative assessment tools

Examples: End of chapter/unit test, midterm exam, final project

Informal assessment tools

Examples: Running record, Observation, Portfolio, Task Checklist, Rubric

Formative assessment tools

Examples: running record, task checklist, think-pair-share, enter/exit tickets

Fritz Heider

Father of the Attribution Theory. Gestalt psychologist.

Experiential instruction

Inductive, learner centred, and activity oriented. The emphasis is on the process of learning and not on the product. Personalized reflection about an experience and the formulation of plans to apply learnings to other contexts are critical factors as well as relevancy. Greatly increases understanding and retention in comparison to methods that solely involve listening, reading, or even viewing. Students are usually more motivated when they actively participate and teach one another by describing what they are doing.

Distance learning

Long-distance learning is the education of students who may not always be physically present at a school. Traditionally, this usually involved correspondence courses wherein the student corresponded with the school via post. Today it involves online education. Courses that are conducted (51 percent or more) are either hybrid, blended or 100% distance learning. Massive open online courses (MOOCs), offering large-scale interactive participation and open access through the World Wide Web or other network technologies, are recent developments in distance education. A number of other terms (distributed learning, e-learning, online learning, etc.) are used roughly synonymously with this. Independent instructional strategy

Learning contract

Often part of the independent study, this tool can play a critical role in ensuring that the process is a successful one. This tool gives ownership to students over their learning at the outset of a project or class, they prompt students to reflect on how they learn, and they establish clear goals and project timelines. For instructors, this tool serves as an outline for independent study units and as tools to aid evaluation. To maximize these benefits, students should develop this tool on their own, which the advising instructor reviews to provide constructive feedback and suggestions for modification. Because this is an agreement between instructor and student, both should sign the final version and, if modifications become necessary as the learning experience progresses, both should approve and sign the modified version. Independent instructional strategy

Attribution theory

Originally proposed by Fritz Heider, people try to explain behavior based on one of two factors: 1. External attribution (situational attribution): someone's behavior is caused by some external situation the person is in. Example - flat tire due to road conditions vs. poor driving habits 2. Internal attribution: the causal factor of someone's behavior is due to some internal characteristic of personality, attitudes or beliefs.

Gestalt psychology

Positive transfer of one task to another is achieved by arranging learning situations so that a learner can gain insight into the problem to be solved. This type of learning is thought to be permanent and reorganized knowledge may yield deep understanding and thus transfer to new situations. "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts." Built on the concept of children as active learners.

Independent instruction

Students are usually more motivated when they actively participate and teach one another by describing what they are doing. This type of instruction refers to the range of instructional methods which are purposefully provided to foster the development of individual student initiative, self-reliance, and self-improvement. Key words: autonomous and self-directed

Classical vs. Operant conditioning

The conditioned response is set off automatically by an external stimulus (bell - salivating dog (Pavlov)) vs. behavior is voluntarily executed by the learner (Cat escaping cage (Thorndike)).

Transfer

The dependency of human conduct, learning, or performance on prior experience. The notion was originally introduced by Edward Thorndike and Robert S. Woolworth. In educational learning theory, involves one's own transferring of knowledge and skills from one problem solving situation to the next. Consistent with Gestalt Theory of Learning

Mode

The number which appears most often in a set of numbers (scores).

Raw score

The score based solely on the number of correctly answered items on an assessment.

Case studies

Used as a teaching tool, these tools are for engaging students in research and reflective discussion. Higher order thinking is encouraged. Solutions to cases may be ambiguous and facilitate creative problem solving coupled with an application of previously acquired skills. They are effective devices for directing students to practically apply their skills and understandings. (Indirect instructional strategy)

Summative assessment

Used to evaluate student learning at the end of an instructional unit by comparing it agains some standard or benchmark. Usually involves a grade and is heavily weighted in the grading process

Hostile attributional style

This style tends towards blaming external factors for undesirable outcomes. This blame can manifest itself in hostility towards the external entity seen to be responsible. Our student, therefore, might become hostile towards a teacher they believe is responsible for their failure.

Assignment modifications in the classroom

* Complete fewer or different homework problems than peers * Write shorter papers * Answer fewer or different test questions * Create alternate projects or assignments

Advantages of an essay assessment

1. Allows for individual expression; 2. Can show depth of learning- understanding and knowledge; 3. Tests written communication well; 4. Examine student ability to form coherent arguments.

Advantages of observation

1. Can be used for any target purpose - master of skills, difficulty with concept, behavior, effect of situation/environment; 2. Documents real-life details; 3. Can be used for future planning; 4. Can be shared with other parties; 5. Variety of assessment tools available.

Advantages of an analytical checklist

1. Easy to use & update; 2. Requires little training; 3. Availability when needed; 4. Can be used to record in a variety of settings; 5. Can organize progression of learning/behaviors

Disadvantages of self and peer assessment

1. Subjective (too critical or too lax); 2. Misinterpretation of criteria; 3. Peer pressure and friendship may affect evaluation; 4. Students feel under qualified for evaluating and give everyone the same grade; 5. Students may cheat and gang up against another student.

Observations

A great way to engage students in learning new content, as it allows them to observe real images from the content being learned, to make observations, ask questions, and make comments about what they are observing. Engages their natural curiosity and allows them to widen their perception of their world. Independent instructional strategy

Observation

A process of systematically viewing and recording students while they work, for the purpose of making programming and instruction decisions. Can take place at any time and in any setting. It provides information on students' strengths and weaknesses, learning styles, interests, and attitudes.

Reading for meaning

A research-based strategy that helps all readers build the skills that proficient readers use to make sense of challenging texts. Regular use of the strategy gives students the opportunity to practice and master the three phases of critical reading that lead to reading success, including (1) Previewing and predicting before reading; (2) Actively searching for relevant information during reading; (3) Reflecting on learning after reading. Heavily emphasizes evidence based reading to prove or disprove a concept statement based on core reading skills: Identifying main ideas, making inferences, & supporting interpretations with evidence. (Indirect instructional strategy)

Indirect instruction

A teaching approach that uses inquiry and encourages higher order thinking skills in an environment that encourage problem-solving and or project based learning. Indirect instruction is based on the philosophy of constructivism, which states that people derive meaning from their own experiences. Advance organizers (content organization), group discussion, self-evaluation (rubric, reflective journal), problem-solving, inquiry, guided discovery.

Critical thinking

A term used by educators to describe forms of learning, thought, and analysis that go beyond the memorization and recall of information and facts. Occurs when students are analyzing, evaluating, interpreting, or synthesizing information and applying creative thought to form an argument, solve a problem, or reach a conclusion.

