PSY 350 midterm 1 + 2, PSY 350 new material for final

Language in childhood: Inner/private speech

the way in by which human beings learn to regulate their behavior and master cognitive challenges, through silently repeating information or talking to themselves.

Emotion regulation: Childhood - Internalizing tendencies vs. externalizing tendencies

*Externalizing tendencies* - A tendency to act on immediate emotions and behave aggressively/disruptively *Internalizing tendencies* - A personality where one tends to hang back in social situations. Timid, self-conscious, frightened, and depressed

Active euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide

*Passive euthanasia* - Withdrawing potentially life-saving interventions (legal) - Don't specifically wish for death *Active euthanasia* - Taking action to help a person die - Illegal in every nation except belgium, luxembourg, and the netherlands - Want person to die *Physician-assisted suicide* - Perscribe lethal substance for terminally ill person - Want person to die

Impact of culture and ethnicity

*collectivist cultures* - Emphasize social harmony - Children are taught to obey elders, suppress feelings, value being respectful, and subordinate needs to the wider group - Asia, africa, and south america *individualistic cultures* - Emphasize independence, competition, and personal success - Children taught to openly express emotions, believe in personal power, leave parents, and stand on own as self sufficient and independent adults - Western nations

Depravation

1) Babies adopted from intense depriving institutions are most at risk for problems - Damage can appear if adoption occurs after 6 months of age 2) If basic health needs are satisfied, damage occurs after 18 months - Zone of attachment ~7-18 months Dose-response effect - Intensity (dose) of depravation predicts impact (response) on child Symptoms - Reactive attachment disorder (indiscriminate friendliness/lack of attachment) - Deficit in attention (due to lack of stimulation on brain) Boys more vulnerable than girls to having enduring problems Symptoms may resurface during adolescent years

Teen drug use and abuse

1) Age differences - Drug use increases from 10-25 and then decreases 2) Cohort diferences - Drug use decreased in U.S. since 1976 - Most adolescents in U.S. experiment with drug use, saying they could find illegal drugs if they tried - Most U.S. adolescents are *not regular drug users* and ~20% *never* use drugs Gender differences - Adolescent boys generally use more drugs, more frequently

Purpose of pretending

1) Allows children to practice adult roles 2) Allows children a sense of control - Plots often center on mastering upsetting events 3) Furthers understanding of social norms - How to act and how not to behave

Critiques of Kohlberg's Theory

1) Attitude not always tied to behavior 2) Culturally biased 3) Gender differences: Gilligan's care perspective - Said that woman morality revolves around concrete, caring-oriented criteria 4) Difficulty scoring: IS the measurement approach valid? 5) Overlooked roles of families, especially those practicing inductive reasoning

Critiques of Kohlberg

1) Attitude not always tied to behavior 2)Culturally biased 3) Gender differences: Gilligan's care perspective - (same stages as Kohlberg, but transition fueled by changes in the self rather than changes in cognition) 4) Difficulty scoring: IS the measurement approach valid? 5) Overlooked roles of families, especially those practicing inductive reasoning

Statistics of fertilization

20% more male than female babies conceived - Prenatal period more difficult on males Only 5% more boys than girls make it to birth Males die of at higher rates throughout life than girls

Cognition and employment (emerging adulthood)

Cognition allows for major advances in learning in variety of environments -College -On-the-job training -Mentorship opportunities - unrealistic (high) expectations of college and later success Lack of experience leads to mismatch in variety of areas -Self esteem may take a blow in the face of disappointmen -Conscientiousness protective against disappointment -Gendered expectations about work and family life

Social convoy theory

Collectively, the family members, friends, acquaintances, who move through life with an individual. •Intimacy needs are lifelong •Adults meet their need for social connection through their relationships with relatives, friends, coworkers, and romantic partners.

Romantic relationships: Adolesence

First romances appear in high school, are short-lived. Heterosexual girls claim a steady partner more often than heterosexual boys do. Breakups, unreciprocated crushes common. Teens crushed by rejection, may contemplate revenge, suicide. LGBTQ teens may experience cultural or family rejection

T or F: Adolescents are more emotionally intense than adults. + what we know

True Teens experience more intense emotions and have greater shifts in mood - Short lasting The moods are not irrational

Promoting realistic self-esteem

True self esteem is drawn from working on our goals 1) Enhance self efficacy (feeling that you can succeed) - Praise children for effort (you're trying so hard) than basic ability (ex. you are so smart) - Show that working matters, even before concrete operations 2) Promote realistic perceptions of the self - Provide accurate feedback Feeling loved by attachment figure can soften the blow that they aren't doing so well - Stress that you care

Can we live to 1000?

