PRAXIS Category 1: Professional Practices, Practices that Permeate All Aspects of Service Delivery

common standardized measures to evaluate social and emotional development or problematic areas

**effective measures have 2 forms, a parent form and teacher form typically **best practice is to have multiple raters **multiple settings should also be considered BASC-3 Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) Devereux Scales of Mental Disorders Revised Behavior Problem Checklist Conner's Rating Scales Becks Depression Inventory RCMAS

confounding factors that may influence test reliability and validity

- motivation - personal issues (fatigue, stress) - test anxiety - language barrier - environmental factors - values and beliefs of test taker - racial bias - SES of test taker - family dynamics that impact student - mental health issues

Reasons to use RTI

- students learn more - ***Also use norms that are local for data-based decision making

Considerations when using standardized tests for second-language learners

1. using an interpreter is not best practice and is psychometrically weak if the test is not normed on the cultural group being assessed (MOST IMPORTANT) 2. recognize that norming samples are not stratified on the basis of bilingual ability 3. score validity will remain low if using an interpreter 4. use systematic methods to not be dscriminatory 5. informal assessment strategies are often less discriminatory

Formative evaluations vs Summative evaluations

Formative: assessing strengths and weaknesses to guide and inform future instruction, can be low-stakes benchmarking tests that are given before a new class or learning a new concept Summative: a review and summary of a person's accomplishments to date, provided at the end of the grading period

Consultation with Interpreters

Is encouraged and necessary to build rapport with families and students who do not speak English

RTI analysis of level

Level: average performance within a condition. SO comparing a student's level with the average level of performance of peers or a benchmark level

Common measures of Neuropsychological Functions

Memory Tests: Wechsler Memory Scale Executive Functioning and attention (after age 8): BRIEF-2 CAS-2 Attention and Planning Domains NEPSY-II Tower Tests D-Kefs Phonemic awareness test: CTOPP Language tests: Peabody Picture Vocabulary (2-90+ Various verbal reasoning subtests from WISC-V or DAS-II Visual Processes: Beery-Buktenica DAS-II Recall of Designs Major Batteries: NEPSY-II D-KEFS

Neg Reinforcement Pos Reinforcement

Neg: a behavior increases once something is taken away Pos: a behavior increases once something is provided

What percent of people comprise the bulk of the bell curve

68%

RTI Tracking Programs

Aimsweb

What is the primary reason for referral to a school's RTI process?

Reading difficulties

Examples of CBMS in content areas:

Reading: student reads aloud for 2 min. Words read correctly are counted and compared to class average Spelling: 2 min spelling tests, number of correct words are compared with class average Math: 3-minute exercise, correct answers are compared with class average Writing: students listen to short passage and write for 2 minutes. Number of correct on-topic sentences are counted and compared

Reliability vs Validity

Reliability: standardized measures and scores that are consistent and stable across time (reliability is accepted it coefficient is above 0.8) Validity: degree to which the test actually measures what it claims in measures (validity is generally accepted if it is above 0.8)

Assessing Intellectual Disabilities (IDs)

Requires COG and Adaptive measures A standard score of 70 or below on a cognitive test is needed for a diagnosis must show up before age 18 child must demonstrate impairments in adaptive functioning in some of the following areas: communication, self-care, social skills, community, self-direction, functional academic skills, employment, leisure, physical health issues

Subskill mastery measurement (SMM) vs General outcome measurement (GOM)

SMM: information on student progress is collected to determine whether the specific intervention for the target behavior is effective. Collected frequently, even daily. GOM: data is collected to determine whether the student is making progress toward long-range goals. These are used less frequently, such as once a week.