Experiment

An active process of student-centered learning whereby it encourages children to discover and develop new concepts or ideas followed by spurring children's mind to be critical and creative. As children independently think critically and work through a subject matter, they develop a sense of independence and autonomy which will 'enhance their desire and ability to be self-motivated'. Many researchers have successfully proven that this method of learning develops the students' interest in learning Science as well as other subjects. * Use the Scientific method: Identify what you want to know; Establish a hypothesis about what you do know (prediction); ID the process and factors necessary to test your hypothesis; Analyze results; Re-vise hypothesis if necessary.

Informal assessment

Criterion referenced measures, Content or Performance based measures. Used to inform teaching and to provide feedback (students). ID learning goals & performance objectives, instruct, assess the performance objectives. Develop intervention activities to re-teach or modify instruction for the performance objectives not attained.

Erik Erikson

Developmental psychologist who believed the environment in which a child lived was crucial to providing growth, adjustment, a source of self-awareness and identity. Developed 8 stages of human development: 1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0-18 months) (Outcome: hope) 2. Autonomy vs. Shame (1-3 years) (Outcome: self-control + self esteem) 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5 years) (Outcome: Purpose) 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-11 years) (Outcome: Competence) 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 years) (Outcome: Fidelity-ability to commit to and accept others) 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (18-40 years) (Outcome:love & intimacy) 7. Generatively vs. stagnation (40 - 65 years) 8. Ego integrity vs. Despair (65 + years) (outcome: wisdom)

Explicit teaching

Directing student attention toward a specific learning objective in a highly structured environment. Topics are taught in a logical order directed by the teacher through demonstration, explanation and practice. Form of direct instruction.

Affective Domain

Includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex: Receiving Phenomena Responds to Phenomena Valuing Organization Internalizes Values

Indirect instruction

Indirect instruction is a teaching approach that uses inquiry and encourages higher order thinking skills in an environment that encourage problem-solving and or project based learning. Indirect instruction is based on the philosophy of constructivism, which states that people derive meaning from their own experiences. Advance Organizers (content organization), Self-evaluation (rubric, reflective journal), group discussion, questioning, guided discovery, inquiry or problem based learning

Interviews

Interviewing, a meeting during which information is obtained by one person from another, is an excellent means for students to gain an insight into another's worldview. Effective on-line interviewing, like face-to-face interviewing, begins with the development of basic skills and thorough preparation. Students may be the interviewer or the interviewee, depending upon the skill set being developed and the information sought. Interactive instructional strategy

Inductive reasoning

Is a logical process in which multiple premises, all believed true or found true most of the time, are combined to obtain a specific conclusion. Inductive reasoning is often used in applications that involve prediction, forecasting, or behavior. May lead to false assumptions. Example: Harold is a grandfather. Harold is bald. All grandfathers are bald.

David Kolb

Key theorist in experiential learning. People learn from experiences in four stages: 1. Concrete experience 2. Observation and reflection 3. Abstract conceptualization 4. Testing concepts in new situations

Evaluating

Level 5 of Bloom's Revised Taxonomy: Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials. Examples - Select the most effective solution. Hire the most qualified candidate. Explain and justify a new budget. Learning process - survey, blogging

Drill and practice

Promotes the acquisition of knowledge or a skill through repetitive practice. Typically for beginning learners or foundational skills. Form of direct instruction. Memorization (sight words, addition facts)

Research projects

Students carry out research in their courses independently and with an open outcome. This helps to internalize and practice research conducts and methods, skills such as formulating a precise question and processing and monitoring a research process. Students attain abilities in dealing with uncertainty, independence, teamwork and organisational skills. The connection of research and teaching via this active method advances Humboldt's ideal of education in the framework of the development of character. This form of teaching and learning focuses on the joint acquisition of new knowledge by lecturers and students. This requires lecturers to reflect on their role as teachers and learners.

Performance assessment

Students create answers based on their knowledge or skill. Can take the form of a test or project such as a diorama, poster, drama, etc. Can be done individually or as a group. Can create, produce, perform, or present works on "real world" issues. The performance task may be used to assess a skill or proficiency, and provides useful information on the process as well as the product.

Guides for reading, listening, viewing

Teacher-provided periodic questions/prompts to review or answer while reading, listening, or viewing. Typically used to increase comprehension.

Legal factors to be considered for placement under IDEA

The overriding rule in placement is that each student's placement must be individually- determined based on the individual student's abilities and needs, and it is the individualized program of instruction and related services reflected in each student's IEP that forms the basis for the placement decision. In determining if a placement is appropriate under IDEA, the following factors are relevant: . the educational benefit to the student from regular education in comparison to the benefits of special education; . the benefit to the disabled student from interacting with nondisabled students; and . the degree of disruption of the education of other students resulting in the inability to meet the unique needs of the student with a disability.

Memory

The term given to the structures and processes involved in the storage and subsequent retrieval of information. Includes encoding, storage and recall processes.

Direct instruction

The use of straightforward, explicit teaching techniques, usually to teach a specific skill. It is a teacher-directed method, meaning that the teacher stands in front of a classroom and presents the information.

Common classroom accommodations and modifications

The vast majority of accommodations and modifications for students served under Section 504 and the ADA occur in general education classrooms. Examples include accommodations in seating arrangements, testing modifications, homework modifications, the use of readers or taped materials, and accommodations in attendance policies.

Percentile

These scores for individual test takers represent how an individual test taker's score compares to the scores of other test takers within a particular comparison group. Range from the 1st through 99th percentile, indicating the percentage of scores in the comparison group which are lower than the test taker's score.

Metacognition

Thinking about one's thinking. More precisely, it refers to the processes used to plan, monitor, and assess one's understanding and performance. Metacognition includes a critical awareness of a) one's thinking and learning and b) oneself as a thinker and learner.

Criterion referenced assessment

This assessment is most appropriate when an educator wants to assess the specific concepts or skills a student has learned through classroom instruction. Most have a cut score, which determines success or failure based on an established percentage correct. Example: 80% correct answers on a unit test to successfully demonstrate understanding of fractions and to pass the unit. Scoring against understanding of a set standard not agains other students.

Validity

refers to whether or not the test measures what it claims to measure

Lawrence Kohlberg

Six stages of moral development built upon an expanded view of Piaget's stages of cognitive development. Three stages of moral development with 2 distinct phases each: Pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional morality.

Albert Bandura

Social Learning Theory

Title II of ADA

(State and Local Government)- Nondiscrimination on the Basis of Disability in State and Local Government Services, this regulation prohibits discrimination against qualified individuals with disabilities in all programs, activities, and services of public entities. It applies to all state and local governments, their departments and agencies, and any other instrumentalities or special purpose districts of state or local governments. It clarifies the requirements of section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as amended, for public transportation systems that receive federal financial assistance, and extends coverage to all public entities that provide public transportation, whether or not they receive federal financial assistance. It establishes detailed standards for the operation of public transit systems, including commuter and intercity rail (e.g., AMTRAK). This title outlines the administrative processes to be followed, including requirements for self-evaluation and planning; requirements for making reasonable modifications to policies, practices, and procedures where necessary to avoid discrimination; architectural barriers to be identified; and the need for effective communication with people with hearing, vision and speech disabilities. This title is regulated and enforced by the U.S. Department of Justice.

