PSY 3011 Exam 3

4 factors of Bandura's theory

(1) Attentional Processes - Learner must pay attention to certain features of model for imitation to occur (2) Retentional Processes - Importance of rehearsal, individual must retain some info that is gained through observation if imitation is to occur at a later time (3) Motor Reproductive Processes -Learner must be able to translate general knowledge into a coordinated pattern of muscle movements -Ex: juggling three balls (4) Incentive and Motivational Processes -Individual must have an expectation that the performance of this new behavior will produce some type of reinforcement

model can influence observers behavior in 3 main ways

1) models behavior can facilitate responses the observer already knows how to perform (2) an observer may learn how to produce totally new behaviors (3) undesired responses, such as phobias, can be reduced or eliminated through observational learning

social facilitation

A cat observes another cat escape from a puzzle box by pulling a string. When the observer cat is placed in the puzzle box for the first time, this cat quickly pulls the string and escapes. This behavior should be classified as an instance of

central, peripheral

A robin would be called a________example of a bird, whereas an ostrich would be called a________example.

verbal-motor, motor

According to Adams's theory, in the ——— stage, a person needs external feedback in order to improve a motor skill, but not in the ——— stage.

a. further improvements in performance

According to Adams's two-stage theory of motor learning, if knowledge of results (KR) is withdrawn late in training, one should observe

generalization

According to Bandura's theory, all of the following are needed for imitation to occur except

b. giving feedback on every trial will impair long-term performance

According to the guidance hypothesis of motor learning,

a. sensory feedback from one movement serves as a stimulus for the next movement in the sequence

According to the response chain approach, when we have learned to produce a sequence of movements well

generalized

According to the theory that imitation is a______________operant response, individuals will imitate the behavior of others if they have been reinforced for imitation in similar situations in the past.

response chain approach

According to the ———, feedback from one movement in a sequence serves as stimulus for the next movement in the sequence.

true

Andrews, Hops, and Duncan found that adolescents who had good relationships with their parents were more likely to imitate their use of cigarettes, marijuana, and alcohol than those who had poor relationships.

false (relational theory)

An early advocate of the absolute theory of stimulus control was the German psychologist Wolfgang Kohler.

true

Any sort of surprising or unexpected stimulus presented during the delay interval is likely to impair performance on the matching task.

Adam's Two-Stage Theory and Schmidt's schema theory

As long as an individual receives feedback, it should be possible to learn from trials on which the individual's movement is off-target. This is a prediction of

true

Directed forgetting is used to study maintenance rehearsal in animals and when used with human participants, researchers present items such as pictures or words and ask the person either to remember or to forget them.

true

Bandura and Walters pointed out that the apparent paradox of children punished for aggressive behavior becoming more aggressive is resolved when we realize that parents who use physical punishment with their children are providing their children with aggressive models.

a. how much a child imitates a model depends on whether the model's behavior is reinforced or punished

Bandura's research on children's imitation of the aggressive behaviors of a filmed model showed that

false

Bandura's theory states that the learner need not pay attention to the appropriate features of the model's behavior if imitation is to occur.

motor reproductive & incentive and motivational

Besides attentional and retentional processes, Bandura's theory states that ______________processes and ______________ processes are necessary for successful imitation.

true

Besides their different durations, probably the biggest distinction between short- and long-term memory is their different storage capacities.

true

Both proactive and retroactive interference have been observed in studies of animal long-term memory.