Informal and formal data is required to inform professional judgements regarding an individual student

True

True of False: Both formal and informal measures should be used to support decisions

True

Two Common Adaptive Measures

Vineland ABAS Should be two standard deviations below the mean to identify a child

Common measures of Cog Function

WISC-V (6-16:11) DAS-II (2.5-17:11) Stanford-Binet, 5th edition (2-85+years) WPPSI-IV (2.6-7.7) WAIS-IV (16-74) WJ-Cog (2-90) Bayley Scales of Infant Development (1-42 months) Leiter (2-20) KABC-II (3-18) Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence test (11-85+) UNIT (5-17:11) Cognitive Assessment System (CAS-2, 5-18)

Common measures of Educational Achievement

WJ-Achieve (2-90) WRAT-4 (5-94) KTEA (grades 1-12) WIAT (4-50:11) Early Childhood: TEMA, TERA, K-SEALS (academic and language skills)

Observational Techniques

Whole-interval recording: behavior is only recorded when it occurs during the entire time interval (good for continuos behaviors) Frequency or event recording: record the number of behaviors that occurred during a specific period. Duration recording: recording the length of time a behavior occurs Latency recording: time between onset of stimulus or signal that initiates a specific behavior Time-sampling interval recording: select a time period for observation, divide the period into a number of equal intervals, and record whether or not behavior occurs Partial-interval recording: behavior is scored if it occurs during any part of the time interval Momentary time sampling: behavior is scored as present or absent only during the moment that a timed interval begins.

Should you have an interpreter when giving a standardized measurement to a second-language learner?

You can... but... no fun

When assessing non-english speaking or special populations

You must consider the child's speaking, reading, and writing abilities as well as: Developmental history, language dominance, and language preference Language proficiency in both languages must be assessed and the dominant language must be determined

curriculum based assessment (CBA)

a broad assessment program or process, which may include CBMs or structured observations

Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA)

a comprehensive and individualized method to identify the purpose or function of a student's problem behavior(s) these develop a plan to modify factors that maintain the problem behavior and teach appropriate replacement behaviors using positive interventions key aspects: ABC

multicultural consultation

a culturally sensitive, indirect service model addresses needs and cultural values of the consultee, client, or both

Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory of cognitive abilities and its components

a highly regarded and widely adopted theory used to construct most major cognitive ability tests. (WISC, DAS, WJ) Gf: fluid intelligence: inductive and deductive reasoning with materials new to person Gc: crystalized intelligence, application of acquired knowledge and skills to answer questions Gv: visual processes Ga: auditory processing Gs: processing speed Gsm: short-term memory Glr: long-term memory

Variance

a measure of how far a set of numbers is spread out

SD

a measure of the spread of a set of values from the mean value. A square root of the variance. Used to measure the spread of a group of scores to express the relative position of a single score.

If a student fails to show a proper RTI

a more comprehensive evaluation is needed to better understand the student

Pragmatics

a set of rules that specify appropriate language for particular social contexts

Fixed Ratio Reinforcement

a specific number of behaviors must occur before a reinforcement is given

Conjoint behavioral consultation

a specific type of behavioral model that supports meetings with all parties (e.g., parent, student, and staff)

false positives

a student performed well on the test, but student is failing in the authentic environment

false negatives

a student performs poorly on test, but students is making acceptable progress in authentic environment

System to Enhance Educational Performance (STEEP)

a system schools may use conduct CBMs several times a year in reading, math, and writing to identify students in need of additional support

Shaping

a technique that creates a behavior by reinforcing approximations of the desired target behavior

predictive validity

a test should have high predictive value

achievement tests

a type of performance test that describes the skills a person has learned in school concerned with mastery of skills such as reading, writing, and math WJ-Achieve, WIAT

discriminant validity

a valid test should be able to discriminate between students who have the trait being measured and those who do not have the trait

Thurstone's primary mental abilities

claimed there were at least 11 primary mental abilities, did not believe intelligence was a unitary construct

a comprehensive special education evaluation will include formal and informal data within each of the following major domains:

cognitive achievement communication (speech-langage) motor skills adaptive skills social, emotional, and behavioral functioning sensory processing

Semi-structured interviews

combines the best features of both structured and unstructured interviews. They allow for flexibility and follow-up questions

T-Scores

common scores, have a mean of 50 and an SD of 10 (40-60 is average)

Scaled Scores (Ss)

commonly reported, typically have a mean of 10 and an SD of 3 (7-13 is average)

Immediacy

consequences should occur immediately after the behavior in order to be an effective reinforcement

Barriers to collaboration and consultation

consultee or client resists participation, client is unable to make a time commitment, funding, lack of leadership, communication, unclear goals