Focal points for teaching students with EBD

* Focus on structure & routine. * Create clear rules & consequences. * Use rewards for good behavior. * Ignore bad behavior when possible. * Be consistent. * Offer lots of praise & encouragement and create a supportive environment. * Use plenty of hands-on activities. * Use art activities to provide and enjoyable outlet for emotions. * Utilize extracurricular activities - they help channel energy. * Give all students responsibility in the classroom. * Involve families and friends.

Strategies for speech and language disorders

* Modeling what you think the child is trying to say. * Making speech clear & easy to understand. * Promoting language exchange. * Read aloud to your students.

Executive Control Functions essential for Self-Regulation

1. Coordinating metacognitive knowledge: regulating and understanding one's own knowlege 2. Planning: using a deliberate and organized approach to a task 3. Monitoring: Assessing comprehension while progressing through a task, and checking for effectiveness, testing, evaluating and revising strategies. 4. Failure detection: While progressing through a task, detecting when there is a misunderstanding or an error is made 5. Failure correction: When an error is detected, going back and correcting any mistakes.

Self-efficacy in practice

1. Help students set clear and specific goals - students are more motivated to perform and will exert more effort. 2. Encourage the use of challenging and proximal goals - Goals should be challenging but not outside the extent of the student's capabilities (too difficult damages efficacy). Proximal goals allow the student to judge and receive feedback about their progress to goal achievement better than distant goals. 3. Provide honest, explicit feedback - in the form of verbal feedback or rewards (contingency based on their knowledge or skill development). Without explicit feedback on the growth of their knowledge and skills, students will likely have a difficult time trying to change or regulate their behavior. For example, praising students indiscriminately for performing a task, regardless of how well they perform, can lead students to think they are good at a task when really they are not. 4. Facilitate accurate calibration of self-efficacy through feedback - For self-efficacy beliefs to have a positive impact on learning and performance, individuals must have realistic or accurate perceptions of their ability for a given task. Calibration is a measure of the difference between confidence in performance of specific activities (i.e., self-efficacy) and actual performance. 5. Use peer modeling to build self-efficacy - teachers can use other students as models to demonstrate how to successfully complete a learning task. Model must be perceived as competent, similar, and enthusiastic.

Four components of Self-Regulation

1. Self-Monitoring: Target behavior must have value to the individual and must be definable & observable 2. Self-Instruction: (self-talk) 3. Goal Setting: Specificity, Challenging, Proximal 4. Self-Reinforcement: Reinforcer & Clear Criteria (complete 3 challenging works, can go outside)

Typical Disabilities covered under Section 504 and ADA but not under IDEA

1. Students with attention-deficit disorder or ADHD, 2. Students with learning disabilities who do not manifest a significant discrepancy between intellectual ability and achievement, 3. Students who are transitioned out of special education programs, 4. Students who are considered to be socially maladjusted, 5. Students who have a history of drug and alcohol abuse, 6. Students with health needs, and 7. Students with communicable diseases, such as AIDS.

Section 504 and ADA service considerations (examples)

1. when a student is referred for IDEA services but the decision is to not evaluate; 2. when a student is evaluated for IDEA services but is determined to be not eligible; 3. when a student is suspected of having any disability; 4. when a student continues to display behavior problems; 5. when a student has a major health problem; 6. when a student is expelled or suspended; when a student seems to be having problems that cannot be explained; 7. When a parent requests consideration for Section 504 and the ADA services; and 8. When a teacher requests consideration for Section 504 and the ADA services.

Psychomotor Domain

As described in Bloom's taxonomy, includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. Thus, psychomotor skills rage from manual tasks, such as digging a ditch or washing a car, to more complex tasks, such as operating a complex piece of machinery or dancing. The seven major categories are listed from the simplest behavior to the most complex: Perception Set Guided Response Mechanism (basic proficiency) Complex Overt Response (expert) Adaptation Origination

Examples of FAPE under Section 504 and ADA

1.Unlike the IDEA, which defines related services as services that are necessary to enable a student to benefit from special education, related services can be provided under Section 504 and the ADA to children who do not receive any other special education services or interventions. For example, a student may receive physical therapy and no other special service under Section 504. The key in this type of example is that the student will be discriminated against, on the basis of a disability, if physical therapy is not provided. A student who can still access an appropriate education program without physical therapy may not be eligible for physical therapy under Section 504 and the ADA. On the other hand, if the physical therapy is required to enable the child to access an education program, then physical therapy may be required, even if the student does not need any additional special education services 2. Section 504 and the ADA, like the IDEA, require that students with disabilities be educated with their nondisabled peers, to the maximum extent appropriate, while meeting the needs of the students with disabilities. This is part of the FAPE requirement of Section 504 and the ADA. Schools should always place students with disabilities with their nondisabled peers, unless the school can demonstrate that the student's education program cannot be achieved satisfactorily, with or without supplementary aids and services, in the general education setting. This mandate also applies to extracurricular activities. It would be inappropriate, for example, to send a student with a mobility impairment on a field trip on a wheelchair-accessible bus by herself. Nondisabled students would need to ride on the wheelchair-accessible bus in order to meet the inclusion requirement of Section 504 and the ADA.

Responds to Phenomena

2nd level of behavior category when describing the Affective Domain. Active participation on the part of the learners. Attend and react to a particular phenomenon. Learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation). Examples: Participates in class discussions. Gives a presentation. Questions new ideals, concepts, models, etc. in order to fully understand them. Know the safety rules and practice them.

Valuing

3rd category of the Affective Domain. The worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the learner's overt behavior and are often identifiable. Examples: Demonstrates belief in the democratic process. Is sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value diversity). Shows the ability to solve problems. Proposes a plan to social improvement and follows through with commitment. Informs management on matters that one feels strongly about.

Organization

4th behavior category of the Affective Domain. Organizes values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating an unique value system. The emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values. Examples: Recognizes the need for balance between freedom and responsible behavior. Explains the role of systematic planning in solving problems. Accepts professional ethical standards. Creates a life plan in harmony with abilities, interests, and beliefs. Prioritizes time effectively to meet the needs of the organization, family, and self.

Internalizes Values

5th behavior category of the Affective Domain. (characterization): Has a value system that controls their behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most important characteristic of the learner. Instructional objectives are concerned with the student's general patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional). Examples - Shows self-reliance when working independently. Cooperates in group activities (displays teamwork). Uses an objective approach in problem solving. Displays a professional commitment to ethical practice on a daily basis. Revises judgments and changes behavior in light of new evidence. Values people for what they are, not how they look.

Motor-related learning disability

A child with this type of learning disabilities has difficulty with either fine or gross motor coordination or both. The student is unable to perform isolated, coordinated movements. This problem is evident in many settings—in the classroom, on the playground, at home, and elsewhere. In using technology, the child can have difficulty with handwriting, keyboards, and mouse control.