DMTS, long-term

By using delays of different durations in the ____ procedure, we can measure how long information about the sample is retained in ____ memory.

absolute theory

C. Lloyd Morgan favored the ____ of stimulus control because he believed that nonhumans are simply not capable of understanding relationships such as lighter, darker, larger, or redder.

false (people learn general rules for movement)

Chamberlin and Magill found a finding consistent with the prediction of schema theory that people learn just individual movement patterns and not general rules for movement

false

Clayton, Yu, & Dickinson's experiments showed that birds remembered only where food was stored, but not what type of food was stored at each location, whether it was perishable or not, and how long ago it was stored.

a. does not apply to movements that must be different every trial

Compared to Schmidt's schema theory, a limitation of Adams's two-stage theory is that it

true

Crump and Logan concluded that continuous tactile feedback plays a crucial role in allowing skilled typists to maintain their high levels of performance

short-term or working

DMTS is a procedure used to study______________ memory.

both animals and people

Evidence for observational learning of phobias has been found

false (25%)

Experiments using peak procedure with both rats and pigeons have shown that they can discriminate between two stimuli only if their durations differ by at least 75%.

knowledge of performace (KP)

Giving a person tips on specific parts of a movement that need improvement is called ———

chunking

Grouping similar objects together as a strategy for improving memory is called ___________.

false (showed rats were able to learn steadily increasing or decreasing trial in fewer trials than sequence that increased, decreased, and increased again)

Hulse and Dorsky showed that rats were unable to learn an abstract rule by being unable to learn a steadily increasing or decreasing sequence in fewer trials than a sequence that decreased, increased, and decreased again.

conservation

If a child understands that the amount of water does not change when it is poured into a container of a different shape, the child has learned the concept of ____

less

If a surprising event occurs soon after a classical conditioning trial, this will result in ____ conditioning than would have occurred without the surprising event.

not get into bed until she is sleepy

If a woman's insomnia is due to poor stimulus control, she should

reminder or clue (retrieval failure)

If an animal seems to have forgotten some new learning, it is sometimes possible for the animal to recover the learning if given a ______________.

false (they can get faster at solving)

If animals are given many discrimination tasks, one after another, each of which has a different pair of stimuli as S+ and S-, they can get slower at solving each new problem.

retrospective interference

If learning of new information makes it more difficult to remember older information, this is

d. take longer to begin the longer sequence

If one task involves making two consecutive movements and another involves making four consecutive movements, research suggests that a person will

reinforced, punished

In Bandura's research, young children were more likely to imitate the aggressive behaviors of an adult if the adult's behaviors were______________than if the adult's behaviors were______________.

motor schema

In Schmidt's theory, when a person learns how different movements produce different results, this is called a ———

false (70%)

In Vaughan and Greene's positive/negative pictures experiment, when tested after a 2-year delay, the pigeons responded only at the chance level of 50%.

stimulus equivalence

In a ____ situation, subjects learn to respond to all stimuli in a category as if they are interchangeable, even though they have been taught only a few relations between stimuli, not all possible relations.

d. have no clear order to their choices of arms, yet seldom revisit the same arm twice

In a radial-arm maze, rats typically

motor program

In a ———, feedback from each movement is not necessary for a person to produce a coordinated sequence of movements.

longitudinal

In a______________study, the behaviors of the same individuals are repeatedly measured over long periods of time.

achievement motives in children's stories and economic growth over the NEXT 25 years

In his research on the achievement motivation of different countries, McClelland found a positive correlation between

behaviors other than studying

In some cases, a person may have difficulty studying in a particular location because that location is associated with________.

20 seconds

In the peak procedure, if an animal's responses are sometimes reinforced 20 seconds after the start of a trial, the rate of responding peaks at about ______________ from the start of the trial.

away from

In the phenomenon of peak shift, the peak of the generalization shifts from the S+ in the direction___________the S-.

performing a behavior correctly

In video self-modeling, the patient sees a video of himself or herself

errorless discrimination learning

In________, the S- is introduced early in training, and it is presented in a way that makes it unlikely that the learner will respond to it.

participant

In______________modeling, the learner imitates the behavior of a model in each step of the treatment.

intradimensional

In________training, one stimulus serves as a S+ and another stimulus on the same dimension serves as S-.

