Princ. Of Management Final Exam

Which of the following statements exemplifies Fiedler's contingency theory? Assigning a manager to lead a team of employees whose performances have been below average and expecting him to influence the team Expecting a person who does not have commendable teaching skills to acquire the skills and become a good teacher Assigning a customer service manager position to a person who has exceptional skills in interacting with customers Expecting a person who leads a software firm and has excellent technical skills to lead a non-technical firm with equal effectiveness

Assigning a customer service manager position to a person who has exceptional skills in interacting with customers

Which of the following is true of supportive leadership? It involves consulting employees for their suggestions and input before making decisions. It involves setting challenging goals and having confidence that employees will achieve them. It involves letting employees know precisely what is expected of them. It involves being approachable to employees and treating them as equals.

It involves being approachable to employees and treating them as equals.

Which of the following steps can managers take to use equity theory to motivate employees? Keeping inputs and outcomes constant Reducing outcomes Reducing employees' inputs Fixing a referent as constant

Reducing employees' inputs

Which of the following is a basic component of equity theory? Valences Referents Situational constraints Goal specificity

Referents

Which of the following is true of transformational leaders? They make sure that employees do not have to make any sacrifices for their organization. They are able to make their followers feel that they are a vital part of their organization. They do what is best for themselves instead of for their organizations. They reward followers for good performance and punish them for poor performance.

They are able to make their followers feel that they are a vital part of their organization.

Which of the following is true of managers? They are critical to inspiring employees and setting long-term goals. They see themselves as promoters of change and challengers of the status quo. They are concerned with control and limiting the choices of others. They focus on vision, mission, goals, and objectives.

They are concerned with control and limiting the choices of others.

Which of the following is a characteristic of charismatic leaders? They articulate a clear vision for the future that is based on strongly held values or morals. They seldom have a strong bond with and influence over their followers. They communicate low performance expectations to followers. They rarely display confidence in their followers' abilities to achieve the organizational vision.

They articulate a clear vision for the future that is based on strongly held values or morals.

Which of the following is a drawback of transactional leadership? Transactional leaders never reward followers for good performance. Transactional leaders often rely too heavily on discipline or threats to bring performance up to standards. Transactional leaders have standards and principles that put their interests before everyone else's. Transactional leaders never punish followers for poor performance.

Transactional leaders often rely too heavily on discipline or threats to bring performance up to standards.

According to goal-setting theory, _____ is the extent to which a goal is hard or challenging to accomplish. goal valence goal difficulty goal instrumentality goal specificity

goal difficulty

According to goal-setting theory, _____ is the extent to which goals are detailed, exact, and unambiguous. goal valence goal difficulty goal instrumentality goal specificity

goal specificity

According to _____, goals energize behavior and also create tension between the goal, which is the desired future state of affairs, and where the employee or company is now, meaning the current state of affairs. path-goal theory reinforcement theory expectancy theory goal-setting theory

goal-setting theory

In the context of equity theory, _____ are the contributions employees make to their organization. outcomes inputs referents valences

inputs

In the context of the components of transformational leadership, _____ means that transformational leaders encourage followers by providing meaning and challenge to their work. individualized consideration inspirational motivation intellectual stimulation idealized influence

inspirational motivation

In the context of expectancy theory, _____ is the perceived relationship between performance and rewards. valence instrumentality reinforcement efficacy

instrumentality

In the context of the components of transformational leadership, _____ means that transformational leaders encourage followers to be creative and innovative, to question assumptions, and to look at problems and situations in new ways even if their ideas are different from those of leaders. individualized consideration idealized influence intellectual stimulation inspirational motivation

intellectual stimulation

McClelland stated in his theory that: people are motivated by their highest unsatisfied need. people can only be motivated by one need at a time. needs are learned, not innate. rewards are tangible, not intangible.

needs are learned, not innate.