Pre-Conventional Morality

A child's sense of morality is externally controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers, and they judge an action based on its consequences. (Before age 9). Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment - behavior is driven by avoiding punishment. Stage 2: Individual Interest (Instrumental Orientation): behavior is driven by self-interest and reward. "What's in it for me?"

Auditory-language learning disability

A perceptual problem in which a child may take a long time to comprehend or follow directions. The student with an auditory learning disability is physically able to hear, but "hears" in a different way.

Self-efficacy

A personal belief in one's capability to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances. Often described as task-specific self-confidence, this concept has been a key component in theories of motivation and learning in varied contexts. Critical component of Albert Bandura's social learning theory. These beliefs are directly tied to action. Affects an individual's choices of activity, effort and persistence.

Organizational learning disability

A student with this type of learning disability may have trouble locating the beginning, middle, or end of an assignment. Drafting an outline is difficult because the child cannot narrow down and organize information. Such weaknesses make it difficult or impossible for the student to assemble materials for papers or for oral presentations.

Related services

A term used in the elementary and secondary school context to refer to developmental, corrective, and other supportive services, including psychological, counseling and medical diagnostic services and transportation

Free and Appropriate Public Education (FAPE)

A term used in the elementary and secondary school context; for purposes of Section 504, refers to the provision of regular or special education and related aids and services that are designed to meet individual educational needs of students with disabilities as adequately as the needs of students without disabilities are met and is based upon adherence to procedures that satisfy the Section 504 requirements pertaining to educational setting, evaluation and placement, and procedural safeguards

Reasonable accommodations

A term used in the employment context to refer to modifications or adjustments employers make to a job application process, the work environment, the manner or circumstances under which the position held or desired is customarily performed, or that enable a covered entity's employee with a disability to enjoy equal benefits and privileges of employment; this term is sometimes used incorrectly to refer to related aids and services in the elementary and secondary school context or to refer to academic adjustments, reasonable modifications, and auxiliary aids and services in the postsecondary school context

Operant conditioning

According to behaviorists, this happens when the learner's behavior is stimulated (usually referred to as reinforced) by a positive outcome, or is punished by a negative outcome BF Skinner (Thorndike, 1911).

Section 504 plan

Although schools do not have to develop Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) for students served under Section 504, they do have to develop individual plans for students under Section 504. Section 504 does not specify the contents of the plan, but the plan must be designed to meet the needs of individual students, including specific accommodations and modifications that are necessary to meet the FAPE requirement. Students with disabilities who are protected under Section 504 and the ADA but are not eligible for IDEA services must be afforded a FAPE through a designated process. This includes referral, evaluation, program planning, placement, and reevaluation. Schools should establish policies that spell out steps that should be taken to provide these services. Schools can use the same process they use with IDEA, or they can develop a set of procedures that is specific to students who are protected by Section 504 and the ADA.

Academic difficulty learning disability

An example of this type of learning difficulty is a student in math class who has problems with order and placement of numbers or who switches processes, such as long division and multiplication. Another example is a history student who has difficulty with the concept of time and cannot understand the order of events in relation to their dates of occurrence. Academic-specific learning disabilities are common among students with learning disabilities. Special education teachers often see students who are, for instance, gifted in mathematical calculation and reasoning but have significant deficits in written language and spelling

Constructivist theory

Based on the work of Jean Piaget, it is the view that knowledge is actively created by individuals in interaction with the environment and with others. The child mentally transforms the environment by relating new information to what he already knows or believes. Emphasizes the interdependence of knowledge, development, learning, and teaching. Development reflects progressive stages in the construction of knowledge; learning is the application of this level of knowledge to new information; the practice of teaching ideally facilitates this learning.

Classical conditioning

Behaviorists believe that learning is is guided by a set of laws. One of two main laws, this refers to the phenomenon that a neutral stimulus (a bell) can lead to an automatic involuntary response (salivation in a dog) after it is associated a number of times with a stimulus that in itself triggers the automatic response (food). Ivan Pavlov (1927), the discoverer of this phenomenon, termed this automatically learned association a conditioned reflex.

Appropriate Evaluation

Children are placed in special education services through an evaluation process. If the evaluation is not appropriately conducted or does not monitor the information that is needed to determine placement it is not appropriate. The goal of IDEA's regulations for evaluation is to help minimize the number of misidentifications, to provide a variety of assessment tools and strategies, to prohibit the use of any single evaluation as the sole criterion of which a student is placed in special education services, and to provide protections against evaluation measures that are racially or culturally discriminatory.

Jean Piaget

Cognitive Development approach - children actively construct knowledge as they explore and interact with the environment. 4 developmental stages of cognitive development (differences in thought processes): Sensorimotor; Pre-Operational; Concrete Operational; Formal Operational.

Jerome Bruner

Cognitive theorists who coined the term "scaffolding" for learning. This notion underpins the idea of the spiral curriculum - 'A curriculum as it develops should revisit this basic ideas repeatedly, building upon them until the student has grasped the full formal apparatus that goes with them' (ibid.: 13).

Standards-based education reform

Common nationwide, this type of education reform has four basic components. First, standards are set for what students should know and be able to do at various grades. Second, curricula are designed, guided by the standards. Third, based on the curricula, teachers design individual courses and instructional strategies, including the materials and methods best suited for their students. Fourth, students are assessed at different points in their school career to determine how well schools are doing at enabling them to meet the standards. The results of these assessments are then used to hold schools accountable for how well they are educating their students. The theory behind this education reform is that by setting high standards, shaping curriculum and instruction to meet them, and holding schools accountable for how well students meet the standards, educational quality will rise for all students. Assessment is key to ensuring that school reform initiatives actually deliver quality education. The purpose of these assessments, often called "large-scale assessments," is to gather information that shows whether schools are successfully teaching students the standards. This information is then used to identify weaknesses in schools and to make necessary improvements. Assessment is the way that standards-based education reform holds schools accountable for student learning and achievement.

Information Processing Theories

Concepts such as memory storage and retrieval, find their origin in the information processing approach to cognition. The implications of information processing theories for education lie in the supposed three-component architecture of the human mind. Educators therefore need to take into account the computer-like structure of the human mind, not only receiving information, but actively processing it as well (Craik & Lockhart, 1972). Grouping information into mean- ingful parts (referred to as chunking) increases the chances of remembering the information and reduces short-term memory load. Moreover, instruction should focus on rehearsal of information in short-term memory to enable storage in long-term memory. When a learned procedure is rehearsed often enough, it becomes automatized and can be executed without effort. Finally, learners should be stimu- lated to actively retrieve information from long-term mem- ory when necessary and use it in short-term memory.