a. prospective coding

Keeping track of what responses or tasks you need to make next is an example

false

Kernodle and Carlton's experiment showed that the group that received KP plus instructions on how to improve, showed less improvement than KP only

flat

Lashley and Wade proposed that generalization gradients were the result of experience, and without discrimination training, animals would show___________generalization gradients.

ironic errors

Making a movement you are specifically trying to avoid is called a(n). ———

false (results very similar)

Many of the techniques used to study animals' counting abilities are similar to those used to study timing, but the results are very different.

true

Miller and Dollard concluded that, like any other operant response, imitation will occur if an individual is reinforced for imitating.

assertiveness training

Modeling has been used in______________, in which shy or passive individuals learn to avoid letting others take advantage of them by making unreasonable demands or requests.

d. different responses to similar stimuli

Negative transfer is most likely to be observed when two motor tasks involve

dynamic pattern theory

Proponents of this do not believe that the ability of people to perform rapid and adaptable sequences of movements necessarily means that the movements are controlled by a generalized motor program

an automatic by-product of

Pavlov maintained that generalization is ____ the conditioning process.

true

Perhaps the most remarkable feature of an average rat's performance in a radial-arm maze is its high accuracy.

false

Phenomena such as peak shift and transposition show that it is possible to predict how one stimulus will affect an individual's behavior without taking into account other stimuli.

true

Premack's chimp Sarah demonstrated that her responses were controlled by the order of the symbols, not just by the symbols themselves.

false

Premack's chimp Sarah learned only that the order of symbols was important but not that this same order could be applied to other symbols as well—thus failing to learn an abstract, grammatical rule.

true

Premack's chimp Sarah seldom initiated a conversation and her use of the symbol language was almost exclusively confined to answering experimenters' questions when they were present.

b. transitive inference (if A < B and B < C, then A < C)

Research has shown that ____ regarding general rules can be found in numerous species, including rats.

false

Research on concept learning has explored how both animals and people learn to make simple discriminations.

true

Research results from Lefkowitz, Huesmann, and others are consistent with the view that when they discipline their children, parents are serving as models as well as controlling agents.

true

Researchers who study animal memory have also found it important to distinguish between long-term and short-term memory.

relational

Results from the intermediate-size problem favor the________theory of stimulus control.

false (proactive interference)

Retroactive interference occurs if a series of trials are presented in rapid succession, because the memory of the preceding trials can interfere with performance on later trials.

true

Rosenthal and Zimmerman showed that a child's mastery of the conservation task can be enhanced by observational learning.

false (birds did not have prior experience with different colors)

Rudolph, Honig, and Gerry contradicted Lashley and Wade, because they found normal generalization gradients with birds that had extensive prior experience with different colors.

false (video is edited so there is no errors and parts where the teacher corrects/guides patient is taken out)

The goal of video self-modeling is to increase the performance of desired behaviors by having clients watch themselves making errors so they can correct them.

a. some movement sequences can continue when sensory feedback has been removed & d. errors of anticipation suggest that the individual is planning ahead

Some evidence for the existence of motor programs is that

facial expressions

Some experiments have found evidence that newborn infants can imitate the______________of adults.

a. an inhibitory generalization gradient develops around the S- and b. an excitatory generalization gradient develops around the S+

Spence's theory of stimulus control states that during discrimination training

social faciliation

The behavior of one animal prompts another animal to perform the same behavior, but the behavior is one that the second animal has performed before; this is called _____

object permanence

Studies have shown that cats and dogs can solve problems involving

aggressive

Studies have shown that there is a positive correlation between how much violence children watch and their levels of ______________behavior.

b. blue, red, green, triangle, circle (chunking)

Suppose a pigeon must peck five response keys in the correct order to receive reinforcement. Which of the following orders of stimuli would probably be the easiest for a pigeon to learn?

a. 3 seconds after each conditioning trial

Suppose a rabbit receives a series of classical conditioning trials, and after a trial, something surprising happens. The conditioning will probably be slowest if the surprising event occurs

increase, positive

Suppose an animal first receives reinforcers for responding in the presence of either blue or yellow stimuli, but then the schedule for the yellow stimulus switches to extinction. We would expect responding in the presence of the blue stimulus to ________, which is called ________behavioral contrast.