In the context of motivation theories, _____ is defined as the process of changing behavior by changing the consequences that follow behavior. job enrichment cronyism reinforcement self-actualization

reinforcement

In the context of the kinds of charismatic leaders, ethical charismatics differ from unethical charismatics in that ethical charismatics _____. seek out viewpoints on critical issues avoid candid feedback are the sole source of vision want uncritical acceptance of their ideas

seek out viewpoints on critical issues

Unlike supportive leadership, participative leadership is used when _____. the formal authority system is clear workers have an external locus of control tasks are complex workers lack experience

tasks are complex

Unlike directive leadership, supportive leadership is used when _____. the formal authority system is clear task structure is low workers have an external locus of control tasks are relaxing and varied

the formal authority system is clear

In the context of leadership styles, relationship-oriented leaders with high Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scores are better leaders: in situations where they have no position power. under moderately favorable situations. when tasks are completely unstructured. in highly unfavorable situations.

under moderately favorable situations.

In the context of equity theory, _____ occurs when a referent's outcome/input (O/I) ratio is better than one's own O/I ratio. distributive justice overreward underreward procedural justice

underreward

When people perceive that they have been underrewarded, they tend to: distributive justice overreward underreward procedural justice

underreward

Which of the following exemplifies an intrinsic reward? Richard enjoys his job and sees it as a chance to learn something new. Samantha receives a cash reward for good job performance. Dorothy gets promoted at work. Rani receives an annual bonus.

Richard enjoys his job and sees it as a chance to learn something new.

According to Maslow, which of the following is on the top of the hierarchy of needs? Self-actualization needs Physiological needs Self-esteem needs Safety needs

Self-actualization needs

_____ is the ability to anticipate, envision, maintain flexibility, and work with others to initiate changes that will create a positive future for an organization. Autocratic leadership Paternalistic leadership Authoritative leadership Strategic leadership

Strategic leadership

In terms of leadership behavior, _____ is the degree to which a leader organizes the roles of followers by setting goals, giving directions, setting deadlines, and assigning tasks. emotional stability autonomy initiating structure consideration

initiating structure

With continuous reinforcement schedules, a consequence: is delivered following a specific number of behaviors. is delivered following a different number of behaviors. follows a behavior only after a fixed time has elapsed. follows every instance of a behavior.

follows every instance of a behavior.

According to the normative decision theory, leaders who share problems with their subordinates and then have them make decisions use a _____ style. repressive decision autocratic decision consultative decision group decision

group decision

In the context of motivation, _____ is concerned with the choices that people make about how long they will put forth effort in their jobs before reducing or eliminating those efforts. initiation of effort persistence of effort direction of effort termination of effort

persistence of effort

Which of the following is an example of an extrinsic reward? A sense of accomplishment A feeling of responsibility A chance to learn something new A promotion to a higher position

A promotion to a higher position

Identify a step that managers can take to motivate employees using the expectancy theory. Reduce employees' inputs Overreward employees Avoid publicizing the way in which pay decisions are made Empower employees to make decisions

Empower employees to make decisions

_____ says that people will be motivated at work when they perceive that they are being treated fairly. Contingency theory Goal-setting theory Equity theory Reinforcement theory

Equity theory

Which of the following scenarios exemplifies fixed ratio reinforcement schedules? A car salesperson gets a paycheck on the first Wednesday of every month. A software engineer gets an incentive after completing a test case in 10 hours. A lab technician gets an incentive of $5 every time he analyzes 50 blood samples. A design engineer who completes a design in 20 days gets a five percent extra pay bonus for the next 10 days.

A lab technician gets an incentive of $5 every time he analyzes 50 blood samples.

According to the normative decision theory, which of the following is true of the CI decision-making style? A leader shares a problem with employees as a group, obtains their ideas and suggestions, and then makes a decision, which may or may not reflect their input. A leader uses information available at the time and solves the problem or makes a decision. A leader shares a problem and gets suggestions from relevant employees on an individual basis. A leader shares a problem with employees as a group, and they, together, generate and evaluate alternatives and try to reach an agreement on a solution.