Benjamin Bloom

Created to promote higher forms of thinking in education, such as analyzing and evaluating concepts, processes, procedures, and principles, rather than just remembering facts (rote learning). It is most often used when designing educational, training, and learning processes. Three learning domains were identified: cognitive (knowledge), affective (feelings or emotional areas (attitudes)), and psychomotor (manual or physical skills). The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories of cognitive an processes, starting from the simplest to the most complex (see the table below for an in-depth coverage of each category): Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first ones must normally be mastered before the next one can take place.

Schema

Describes a pattern of thought or behavior that organizes categories of information and the relationships among them. It can also be described as a mental structure of preconceived ideas, a framework representing some aspect of the world, or a system of organizing and perceiving new information.

Remembering

Level 1 of Bloom's Revised Taxonomy. Recall or retrieve previously learned information Examples: recite safety rules; quote prices from memory. Learning process - Flashcards, book highlighting, rote learning based on repetition, reading.

Scaffolding

Directly related to zone of proximal development in that it is the support mechanism that helps a learner successfully perform a task within his or her ZPD. Typically, this process is completed by a more competent individual supporting the learning of a less competent individual. So, for example, there could be a teacher assisting a student, or a higher-level peer assisting a younger peer. In the classroom, the teacher should provide clues as to how the student should proceed through a problem. As the child becomes more capable of solving the problem, the teacher gradually removes these clues. This process is called fading.

John B Watson

Father of Behaviorism. Published the Psychological Care of Infant and Child. Much of his research was directed at distinguishing unlearned from learned behavior. Developmental issues were crucial for behaviorism. Unhealthy adult personalities resulted from habit systems carried over from infancy. Early childhood was key, and a detailed knowledge of child development was indispensable for designing a behavioral social technology. The significance of childhood and child-study for behaviorism is summed up in his most famous statement: "Give me a dozen healthy infants ... and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select ... regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and the race of his ancestors."

Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE)

Guaranteed by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), this is defined as "special education and related services that A) are provided at the public's expense, under public supervision and direction, and without charge, B) meet the standards of the State educational agency, C) include an appropriate preschool, elementary, or secondary school education in the State involved; and D) are provided in conformity with the individualized education program under section 614(d). (Pub. L. No. 94-142, § 602(9))"[2] To provide this, schools must provide students with an "... education that emphasizes special education and related services designed to meet their unique needs and prepare them for further education, employment, and independent living." Some of the criteria specified in various sections of the IDEA statute includes requirements that schools provide each disabled student an education that: Is designed to meet the unique needs of that one student Provides " ...access to the general curriculum to meet the challenging expectations established for all children" (that is, it meets the approximate grade-level standards of the state educational agency.) Is provided in accordance with the Individualized Education Plan (IEP) as defined in 1414(d)(3). Results in educational benefit to the child.

IDEA Procedural Safeguards

IDEA includes a set of procedural safeguards designed to protect the rights of children with disabilities and their families, and to ensure that children with disabilities receive a FAPE. The procedural safeguards include the opportunity for parents to review their child's full educational records; full parent participation in identification and IEP team meetings; parent involvement in placement decisions; Prior Written Notice; the right of parents to request independent educational evaluations at public expense; Notice of Procedural Safeguards; Resolution Process; and objective mediation funded by the state education agency and impartial Due Process Hearings. IDEA guarantees the following rights to parents: 1. Access to educational records 2. Parent Participation (In any and all meetings regarding placement and educational decisions) 3. Prior Written Notice (Anytime anything will be changed in a student's IEP their parents must first be notified) 4. Procedural Safeguards Notice (A written copy should be provided to parents under federal and state law) 5. Understandable language (Translators must be provided when needed) 6. Informed Consent (Before any evaluations or services are provided the student's parents must be informed and agree in writing before the school can move forward) 7. "Stay Put" Rights (If parents disagree with the school's decision the student can stay put while the parents and school go through dispute resolution) 8. Due Process (If a parent has a dispute with the school about their student's special education placement or teaching a process called due process is used to resolve issues; both parties are then able to tell their sides of the story in a court like setting) 9. Civil Action (If due process results are not to the liking of the parent or the school a civil lawsuit can be filed) 10. Mediation (An alternative to due process hearings)

Differences between IDEA, Section 504 and ADA

IDEA includes federal funding while Section 504 and ADA do not. Eligibility definition is the key: Under IDEA, individuals must fall into certain defined categories for eligibility and they must need special education. If a student is not determined to have one of these disabilities, but the student needs special education, then the student is not eligible for services under IDEA. (ex. ADHD, Asthma, children with learning disabilities but whose discrepancy between ability and achievement is not significant enough to warrant special education) Section 504 and ADA - Eligibility is based on the functional impact of a physical or mental impairment that effects one or more major life functions. Much broader definition and learning does not need to be the major life activity impacted to qualify for special education services. Section 504 applies only to those institutions that receive federal funds. ADA applies to almost every entity in the US regardless of the receipt of federal funds. IDEA is age restricted. Section 504 and ADA are not. Individuals are covered from birth to death. Section 504 and ADA require disabled students to have equal access to the same academic curriculum as well as in nonacademic extracurricular activities. Students protected by Section 504 and the ADA must also have equal access to health services, recreational activities, athletics, student employment, clubs, specific courses, and field trips. IDEA does not designate extracurricular activity protection.

Parent and Teacher Participation

IDEA requires parent permission and parent participation throughout the evaluation and placement process. A good family-professional partnership is key for a student to receive the education necessary for success. Parents and teachers need to be willing to work together and communicate to determine the best ways of working with and providing information for a student. Both the family and the teacher work together on the IEP team to determine goals, the LRE, and to discuss other important considerations for each individual student. Throughout the whole IEP and special education process parents and families should be updated and kept informed of any decisions made about their specific student. Parents should also be able to provide valuable input about their student to determine placement and other educational goals. Parents, as well as teachers, are able to challenge any decisions that they feel are inappropriate for the student.

Types of developmental delay

In an attempt to characterize and classify the varying degrees of difficulty these children experience, special educators often label children according to the type of services that they receive. In 1992, the American Association on Mental Retardation established a system of classification that is wide use extensively today. It includes the following four levels of intensity: Intermittent - Children who have developmental delays that do not cause day-to-day difficulties, but who need support occasionally and during transitions (for example, the transition from junior high to high school). Limited - Children who have daily limitations but can achieve a good degree of self-sufficiency after education and training. Extensive - Support for these children extends consistently throughout their lifetime, and they will not live independently. Pervasive - Used rarely, this term describes children whose developmental delays prohibit them from most self-help activities. These children typically require support for life-sustaining activities.