Unstructured Interviews + Advantages & Limitations

conversational style helps to put the student at ease. the less you put structure on the child, the more the child will share. adv: unstructured interviews can be adapted to the needs of the child lim: child responses can be difficult to interpret.

divergent validity

correlating two tests that measure two different traits, should not have a high correlation

criterion-related validity

correlations between measures that are similar and measures that are different. for measures that are similar, the correlation should be high

If RTI data is highly variable

could be due to extraneous factors such as: difficult probes different examiners student noncompliance/inattention motivation insufficient reinforcement

Ecological assessments

determine "goodness of fit" between student and learning environment

Variability and sources of error (Progress-monitoring)

each progress-monitoring point has important considerations and sources of variability 1. the effectiveness of the intervention 2. the confounding variable, uncontrolled subject and environmental variables. 3. measurement error: something wasn't administered properly, etc...

internal consistency reliability

each test item is compared with the total set of items (cronbach's alpha)

Extinction

eliminating the reinforcers or rewards for the behavior terminates the problem behavior

Norm-referenced test

evaluate a student's performance in relation to the performance of a general reference group scores fall on a normal curve

Ipsative scores

examining a pattern of scores within an individual's performance range to determine relative (to self) strengths and weaknesses

Consideration of Mitigating factors for Progress Monitoring Data

extraneous variables must be considered or the student's performance may be attributed to the intervention when the actual changes might have been due to the effects of uncontrolled personal or environmental effects

Fluid intelligence vs Crystallized intelligence

fluid: ability to solve problems through reasoning, not based on previously learned facts, etc. Sometimes referred as nonverbal reasoning, immediate problem solving, or simultaneous processing. crystallized: ability to solve problems by applying learned facts and language. the Verbal sections demonstrate this. CHC theory

Student is correct but slow

focus efforts on increasing rate of student is achieved through repeated practice and systematic contingencies to address student motivation

Consultee-Centered model

focus is on improving and enhancing competence and skills of the consultee, which INDIRECTLY helps the client by building the skills of the consultee the consultant is a problem-solving and skill-building expert the consultee has knowledge of the problem but needs skills to address the problem role of consultant: identify effective treatments for client, increase skill of consultee

Broca's area

frontal portion of L hemisphere supports grammatical processing and expressive language production

Z-Scores

have a mean of 0 and a SD of 1. They are not used much

Stanines

have a mean of 5, and each stanine unit represents one half of an SD. A standard nine-point scale.

face and content validity

how rational and reasonable the test and test items look

When should the intervention for RTI be changed?

if two or three data points fall below the aim line if no correct responses for 3-4 sessions

The Conners rating scale can measure

inattention

Most effective consultation model

indirect service model (consultee-centered)

ICEL

instruction, curriculum, environment, and learner for ecological assessments, the evaluator must evaluate all of these areas for example: analyzing work samples, prior grades, and assessments, information from parents, teachers, students

Least dangerous assumption

it is better to err on the side of false positives so as to provide additional support to students who may not need it rather than to deny additional support to a student in need of a result of a false negative

Frequency, duration, and intensity

key parts in all behavior modification plans for students

Morpheme

languages smallest units of meaning, such as prefix, suffixes (like bio)

School-Community collaboration

link the client with community resources or school-based services within the school. examples: child-centered, family centered, school centered, community centered

Wernicke's area

medial temporal lobe work meaning comprehension and receptive language

Das-Naglieri PASS model

model of brain function, divides the brain into four units. was originally proposed by Luria. The four functional units of brain processes: 1. Planning 2. Attention 3. Simultaneous Processing 4. Successive Processing

NASP: cognitive tests results

must be tied to interventions

cognitive abilities tests

norm-referenced scientific instruments that psychologists use to measure human abilities that are strongly correlated to a host of outcomes WISC, DAS can be used as a way to predict future learning success a primary scientific resource to explain why students may have difficulty learning or not making progress in school

Client-Centered Model of Consultation

not as favored, focuses on the student the consultant directly helps the student intensive for consultant effective on a single-case basis, but not effective for groups

criterion measurement

not based on bell curve of a population or group, but on a specific criterion, skill, or content to be mastered typically used in RTI processes