A leader shares a problem and gets suggestions from relevant employees on an individual basis.

In the context of leadership behaviors, which of the following is a difference between initiating structure and consideration? At the University of Texas, initiating structuring is referred to as concern for people, whereas consideration is referred to as concern for production. A leader's ability to initiate structure primarily affects subordinates' job performance, whereas consideration primarily affects subordinates' job satisfaction. At the University of Michigan, consideration is referred to as job-centered leadership, whereas initiating structure is referred to as employee-centered leadership. Leaders who initiate structure exhibit supportive leadership, whereas leaders who show consideration exhibit directive leadership.

A leader's ability to initiate structure primarily affects subordinates' job performance, whereas consideration primarily affects subordinates' job satisfaction.

In the context of reinforcement contingencies, which of the following is a similarity between punishment and extinction? Both are forms of reinforcement that weaken behavior. Both follow behaviors with desirable consequences. Both are types of negative reinforcement. Both involve withholding negative consequences.

Both are forms of reinforcement that weaken behavior.

Which of the following is a similarity between Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership theory and path goal theory? Both assume that leadership styles are consistent and difficult to change. Both assume that leaders are capable of adapting and adjusting their leadership styles to fit the demands of different situations. Both highlight the necessity of leaders to use power to dominate or manipulate others for personal gain. Both assume that leaders are insensitive and unresponsive to followers' needs and aspirations.

Both assume that leaders are capable of adapting and adjusting their leadership styles to fit the demands of different situations.

In the context of the Blake/Mouton leadership grid, which of the following is a similarity between leaders using the team management leadership style and leaders using the authority-compliance leadership style? Both have a low concern for production. Both have a high concern for production. Both have a high concern for people. Both have a low concern for people.

Both have a high concern for production.

In the context of the Blake/Mouton leadership grid, which of the following is a similarity between leaders using the impoverished management leadership style and leaders using the authority-compliance leadership style? Both have a low concern for production. Both have a high concern for production. Both have a high concern for people. Both have a low concern for people.

Both have a low concern for people.

In the context of expectancy theory, which of the following is a difference between expectancy and instrumentality? Unlike instrumentality, when expectancies are strong, employees figure that no matter what they do or how hard they work, they will not be able to perform their jobs successfully, so they do not work harder. Unlike expectancy, when instrumentality is weak, employees believe that improved performance will lead to better and more rewards, so they choose to work harder. Expectancy is the perceived relationship between effort and performance, whereas instrumentality is the perceived relationship between performance and rewards. Expectancy is the attractiveness or desirability of various rewards or outcomes, whereas instrumentality is the perceived relationship between effort and rewards.

Expectancy is the perceived relationship between effort and performance, whereas instrumentality is the perceived relationship between performance and rewards.

_____ says that people will be motivated to the extent to which they believe that their efforts will lead to good performance, that good performance will be rewarded, and that they will be offered attractive rewards. Expectancy theory Temporal motivation theory Herzberg's two-factor theory Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory

Expectancy theory

In the context of motivation, which of the following is a difference between initiation of effort and direction of effort? Initiation of effort is concerned with the choices that people make about how much effort to put forth in their jobs, whereas direction of effort is concerned with the choices that people make in deciding where to put forth effort in their jobs. Initiation of effort is concerned with the choices that people make about how long they will put forth effort in their jobs before reducing or eliminating those efforts, whereas direction of effort is concerned with the choices that people make about how much effort to put forth in their jobs. Initiation of effort is concerned with the amount of expectation a manager holds on the efforts that he or she can expect from an employee, whereas direction of effort is concerned with the accountability of each action taken by an employee toward the achievement of set goals. Initiation of effort is concerned with how much effort an employee puts in when comparing his or her current job prospects with the other available opportunities, whereas direction of effort is concerned with the number of job offers an employee rejects before choosing the one that appears the most appropriate to him or her.