Substantial limitations

In order to be eligible for services under Section 504 and the ADA, a child must have a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits a major life activity. The determination of whether a disability substantially limits a major life activity is subjective, and Section 504 and the ADA do not provide any operational criteria of substantial limitation. School personnel must use their collective, professional judgment to make this determination. Substantially limits can be defined as 1. unable to perform a major life activity that the average person in the general population can perform, 2. or significantly restricted as to the condition, manner, or duration for which an individual can perform a particular major life activity as compared to the condition, manner, or duration for which the average person in the general population can perform that same major life activity. The standard that should be used in determining substantial limitation, therefore, is average performance in the general population. If a student with ADHD is performing as well as average children in his grade level, and the student does not have to do significantly extra work to achieve at this level, it is unlikely that there is a substantial limitation in learning. This standard applies, regardless of the intellectual ability of the student.

Understanding

Level 2 of Bloom's Revised Taxonomy. Comprehending the meaning, translation, interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems. State a problem in one's own words. Examples: Explain in one's own words the steps for performing a complex task. Translate an equation into a computer spreadsheet. Learning process - create an analogy, participating in cooperative learning, taking notes, storytelling, Internet search

Applying

Level 3 of Bloom's Revised Taxonomy: Use a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an abstraction. Applies what was learned in the classroom into novel situations in the work place. Examples - Use a manual to calculate an employee's vacation time. Apply laws of statistics to evaluate the reliability of a written test. Learning process - collaborative learning, create a process, blog, practice

Types of ADHD

Inattentive; Hyperactivity, Combined

Communication Disorders

Includes speech and language disorders. Speech: Disordered speech is significantly different from the usual speech of others, and it detracts from the communicative abilities of the speaker. 3 types - 1. Articulation disorders account for the majority of speech disorders. The child is unable to produce sounds appropriate for his or her age. Articulation disorders also include substitution or omission of sounds: for instance, saying "th" for "s," or leaving out the "l" sound in words like clue (saying "coo" instead). 2. Fluency disorders are interruptions in the flow of speech. These can include difficulties with the rate, rhythm, or repetition of sounds, syllables, words, or phrases. Examples of fluency disorders include stuttering and "cluttering," in which the forward pace of speech is confused or full of extra sounds. 3. Voice disorders are impairment of the voice itself, and they affect the quality, pitch, or intensity of the person's speech. For example, students with voice disorders may sound hoarse all the time or speak too loudly.

Language Disorders

Indicates a difficulty in understanding and using speech, the written word, or another symbol system. The disorder may involve any of the following elements of language: 1. Form (Phonology, Morphology, Syntax) 2. Content (Semantics) 3. Function (Pragmatics - Communication in a socially acceptable way "knowing what to say and when to say it")

Types of Memory

Information processing theorists viewed the human mind as an information processing device containing distinct compo- nents: A sensory register, a short-term memory, and a long- term memory. The sensory register is an extremely short-term buffer of information, long enough to determine (uncon- sciously) whether information should be passed on to short- term memory or, alternatively, be discarded. Short-term memory is comparable to the central processing unit of a computer, being all that is in the direct and immediate atten- tion of the individual, limited in capacity and duration. Short- term memory integrates information from long-term memory and the current environment. Long-term memory refers to all the knowledge that is stored in the human brain for long-term use. Knowledge in long-term memory that is not currently used is inactive, but can be retrieved and manipulated in short-term memory when necessary.

Motive for learning

Interest in the material to be learned is the best motivation for learning, according to Jerome Bruner. Rather than external grades, etc.

Section 504, Rehabilitation Act (504)`

Is a federal law designed to protect the rights of individuals with disabilities in programs and activities that receive Federal financial assistance from the U.S. Department of Education (ED). This law provides: "No otherwise qualified individual with a disability in the United States . . . shall, solely by reason of her or his disability, be excluded from the participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance . . . ." OCR enforces this law in programs and activities that receive Federal financial assistance from ED. Recipients of this Federal financial assistance include public school districts, institutions of higher education, and other state and local education agencies. The regulations of this law require a school district to provide a "free appropriate public education" (FAPE) to each qualified student with a disability who is in the school district's jurisdiction, regardless of the nature or severity of the disability. Under this law, FAPE consists of the provision of regular or special education and related aids and services designed to meet the student's individual educational needs as adequately as the needs of nondisabled students are met. An appropriate education for a student with a disability under these regulations could consist of education in regular classrooms, education in regular classes with supplementary services, and/or special education and related services. To be protected under this law, a student must be determined to: (1) have a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities; or (2) have a record of such an impairment; or (3) be regarded as having such an impairment. At the elementary and secondary education level, the amount of information required is determined by the multi-disciplinary committee gathered to evaluate the student. The committee should include persons knowledgeable about the student, the meaning of the evaluation data, and the placement options. The committee members must determine if they have enough information to make a knowledgeable decision as to whether or not the student has a disability. The regulatory provision of this law requires that school districts draw from a variety of sources in the evaluation process so that the possibility of error is minimized. The information obtained from all such sources must be documented and all significant factors related to the student's learning process must be considered. These sources and factors may include aptitude and achievement tests, teacher recommendations, physical condition, social and cultural background, and adaptive behavior. In evaluating a student suspected of having a disability, it is unacceptable to rely on presumptions and stereotypes regarding persons with disabilities or classes of such persons. Compliance with the IDEA regarding the group of persons present when an evaluation or placement decision is made is satisfactory under this law. Requires informed parental permission for initial evaluations. If a parent refuses consent for an initial evaluation and a recipient school district suspects a student has a disability, the IDEA and this regulation provide that school districts may use due process hearing procedures to seek to override the parents' denial of consent. Periodic re-evaluations are required. Also required before a significant change in placement.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

Is a four-part (A-D) piece of American legislation that ensures students with a disability are provided with Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) that is tailored to their individual needs. It was previously known as the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EHA) from 1975 to 1990. In 1990, the United States Congress reauthorized EHA and changed the title. Overall, its goal is to provide children with disabilities the same opportunity for education as those students who do not have a disability. It is composed of four parts, the main two being part A and part B.[1] Part A covers the general provisions of the law, Part B covers assistance for education of all children with disabilities, Part C covers infants and toddlers with disabilities which include children from birth to age three, and Part D is the national support programs administered at the federal level. Each part of the law has remained largely the same since the original enactment in 1975. In practice, it is composed of six main elements that illuminate its main points. These six elements are: Individualized Education Program (IEP), Free and Appropriate Public Education (FAPE), Least Restrictive Environment (LRE), Appropriate Evaluation, Parent and Teacher Participation, and Procedural Safeguards. To go along with those six main elements there are also a few other important components that tie into it: Confidentiality of Information, Transition Services, and Discipline.

Social Constructivism

It argues that knowledge and even our idea of reality arise through social relationships and interactions. That is, everything we know we have learned by communi- cating and interacting with others, either personally or through multimedia. The social constructivist is interested in how an individual learns as a result of these interactions. puts a strong focus on student discus- sion and learning through multimedia. Many popular educa- tional formats such as problem-based learning and computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL) have their roots in social constructivism. According to social constructivism small or large group discussion increases student motivation, and builds a deeper understanding of what students are learn- ing. It also provides support for self-regulation of learning, as students can test the quality of their knowledge on that of peer students. Social constructivist theory discourages the use of traditional lectures, because of the minimal oppor- tunities for communication and discussion with the teacher and fellow students.