b. use a consistent word order, or grammar

The chimpanzee Sarah, who was taught to use plastic symbols for words by David Premack, failed to

c. use a consistent word order, or grammar

The chimpanzee Washoe, who was taught American Sign Language by the Gardners, failed to

DMTS

The conditional discrimination task is similar to ____. (Ex of conditional discrimination task): if red, choose horizontal black line. If green, choose vertical black line)

c. the context during recall is the same as when the learning took place

The context-shift effect in memory is the finding that recall can be better if

false (better if you are in the same context)

The context-shift effect refers to the fact that recall of information will be better if you are tested in a context new from that in which the learning occurred.

false (a fading procedure is used to make it unlikely that the learner will respond to the S-)

The errorless discrimination procedure differs from the traditional procedure in that a fading procedure is used to make it certain that the learner will respond to the S-.

away from S-

The phenomenon of peak shift, the most rapid responding is shifted

true

Variations of Terrace's techniques have been used in educational settings.

false (pigeons can respond to two-dimensional images as representations of three-dimensional objects)

The research on discriminating between painters provides evidence that pigeons can respond to two dimensional images but not when they are representations of three dimensional objects.

motor programs

The strongest line of attack against the response chain approach to movement sequencing is based on evidence for the existence of these

false

There has been surprisingly little debate about which theory of concept learning is best.

examples never seen before

To provide convincing evidence that an animal has learned a natural concept such as fish, it is essential to include________as test stimuli.

stimulus equivalence

Treating all the examples in a category as being interchangeable, even the examples that were placed in the category at random, is called________.

parrot and chimpanzee

Two species that have demonstrated the ability to count by using words or symbols to represent numbers are the ______________

false

Typical accuracy functions shown in the research by Grant depict a fixed or immutable time course of working memory for pigeons and monkeys.

a. retrospective; sample; comparison

Urcuioli and Zentall found evidence for ____ coding when the ____ stimuli were easy to discriminate and the ____ stimuli were not.

true

Wagner, Rudy, and Whitlow showed that surprising posttrial episodes (PTEs) are more distracting and interfere more with learning than expected PTEs.

true

Washoe had a good vocabulary but poor (perhaps nonexistent) grammar.

a large proportion

What is the best way to describe the amount of human learning that occurs, not through classical conditioning or as a result of reinforcement or punishment, but through observation?

practice of observed behaviors

Which of the following is not necessary for imitation to occur, according to Bandura's theory?

grammar

When the chimpanzee Washoe was taught sign language, she learned the signs for many words, but she showed little ability to use ______________.

retrospective interference

When the presentation of new material interferes with the memory of something learned earlier, this is called ______________.

Bandura and Walters

Who argued early on that traditional learning theory was grossly incomplete because it neglected the role of observational learning and that a good deal of learning occurs through vicarious rather than personal experience.

several different causes; no

Williams concluded that there are ____ of behavioral contrast and that ____ single theory can account for all of the data.

false (rise of cognitive psychology)

With the rise of behavioral psychology in the second half of the twentieth century, many theorists adopted the information-processing approach in analyzing motor skills.

in television soap operas

Your textbook describes research on observational learning that has shown an increase in actual suicides after suicides are seen

object permanence

________________ is the understanding that objects continue to exist when they are not visible.

maintenance

______________rehearsal serves to keep information in short-term memory.

feature theories

a person judges whether a given instance is a member of a category by checking for specifics

false

a. Retroactive interference occurs if a series of trials are presented in rapid succession, because the memory of the preceding trials can interfere with performance on later trials.

true

b. Any sort of surprising or unexpected stimulus presented during the delay interval is likely to impair performance on the matching task.