Initiation of effort is concerned with the choices that people make about how much effort to put forth in their jobs, whereas direction of effort is concerned with the choices that people make in deciding where to put forth effort in their jobs.

Which of the following is true of the Situational Leadership Model? It is a powerful, rigid tool that is based on the relationship between different types of followers. It allows leaders to approach coaching and influence opportunities through the lens of task-specificity. It fails to provide leaders with an understanding of the relationship between an effective style of leadership and the level of readiness that followers exhibit for a specific task. It requires leaders to make generalizations about a follower's overall level of ability and motivation.

It allows leaders to approach coaching and influence opportunities through the lens of task-specificity.

How does Fiedler's contingency theory differ from other situational theories? It assumes that effective leaders possess a similar set of traits or characteristics. It states that leaders are capable of changing their leadership styles to fit the demands of different situations. It states that the effectiveness of leaders can only be judged by what they do and who they are. It assumes that leadership styles are consistent and difficult to change.

It assumes that leadership styles are consistent and difficult to change.

Which of the following statements is true of directive leadership? It involves letting employees know precisely what is expected of them. It involves being approachable and friendly to employees. It involves consulting employees for their suggestions before making decisions. It involves setting challenging goals and having high expectations of employees.

It involves letting employees know precisely what is expected of them.

In the context of environmental contingencies, which of the following describes the formal authority system? It is the amount of emotional support that is provided by an employee's immediate work group. It is an organization's set of procedures, rules, and policies. It is the degree to which the requirements of a subordinate's tasks are clearly specified. It is a subordinate's ability to perform his or her job well.

It is an organization's set of procedures, rules, and policies.

Which of the following defines motivation? It is the abundance or shortage of critical organizational resources in an organization's external environment. It is the attractiveness or desirability of a reward or outcome. It is the set of forces that initiates, directs, and makes people persist in their efforts to accomplish a goal. It is the examination of one's own conscious thoughts and feelings.

It is the set of forces that initiates, directs, and makes people persist in their efforts to accomplish a goal.

Which of the following statements is true of reinforcement theory? It says that a behavior is a function of the efforts that go into performing that behavior. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior by following behaviors with desirable consequences. Positive reinforcement strengthens behavior by withholding an unpleasant consequence when a specific behavior is performed. It says that behaviors followed by negative consequences will occur less frequently.

It says that behaviors followed by negative consequences will occur less frequently.

Which of the following statements describes positive reinforcement? It strengthens behavior by withholding an unpleasant consequence of a specific behavior. It weakens behavior by following behaviors with undesirable consequences. It strengthens behavior by following behaviors with desirable consequences. It weakens a behavior by making it less likely to occur in future.

It strengthens behavior by following behaviors with desirable consequences.

In the context of reinforcement contingencies, which of the following statements is true of extinction? It weakens behavior by removing a positive consequence. It is also known as avoidance learning. It strengthens behavior by withholding an unpleasant consequence. It is a type of negative reinforcement.

It weakens behavior by removing a positive consequence.

In industrial psychology, which of the following equations best represents job performance? Job Performance = (Instrumentality × Situational Constraints)/(Expectancy × Valence) Job Performance = Motivation/(Ability × Effort) Job Performance = Instrumentality × Expectancy × Valence Job Performance = Motivation × Ability × Situational Constraints

Job Performance = Motivation × Ability × Situational Constraints

According to path-goal theory, which of the following is true? Leaders must be matched to the right leadership situation. Leader behavior must be a source of immediate or future satisfaction for followers. Leader behavior must duplicate the characteristics of followers' work environments. Leaders are effective when the work groups they lead perform well.

Leader behavior must be a source of immediate or future satisfaction for followers.

Which of the following is a trait difference between leaders and nonleaders? Leaders focus on productivity, while nonleaders focus on vision and goals. Leaders display more honesty and integrity than nonleaders. Leaders are more extroverted than nonleaders. Leaders are more concerned with means, while nonleaders are concerned more with ends.