Gestalt psychology in teaching

Learners are conceptualized as active constructors of knowledge rather than passive recipients of information; they actively seek to make sense of the environment by imposing structure and order on stimuli encountered through direct perception and experience. In this view, instruction and teaching should help to "... illustrate clear-cut structures as well as various degrees of structurization; present hints as to the next step in proceeding; pace the learning; illustrate required elements; point to gaps in the learning process, and illustrate sensible, productive ways of dealing with a particular task in contrast to stupid ways." The most important factor influencing learning is, their answer would be: "reaching insight and understanding through restructuring."

Cognitive Resource Theories

Like cognitive symbolic models, cognitive resource theories build on the computer metaphor of the human mind. But in contrast to symbolic cognitive models, resource models do not refer to semantic representations in memory that convey mean- ing but limit themselves to a specification of human cognitive architecture and, especially, the capacity of memory systems. Most resource models make a distinction between working memory and long-term memory to explain why available cognitive resources for learning and performance are limited. Whereas the capacity of long-term memory is virtually unlimited, working memory is very limited in duration and in capacity. Information stored in working memory and not rehearsed is lost within 30 s (Baddeley, 1992) and the capacity of work- ing memory is limited to Miller's (1956) famous 7 ± 2 elements or, according to more recent findings, even 4±1 element (Cowan, 2001). The interactions between working memory and long-term memory are even more important than the direct processing limitations of working memory itself (Sweller, 2004). The limitations of working memory only apply to new, yet to be learned information that has not been stored in long- term memory. When dealing with previously learned information stored in long-term memory, the limitations disappear because constructed schemas in long-term memory can be handled as one element in working memory.

Learning Disability

Most often defined by describing a discrepancy between ability and performance. Children are of average to above-average intelligence (or IQ), but performance assessments and standardized tests indicate that their classroom achievement fails to match their evident ability. Because these relate specifically to classroom performance, they are rarely identified before a child enters school and confronts academic instruction. Are frequently identified when no other reason for academic failure can be found, such as a hearing or visual problem, behavioral problem, or mental deficiency.

Self-efficacy theory

Personal belief in one's capabilities are formed from 4 sources of information: 1. Previously experienced mastery 2. Vicarious experiences (observation of others) 3. Forms of persuasion (verbal & others) 4. Physiological and Emotional feedback during performance (fear response can negatively impact personal belief) Previously experienced mastery is the most powerful influence. Bandar and Social learning theory.

Developmental psychology

Pioneered by Jean Piaget, Piagetians emphasize active discovery learning, adapted to the child's developmental level. These theorists would argue that the most important factor influencing learning is: "the cognitive-developmental stage the learner finds himself in." Four developmental stages: Sensorimotor (0-2); Pre-Operational (2-7); Concrete Operational (7-11); Formal Operational (11-adult).

Self-regulation

Refers to the self-directive process through which learners transform their mental abilities into task related skills" (Zimmerman, 2001). This is the method or procedure that learners use to manage and organize their thoughts and convert them into skills used for learning. Self-regulation is the process of continuously monitoring progress toward a goal, checking outcomes, and redirecting unsuccessful efforts (Berk, 2003). In order for students to be self-regulated they need to be aware of their own thought process, and be motivated to actively participate in their own learning process (Zimmerman, 2001). Important in education in assisting students who are not successful learners (learning disability, etc.) Example - successful learner reading, detects errors, goes back and re-reads. Unsuccessful learner gives up.

Behaviorist theory

Reinforcement, and to a lesser extent punishment, shapes learning and should be used by educators to create desired behavior and prevent unwanted behavior. In the field of educational communications and technology, programmed learning was based on behaviorist insights (Skinner, 1968). It consists of small learning steps ("frames") that the learner goes through in a self-paced way. Each frame contains a segment of information and a question on which the learner will be provided feedback. Behaviorists' answer to the question what the most important factor influencing learning is, would simply be: "Reinforcement!"

Revised taxonomy for the cognitive domain

Remembering Understanding Applying Analyzing Evaluating Creating

Visual-spatial learning disability

Some disorders involve an inability to understand color or see a difference between the foreground and the background. A student may also have trouble visualizing directions in space, and this can significantly affect the ability to learn to read. For example, the letters b, d, p, and q are all formed in essentially the same way. Those who lack a sense of spatial relationships and directionality are unable to tell these letters apart.

Speech Disorders

Speech: Disordered speech is significantly different from the usual speech of others, and it detracts from the communicative abilities of the speaker. 3 types - 1. Articulation disorders account for the majority of speech disorders. The child is unable to produce sounds appropriate for his or her age. Articulation disorders also include substitution or omission of sounds: for instance, saying "th" for "s," or leaving out the "l" sound in words like clue (saying "coo" instead). 2. Fluency disorders are interruptions in the flow of speech. These can include difficulties with the rate, rhythm, or repetition of sounds, syllables, words, or phrases. Examples of fluency disorders include stuttering and "cluttering," in which the forward pace of speech is confused or full of extra sounds. 3. Voice disorders are impairment of the voice itself, and they affect the quality, pitch, or intensity of the person's speech. For example, students with voice disorders may sound hoarse all the time or speak too loudly.

Emotional and Behavioral Disorder

Students with these disorders have serious and persistent difficulties that can be described by a psychiatric diagnosis. When special educators identify a student as having an emotional or behavioral disorder, they are assisted by a psychologist or psychiatrist who conducts a thorough evaluation and makes a diagnosis of the disorder, using the categories listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). This medical manual, known as the DSM, groups behaviors in clusters corresponding to common clinical disorders. the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) uses the term serious emotional disturbance and defines it as follows: ... a condition exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects educational performance— An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors; An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers; Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances; A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems.

Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)

The U.S. Dept. Education, 2005a regulations implementing IDEA states: "...to the maximum extent appropriate, children with disabilities including children in public or private institutions or care facilities, are educated with children who are nondisabled; and special classes, separate schooling or other removals of children with disabilities from regular educational environment occurs only if the nature or severity of the disability is such that education in regular classes with the use of supplementary aids and services cannot be achieved satisfactorily." Simply put, this is the environment most like that of typical children in which the child with a disability can succeed academically (as measured by the specific goals in the student's IEP). A two-part test for determining if the LRE requirement is met. The test poses two questions: Can an appropriate education in the general education classroom with the use of supplementary aids and services be achieved satisfactorily? If a student is placed in a more restrictive setting, is the student "integrated" to the "maximum extent appropriate"?