Informal measures for social and emotional problems

number of office referrals, suspensions, classroom-based disciplinary procedures

Percentage of correct responding is below 85%

on CBM probes, to correct include modifications to instruction by providing better prompts, more modeling, or more effective corrective feedback

Consultant Personal Characteristics

openness and warmth sincerity and genuineness trustworthiness and confidentiality empathy self-disclosers

Primary interventions for reading difficulties are related to

phonological processing

Noam Chomsky

proposed that children are born with an innate mental structure that guides their acquisition of language and grammar critical periods interactionist view: humans learn language by spoken language but also have a biological predisposition to learn how to speak

Narrative Recordings

provide broad and narrow information from running records

interrater reliability

rater's results should be similar to be reliable

Behavioral Model of Consultation

solution-focused and collects data to effect behavior change in a person goal is to reduce frequency of undesirable behavior by altering the relationship between student behavior and the environment that prevents the consultee from working effectively with client prepares consultee to deal with similar problems in future basic steps: identify problem implement plan monitor effectiveness evaluate and make needed changes to plan

curriculum based measurement (CBM)

specific forms of criterion-referenced assessments in which curriculum goals and objectives serve as the criteria for assessment items

Split half reliability

splitting test in half, should obtain same scores

Structured Interviews + Advantages & Limitations

standardized and formal. The same questions are given to each child. adv: high validity and reliability. you can compare the child's responses to other responses. these indicate the presence or absence of a problem, not level of functioning. lim: interviewer cannot modify questions to tailor to child. strict format

Vital Background information (informal data) can be collected through:

student files and records staff interviews and comments medical records and reports review of previous interventions developmental history

A general RTI process

student with academic/behavioral concern is identified by teachers/parents school psych gathers information (data collection and screening information) once problem area is known, baseline performance data is collected next, a research-based intervention is employed and systematic tests are provided to measure the student's postintervention progress. an analysis is conducted to examine the difference between the student's initial baseline performance and the expected level of performance after interventions have been implemented if student does not show progress in a reasonable about of time (30-60 days), a SPED eval should be considered

Phonology

system of sounds a language uses phonemic awareness is a component of phonological processing

Progress monitoring data should be based on

systematic and repeated measurement of behavior over a specified time

Universal Screening

systematic, broadly implemented. can be done to a class, grade, school, the district on academic, behavioral, social, or emotional indicators. helps determine whether modifications are needed in the core curriculum, instruction, or general ed environment. this guides decisions about additional or intensive instruction for specific students. screening tools are cost-effective. can misclassify students

Halo Effect

tendency for impression created in one area to influence opinion in another area

Test-retest reliability

testing a person twice, scores should be highly similar if the test is reliable. 2-week intervals are recommended

Phoneme

the basic unit of a language's sound or phonetic system. It is the smallest sound units that affect meaning, aka / s /

What is Data-Based Decision Making?

the collection of formal and informal information to help a student. Initially, data is gathered through a school's RTI process. If the student is still struggling, a full comprehensive evaluation is conducted.

The most valid test score

the full-scale score, followed by major domain or cluster scores

punishment

the introduction of an undesirable stimulus that decreases behavior

variable ratio

the number of behaviors needed in order to receive the reinforcer varies. Once a behavior is established by this method, variable schedules of reinforcement are resistant to change

Percentile Ranks

the percentage of scores in its frequency distribution that are equal to or lower than it this isn't an equal interval measurement...

Semantics

the study of word meanings and combinations, such as phrases

General points for analyzing RTI baseline data

there should be no new high or lows for three consecutive data points 80% of the data points should fall within 15% of the mean line. Collect baseline data for 3-5 points in schools, consider practical considerations as they may affect amount of data that can be collected

two main functions of behavior

to gain something positive or to escape or avoid something negative

Standard Scores (SSs)

used to describe a person's position within the normal curve of human traits. These scores express the position of a score in relation to the average of other scores. Normally have a mean of 100 and a SD of 15

RTI analysis of trend

when a students performance systematically increases or decreases across time. ACROSS TIME. Therefore, it is important to analyze the trend in data. Statistical methods can be used to calculate the trend, such as the slope.

convergent validity

when a test is correlated with another test that has a similar purpose

Premack Principle

David Premack a lower level behavior can be shaped by a higher level behavior example: a student is not allowed to play outside unless he does his homework first sometimes called contingency learning

What data levels are collected in a comprehensive evaluation?