Leaders display more honesty and integrity than nonleaders.

Which of the following is a function of leaders? Leaders solve the problems that employees face. Leaders inspire people and take a long-term view. Leaders try to control and limit choices of others. Leaders focus on the means of getting things done.

Leaders inspire people and take a long-term view.

Which of the following statements describes Fiedler's contingency theory? Leaders are judged as effective based on what they do and who they are. Leaders must be matched to a situation that fits their leadership style. Leaders are capable of adapting their leadership styles to fit the demands of different situations. Leaders can increase subordinate satisfaction and performance by clarifying the paths to goals.

Leaders must be matched to a situation that fits their leadership style.

Fiedler uses a questionnaire called the _____ scale to measure leadership style. Locus of Control Leadership Judgement Multifactor Leadership Least Preferred Coworker

Least Preferred Coworker

In the context of motivation, identify a difference between lower-order needs and higher-order needs. Lower-order needs are concerned with belongingness, relatedness, and affiliation, whereas higher-order needs are concerned with safety. Unlike higher-order needs, lower-order needs are concerned with influence. Lower-order needs are concerned with physiological and existence requirements, whereas higher-order needs are concerned with esteem, self-actualization, and growth. Unlike higher-order needs, lower-order needs are concerned with challenges and accomplishments.

Lower-order needs are concerned with physiological and existence requirements, whereas higher-order needs are concerned with esteem, self-actualization, and growth.

Which of the following steps is a manager most likely to take if he or she is using goal-setting theory as a motivational tool for his or her employees? Making sure workers truly accept organizational goals Refraining from reinforcing wrong behaviors Refraining from providing frequent, performance-specific feedback Reducing employees' inputs

Making sure workers truly accept organizational goals

In the context of the decision rules that the normative decision theory uses, which of the following is a similarity between autocratic and consultative decision styles? Neither should be used when subordinates' goals are different from the organization's goals. Neither should be used when subordinates lack enough information to make a decision. Neither should be used when subordinates' acceptance of a decision is important and critical to successful implementation and subordinates are likely to disagree over the decision. Neither should be used when the quality of a decision is important and the leader does not have enough information to make the decision on his or her own.

Neither should be used when subordinates' acceptance of a decision is important and critical to successful implementation and subordinates are likely to disagree over the decision.

_____ states that leaders can increase subordinate satisfaction and performance by clarifying and clearing the routes to objectives and by increasing the number and kinds of rewards available for the attainment of objectives. Contingency theory Path-goal theory Normative decision theory Trait theory

Path-goal theory

In the context of locus of control as a subordinate contingency, which of the following is true of externals? They believe that what happens to them is largely a result of their choices and actions. They like to have a say in what goes on at work. They greatly prefer a participative leadership style. They believe that what happens to them is caused by forces outside their control.

They believe that what happens to them is caused by forces outside their control.

Which of the following is true of leaders? They focus on vision, mission, goals, and organizational objectives. They focus on productivity and efficiency. They see themselves as preservers of the status quo. They solve problems so that others can do their work.

They focus on vision, mission, goals, and organizational objectives.

Which of the following is a difference between fixed interval reinforcement schedules and fixed ratio reinforcement schedules? Fixed interval reinforcement schedules are a type of continuous reinforcement schedules, whereas fixed ratio reinforcement schedules are a type of intermittent reinforcement schedules. With fixed interval reinforcement schedules, a consequence follows every instance of a behavior, whereas with fixed ratio reinforcement schedules, consequences are delivered following a specific number of behaviors. Unlike fixed interval reinforcement schedules, fixed ratio reinforcement schedules are based on behaviors. Unlike fixed interval reinforcement schedules, with fixed ratio reinforcement schedules, consequences are delivered after a specified time has elapsed.

Unlike fixed interval reinforcement schedules, fixed ratio reinforcement schedules are based on behaviors.