stimulus enhancement

behavior of model directs attention of the learner to a particular stimulus or place in the environment

social faciliation

behavior of one animal prompts similar behaviors from another animal, but the behavior is one that is already in the repertoire of the imitator

false

d. Neither proactive nor retroactive interference has been found with animals in DMTS.

false (very important)

dynamic pattern theory says that feedback from the body and the environment during a movement sequence is less important than cognitive schemas

it differs from the traditional procedure in that a fading procedure is used to make it unlikely that the learner will respond to the S-.

errorless discrimination procedure differs how?

prototype theories

experience develops an idea of what an ideal or typical bird is like

false

for learning motor skills, observational learning is not beneficial, even if combined with direct practice

field experiments

in which the TV viewing and the measurement of aggressive behaviors occur in more realistic settings

ironic errors

states that people have a tendency to make a false movement that they are trying hard to avoid

knowledge of performance (KP)

information about the sequence of components of a complex movement

working memory

information in working memory is used to guide whatever tasks the individual is currently performing

retrospective coding

involves "looking backward" and remembering what has already happened

prospective coding

involves "looking forward" and remembering what response should be made next

true

it has proven to be quite difficult to find experimental evidence for negative transfer in motor-skill tasks

maintenance rehearsal

keep information active in short-term memory

closed-loop movements

many continuous movements are called this, individual continually receives and can react to feedback about whether movement is proceeding correctly

open-looped movements

many discrete movements in terminology of feedback theory, once movement begins it is too late to make any corrections

graduated modeling

method of progressing from simple to more demanding behaviors

false (likely)

mirror neurons are unlikely to be important for normal social interactions and communication

behavior skills training

modeling is used as a part of a larger program that may include verbal instruction, prompting, guided practice, and feedback

true

now there is substantial evidence that TV viewing can affect the attitudes and behavior of both children and adults

true immitation

occurs when animal imitates a behavior that it has never performed before & when it is an unusual behavior pattern for that species, which would not have been learned if the animal did not observe another animal performing the behavior

associative rehearsal

promote transfer of information into long-term memory

contextual interference

refers to any feature of learning situation that make performing the task more difficult - high ____ during acquisition leads to better long-term performance -should be higher during random practice than blocked practice as the movements needed for a successful performance are constantly changing with each practice trial

radial-arm maze

simulates a situation in which an animal explores a territory in search of food

stimulus equivalence

subjects learn to respond to all stimuli in a category as if they are interchangeable, even though they have been taught only a few relations between stimuli, not all possible relations

relational theory of stimulus control

the animal has learned something about the relationship between the stimuli (ex: learned that the lighter gray is associated with food)

true

the benefits of observing someone else demonstrate a new motor skill may be primarily related to the perceptual components of the task whereas direct practice may be necessary to develop the motor components of the task

participant modeling

the model first performs a behavior related to the phobia and then the patient imitates the behavior of the model

false

the most important contribution of Adams's theory is that it shows there is no difference between the two types of learning that take place during the acquisition of most motor skills: learning to recognize what it feels like to make an accurate response and learning to produce such a response consistently

false

the motor program approach says that reinforcement is not important initially but must occur significantly after the motor program is developed

narrowing

the opportunities to engage in an undesirable activity are restricted

slow positioning tasks

the participant must move a sliding knob or pointer a certain distance, with no time limit

longitudinal study

the relevant variables are measured at different points in time

false (Bandura's theory)

the theory of generalized imitation uses concepts such as attention, retention, and expectation of reward

rehearsal

theories of human memory state that this has several different functions

Qualitative KR, quantitative KR

——— is telling a person that a movement was right or wrong, and ——— is telling a person how far off target the movement was.

distributed, massed

——— practice often leads to faster learning of a new motor skill than does ——— practice, but the difference tends to disappear during later performance.

Adam's Two-stage, Schmidt's schema

——— theory deals with movements that are the same every time, whereas ——— theory deals with movements that must be varied for each new situation.