1. Background data collection, techniques, and problem identification levels 2. Screening level 3. Progress monitoring and RTI level 4. Formal Assessment level (SPED eval)

Universal Screening Measures

1. Curriculum-based measures (CBM): aka DIBELS 2. Fluency-based indicators of skills: such as letter-naming fluency 3. the Cognitive Assessment Test (CogAT): cog measure, group administrated 4. state educational agencies provide formal group-administered tests 5. System to Enhance Educational Performance: uses CBMS throughout the year in reading, math, and writing

What are the 10 NASP Domains?

1. Data-based decision making and accountability 2. Consultation and Collaboration 3. Intervention and Instructional Support to Develop Academic Skills 4. Interventions and Mental Health Services to Develop Social and Life Skills 5. School-Wide Practices to Promote Learning 6. Preventive and Responsive Services 7. Family-School Collaboration Services 8. Diversity in Development and Learning 9. Research and Program Evaluation 10. Legal, Ethical, and Professional Practice

Three levels of analysis for progress monitoring data

1. analysis of variability in data 2. analysis of level 3. analysis of trend

examples of community collaboration

1. child centered: direct service to student such as tutoring or mentoring 2. family centered: service to parents or entire families such as parenting workshops, family counseling 3. school centered: donation of money or equipment, staff development, or classroom assistance 4. community centered: outreach programs, after-school programs

Steps to complete an FBA:

1. describe problem behavior 2. perform the assessment (review records, observations, intervention student, teacher, parents...) 3. evaluate results 4. develop a hypothesis 5. formulate an intervention plan 6. start or implement the intervention 7. evaluate the effectiveness of intervention plan ***place emphasis on the Antecedents of the behavior

students/clients traits and factors influencing consultation

1. students age and developmental stage 2. coping styles - externalizing: acting out, behavioral problems, disrupting class (need positive skill building) - internalizing: depression, shutting down, non responsive. increase self-confidence and perception of control over situations. 3. Personality traits. OCEAN

Top characteristics of effective CBM

1. systematic procedures: frequent collection and analysis of student performance data 2. examine student performance across time 3. identifying students at risk 4. provide normative and statistically sound information for students, classes, staff, and parents

Guidelines for distinguishing language differences from language disorders

1. the disorder must be present in the child's native language (L1) and English (L2) 2. Testing must be conducted in the native or strongest language 3. Assessments must be conducted using both formal and informal measurements. When possible, use formal measures that have been normed on the appropriate cultural group 4. language must be assessed in a variety of formal and informal speaking contexts 5. patterns of language usage must be described and error patterns must be determine 6. child's language performance must be compared with that of other bilingual speakers who have similar cultural and linguistic experiences

Grade Norms & Equivalents vs Age Norms & Equivalents

Grade: students are matched to grade groups whose performance they equal. (POOR METRIC) Age: students are matched to the AE whose performance they equal. (USE WITH CAUTION)

Syntax

How works combine into phrases, clauses, and sentences

cognitive assessment test (CogAT)

can be used as screener, a cognitive measure, can be group administered

Alternate and parallel forms reliability

alternate forms of a test should provide similar scores

Standard Error of Measurement (SEM)

an estimate of error used when interpreting an individual's test score. test results rarely provide the "true score" because of error.

Projective Measures

assess personality dynamics pros: a rapport builder, additional information cons: not standardized, poor psychometrics typically a supplemental part of a battery of psychological tests example: Rorschach, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Criterion-referenced test

assesses a student's standing on a defined standard or performance of a specific skill not standardized

key motivations for behavior

attention, power, control, affiliation, and revenge

Why should a school psychologist not use the DAS-I?

because standardized tests with norms older than 10 years should be used with caution due to regression problems associated with older normative data

Spearman's Theory of intelligence: Two-factor theory of intelligence

believed in "g." or general intelligence. seen in FSIQ scores. specific factors are correlated with specific abilities