Which of the following is a difference between fixed interval reinforcement schedules and variable interval reinforcement schedules? Fixed interval reinforcement schedules are a type of continuous reinforcement schedules, whereas variable interval reinforcement schedules are a type of intermittent reinforcement schedules. Fixed interval reinforcement schedules are intermittent reinforcement schedules that are based on time, whereas variable interval reinforcement schedules are intermittent reinforcement schedules that are based on behaviors. Unlike fixed interval reinforcement schedules, with variable interval reinforcement schedules, consequences are delivered following a specific number of behaviors. Unlike fixed interval reinforcement schedules, with variable interval reinforcement schedules, the time between a behavior and the following consequences varies around a specified average.

Unlike fixed interval reinforcement schedules, with variable interval reinforcement schedules, the time between a behavior and the following consequences varies around a specified average.

Which of the following is a difference between fixed ratio reinforcement schedules and variable ratio reinforcement schedules? Fixed ratio reinforcement schedules are a type of continuous reinforcement schedules, whereas variable ratio reinforcement schedules are a type of intermittent reinforcement schedules. Fixed ratio reinforcement schedules are based on time, whereas variable ratio reinforcement schedules are based on behaviors. Unlike fixed ratio reinforcement schedules, with variable ratio reinforcement schedules, consequences follow a behavior after different times, some shorter and some longer, that vary around a specified average time. Unlike fixed ratio reinforcement schedules, with variable ratio reinforcement schedules, consequences are delivered following a different number of behaviors that vary around a specified average number of behaviors.

Unlike fixed ratio reinforcement schedules, with variable ratio reinforcement schedules, consequences are delivered following a different number of behaviors that vary around a specified average number of behaviors.

Which of the following is a difference between extrinsic rewards and intrinsic rewards? Examples of extrinsic rewards include a sense of accomplishment and a sense of responsibility, whereas examples of intrinsic rewards include pay and promotions. Extrinsic rewards are not visible to others in a company, whereas intrinsic rewards are visible to everyone working in a company. Unlike intrinsic rewards, extrinsic rewards are offered to employees by the management for doing something well. Unlike intrinsic rewards, extrinsic rewards are intangible.

Unlike intrinsic rewards, extrinsic rewards are offered to employees by the management for doing something well.

In the context of equity theory, which of the following is a difference between underreward and overreward? Unlike overreward, in underreward, one gets more outcomes relative to his or her inputs than the referent being considered for comparison. People experience guilt when they perceive that they have been underrewarded, whereas people experience frustration when they perceive that they have been overrewarded. People have a very high tolerance for underreward, whereas people have a very low tolerance for overreward. Unlike overreward, underreward occurs when a referent's outcome/input ratio is better than one's own outcome/input ratio.

Unlike overreward, underreward occurs when a referent's outcome/input ratio is better than one's own outcome/input ratio.

In the context of reinforcement contingencies, which of the following is a difference between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement? Positive reinforcement strengthens behavior, whereas negative reinforcement weakens behavior. Unlike negative reinforcement, positive reinforcement is also referred to as avoidance learning. Unlike positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement withholds an unpleasant consequence when employees perform a specific behavior. Extinction is a type of positive reinforcement, whereas punishment is a type of negative reinforcement.

Unlike positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement withholds an unpleasant consequence when employees perform a specific behavior.

In the context of reinforcement contingencies, which of the following is a difference between negative reinforcement and punishment? Negative reinforcement weakens behavior, whereas punishment strengthens behavior. Negative reinforcement is also referred to as extinction, whereas punishment is also referred to as avoidance learning. Unlike punishment, negative reinforcement withholds an unpleasant consequence when employees perform a specific behavior. Unlike punishment, negative reinforcement weakens behavior by following behaviors with undesirable consequences.

Unlike punishment, negative reinforcement withholds an unpleasant consequence when employees perform a specific behavior.