Individualized Education Program

The cornerstone of IDEA, this is a document that is developed for each public school child who needs special education. It is created through a team effort, reviewed periodically. When a child qualifies for services, an designated team is convened to design an education plan. In addition to the child's parents, the team must include at least one of the child's regular education teachers (if applicable), a special education teacher, someone who can interpret the educational implications of the child's evaluation, such as a school psychologist, any related service personnel deemed appropriate or necessary, and an administrator or CSE (Committee of Special Education) representative who has adequate knowledge of the availability of services in the district and the authority to commit those services on behalf of the child. Parents are considered to be equal members of the team along with the school staff. Based on the full educational evaluation results, this team collaborates to write a document for the individual child, one that will provide a free, appropriate public education. This document defines the individualized objectives of a child who has been determined to have a disability or requires specialized accommodation, as defined by federal regulations. It is intended to help children reach educational goals more easily than they otherwise would. In all cases, it must be tailored to the individual student's needs as identified by the evaluation process, and must especially help teachers and related service providers (such as paraprofessional educators) understand the student's disability and how the disability affects the learning process. It describes how the student learns, how the student best demonstrates that learning and what teachers and service providers will do to help the student learn more effectively. Developing this requires evaluating students in all areas related to the suspected disabilities, simultaneously considering ability to access the general curriculum, considering how the disability affects the student's learning, forming goals and objectives that correspond to the needs of the student, and choosing a placement in the least restrictive environment possible for the student.

Scaffolding

The given support and guidance gradually decreases as learners acquire more knowledge and skills. Over the course of a learning process, a more-skilled person thus adjusts the amount of guidance to fit the learners' current performance. In the cultural-historical perspective, dialogue is an important tool in this process because spontaneous concepts of the learner are then confronted with the rational and more useful concepts of the teacher or a more experienced peer.

Negative Punishment

The removal of something pleasing to decrease a behavioral response. Example - time out or loss of privilege.

Social skills disorder

The student with this type of disorder has trouble with skills such as taking turns and understanding how to effectively interpret facial expressions. Such children are unable to perform social activities consistent with their chronological age and intelligence. Although social skills are not typically seen as being within the realm of the classroom teacher, these difficulties can significantly impair a child's ability to succeed in the classroom.

John Dewey

Theory of Progressive Education - the idea for education that emphasizes learning by doing. Pragmatism - human beings learn through a "hands-on" approach. Students must interact with their environment to adapt and learn. Interdisciplinary curriculum, students allowed to freely move about the classroom and pursue construction of knowledge and application, teacher as an observer/facilitator. Collaborative learning, differentiated evaluation.

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

This became law in 1990. It is a civil rights law that prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities in all areas of public life, including jobs, schools, transportation, and all public and private places that are open to the general public. The purpose of the law is to make sure that people with disabilities have the same rights and opportunities as everyone else. It gives civil rights protections to individuals with disabilities similar to those provided to individuals on the basis of race, color, sex, national origin, age, and religion. It guarantees equal opportunity for individuals with disabilities in public accommodations, employment, transportation, state and local government services, and telecommunications. The ADA is divided into five titles (or sections) that relate to different areas of public life. In 2008, the Americans with Disabilities Act Amendments Act (ADAAA) was signed into law and became effective on January 1, 2009. The ADAAA made a number of significant changes to the definition of "disability." The changes in the definition of disability in the ADAAA apply to all titles of the ADA, including Title I (employment practices of private employers with 15 or more employees, state and local governments, employment agencies, labor unions, agents of the employer and joint management labor committees); Title II (programs and activities of state and local government entities including public schools); and Title III (private entities that are considered places of public accommodation).

Symbolic Cognitive Theories

This model describes learning environments aimed at complex learning as built from four components: (1) learning tasks, which provide the backbone of an educational pro- gram, (2) supportive information, which provides the infor- mation helpful to perform nonroutine aspects of learning tasks (e.g., problem solving, reasoning), (3) procedural information, which provides the just-in-time information helpful to perform routine aspects of learning tasks, and (4) part-task practice, which helps to automate selected routine aspects of learning tasks. Components 1 and 2 are based on theories of schema construction or declarative learning, in particular, models of inductive learning (i.e., learning from different concrete experiences) for learning tasks, and mod- els of elaboration (i.e., learning by connecting new informa- tion to what you already know) for supportive information. Components 3 and 4 are based on theories of schema auto- mation or procedural learning, in particular, models of knowledge compilation (i.e., embedding new information in cognitive rules) for procedural information, and models of strengthening (i.e., automating cognitive rules by repetition) for part-task practice. A learning environment built from the four components thus promotes four simultaneous learning processes in a process of complex learning. Those learning processes will be more effective as the learner has more knowledge to begin with, and instructional methods that may be effective for learners with little prior knowledge will often be ineffective for learners with high prior knowledge (i.e., the "expertise reversal effect"; Kalyuga et al., 2003).

Auditory Processing Disorder

This term describes a general deficit in processing sensory information from the ears. A child with a learning disability who has such a disorder may take longer to "process" a question or direction and can appear to be ignoring you, not attending to the class activity, or acting disobedient. Because auditory information processing takes longer for such a child, the information may never reach short- or long-term memory. A child with an auditory processing disorder needs specific techniques to attend to the important parts of language and speech.

Law of Effect

Thorndyke (behaviorist): Réponses immediately followed by satisfaction were likely to occur in the future. Responses immediately followed by dissatisfaction were less likely to occur. (Cats escaping puzzle boxes). Important to Skinner's theory of operant conditioning. In the Classroom - his influences in the classroom, with a particular focus on praising and ignoring behaviors. Praise is used in the classroom to encourage and support the occurrence of a desired behavior. When used in the classroom, praise has been shown to increase correct responses and appropriate behavior. Planned ignoring is used to decrease, weaken, or eliminate the occurrence of a target behavior. Planned ignoring is accomplished by removing the reinforcer that is maintaining the behavior. For example, when the teacher does not pay attention to a "whining" behavior of a student, it allows the student to realize that whining will not succeed in gaining the attention of the teacher.

Developmental delay

Those who develop at a rate significantly below average and who experience difficulties in learning and social adjustment. According to the Developmental Disabilities Act of October 2000, the current federal definition of developmental disability is as follows: This term means a severe, chronic disability in an individual five years of age or older that 1. Is attributable to a mental or physical impairment or a combination of mental and physical impairments 2. Is manifested before the person attains age 22 3. Is likely to continue indefinitely 4. Results in substantial functional limitations in three or more of the following areas of major life activity: self-care receptive and expressive language learning mobility self-direction capacity for independent living economic self-sufficiency 5. Reflects the individual's need for a combination and sequence of special, interdisciplinary, or generic services, supports or other assistance that is of lifelong or extended duration and is individually planned and coordinated In practice, consistently low scores on intelligence tests, in combination with poor academic functioning and a lack of adaptive skills, usually indicate that a child has a developmental delay. Delays in motor development and in receptive and expressive language skills are also typically present. Examples: Autism, Down syndrome, Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, Crack babies, Premature birth