Which of the following is a difference between variable interval reinforcement schedules and variable ratio reinforcement schedules? Variable interval reinforcement schedules are a type of continuous reinforcement schedules, whereas variable ratio reinforcement schedules are a type of intermittent reinforcement schedules. Variable interval reinforcement schedules are intermittent reinforcement schedules that are based on time, whereas variable ratio reinforcement schedules are intermittent reinforcement schedules that are based on behaviors. Unlike variable interval reinforcement schedules, with variable ratio reinforcement schedules, consequences are delivered following a specific number of behaviors. Unlike variable interval reinforcement schedules, with variable ratio reinforcement schedules, consequences follow a behavior only after a fixed time has elapsed.

Variable interval reinforcement schedules are intermittent reinforcement schedules that are based on time, whereas variable ratio reinforcement schedules are intermittent reinforcement schedules that are based on behaviors.

According to the normative decision theory, in which of the following situations should a group decision style be used? When subordinates' goals are different from the organization's goals When subordinates do not have enough information to make a decision When subordinates are likely to disagree or end up in conflict over a decision When subordinates' acceptance of a decision is not important

When subordinates are likely to disagree or end up in conflict over a decision

Unlike leaders, managers: inspire and motivate others to find their own solutions. are concerned with control and limiting the choices of others. are more concerned with what work gets done. focus on vision, mission, goals, and objectives.

are concerned with control and limiting the choices of others.

When the employees of a company feel that rewards are fairly allocated, it illustrates _____. distributive justice procedural justice restorative justice retributive justice

distributive justice

The great person theory holds that: leaders have a short-term perspective. leaders are concerned with means, not ends. leaders are preservers of the status quo. leaders are born, not made.

leaders are born, not made.

According to equity theory, employees compare the rewards they receive from their organization with the contributions they make toward their organization. This comparison is known as the _____. receivables turnover ratio outcome/input ratio interest coverage ratio debt/asset ratio

outcome/input ratio

In the context of equity theory, pay, fringe benefits, status symbols, and job titles and assignments are examples of _____. outcomes referents inputs valences

outcomes

According to path-goal theory, the subordinate contingency of _____ refers to how capable subordinates believe they are in doing their jobs well. task structure locus of control perceived ability position power

perceived ability

In the context of goal-setting theory, _____ is information about the quality or quantity of past performance and indicates whether progress is being made toward the accomplishment of a goal. performance recovery instrumentality performance feedback valence

performance feedback

In the context of Fiedler's contingency theory, the term _____ refers to the degree to which a particular condition either permits or denies a leader the chance to influence the behavior of group members. situational favorableness individualized consideration initiating structure task structure

situational favorableness

In the context of visionary leadership, _____ control and manipulate followers, do what is best for themselves instead of their organizations, want to hear only positive feedback, share information that is only beneficial to themselves, and have moral standards that put their interests before everyone else's. ethical charismatics democratic leaders transformational leaders unethical charismatics

unethical charismatics

According to expectancy theory, one of the factors that affects the conscious choices people make about their motivation is _____. equity valence affiliation goal specificity

valence

In the context of reinforcement theory, with _____, consequences follow a behavior after different times, some shorter and some longer, that vary around a specified average time. fixed ratio reinforcement schedules variable ratio reinforcement schedules variable interval reinforcement schedules fixed interval reinforcement schedules

variable interval reinforcement schedules

In the context of reinforcement theory, with _____, consequences are delivered following a different number of behaviors, sometimes more and sometimes less, that vary around a specified average number of behaviors. fixed ratio reinforcement schedules variable ratio reinforcement schedules variable interval reinforcement schedules fixed interval reinforcement schedules

variable ratio reinforcement schedules

In the context of equity theory, when people perceive that they have been underrewarded, they may try to restore equity by: keeping inputs and outcomes constant. fixing a referent as constant. decreasing outcomes. withholding their inputs.

withholding their inputs.