Undernutrition without malnutrition - Restricted to less food but given a nutritionally rich diet - Calorie restriction is an all-purpose anti-ager - Has only been tested in rats and has confusing effects --------------- Why extending max lifespan is unrealistic 1) Body breakdown of aging has complex causes - No one magic cure - Another thing will just go wrong 2) Survival of our species promotes living through grandparent years only

Nonsuicidal self-injury

Suicide in teens is rare Self-injury is used specifically to cope with stress - Cutting happens when emotionally fragile teens experience low self-esteem > Hatred of the self that failed - Twisted way of defining one's identity and preserving the sense of an enduring self Depression rates rise during teenage years - Women are 2x more susceptible than men, despite the ratio being equal during childhood Mental health disorders arise in late adolescence or early adult years

Changing concepts of adult life

Transformed when baby boomers entered teen years 1960s decade of protest - civil rights + women's movements + sexual revolution + counterculture movement 1) Sex without being married 2) Women in careers 3) Equal share of housework and childcare (encouraged) 4) Divorce acceptable 5) Single mothers possible Divorce common, so not sure if we will stay together for life - Rates declining Trend of having children without marriage rising (48% babies born to single moms)

Reproductive systems

female: - *uterus* - Carries baby to term. Lined with endometrium which thickens in prep for pregnancy - *cervix* - Thick uterine neck that resists pressure of expanding uterus. Also must be flexible enough to open at birth - *fallopian tubes* - connect ovaries to uterus - *ovaries* - Stores *ova* (eggs) Male - Testes hold sperm

Infertility

inability to conceive child after year of unprotected intercourse - More likely at older ages Impacts varies with culture to culture Telling people only helps if you ahve a caring social-support system HAving a supportive partner matters most when coping

Autobiographical memories

reflecting on our life histories Past-talk conversations teach children that they are an enduring self. - start with parents doing the remembering - Children become partners - age 4-5 children initiate past talk conversations Caregivers can stimulate this memory by asking questions Taught through responsive parent-child encounters

developmentalists (developmental scientists)

researchers who study the lifespan

Interplay of genes and environment

"Nature plus nurture" -*Active developmental forces*: experiences we select based on genetic tendencies -*Evocative developmental forces*: genetic tendencies elicit reactions and responses from the environment that align with the genetic tendencies *Person-Environment "Fit"* -Social responsibility to provide best environmental experiences for everyone -Genes do not make environment irrelevant—rather, more important

Great recession

*Great Recession of 2008* - Weakened sense of security - Rethinking of standard adult markers Revealed *income inequality*, widening gap between the superrich adn everyone else

Consequences of obesity

-Social toll o Less likely to get hired o Less likely to finish college o Difficulties in getting elected to public office o Children as young as 3 describe obese people as mean and sloppy o Children least want to be friends with an obese child when given choices out of many disabilities Variation: o Less harsh attitudes in other cultures. In Bangladesh, obesity promotes self-worth o Ethnicity - African Americans more tolerant to it than white counterparts o Family Some hold high beauty standard and closely monitor child's eating. Pressure may lead to binge eating Some minimize problem, leading to child being less likely to enroll in help programs • Family focused weight programs don't show long term success o Obesity more resistant to change by age 4-5 o Once independent, friend eating habits have a huge impact

Why do teens engage in risky behaviors?

...

Stress management

1. Understand how you react to stress. Examine what triggers your stress response, and if possible, try to minimize exposure to known stressors. - Uncertain social situations - Past thoughts 2. Keep balance in your life. To counteract the demands of work and school, take time for recreation and exercise. Make time each day for some quiet reflection and "time off" from your busy schedule. 3. Practice relaxation techniques, such as meditation, breathing exercises, massage, or yoga. 4. Establish a support network. Find friends and/or family with whom you can talk openly and who will support you in times of trouble. If necessary, seek out a professional to help you talk through stressful times. 5. Minimize use of drugs, alcohol, and caffeine. 6. Exercise vigorously on a regular basis. 7. Maintain a regular sleep schedule.

Parenting styles (Baumrind) vary on:

1.Expressions of warmth: - From very affectionate to cold and critical 2.Strategies for discipline: - Variation in whether and how parents explain, criticize, persuade, ignore, and punish. 3.Communication: - Some parents listen patiently to their children and engage in back and forth discussion; others demand silence. 4.Expectations for maturity: - Parents vary in the standards they set for their children regarding responsibility and self-control.

Midlife crisis

A myth -Levinson's interviews with small group of Caucasian, upper-SES men -Entertainment value!

What did Hall mean by storm and stress?

A time during which young people are described as emotional, hot-headed, and out of control

Sternberg's triangular theory of love

Adult love relationships can be broken into three components 1) Passion (sexual arousal) -intense physical, cognitive & emotional onslaught characterized by excitement, ecstasy, euphoria. 2) Intimacy (Feelings of closeness) -knowing someone well, sharing secrets as well as sex. 3) Commitment -grows gradually through decisions to be together, mutual care giving, kept secrets, shared possessions, forgiveness.

Chromosomes

All cells except sperm and egg cells include 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs; 22 called *autosomes* (non sex). Sex chromosomes: 23rd pair, XX or XY(or other variation) - XX = girl - XY = boy Non-normative chromosomal development 1) Down's Syndrome: from cell division error giving an extra chromosome on pair 21 - Due to nondisjunction event 2) Huntingtons' Disease: dominant pattern 3) Cystic Fibrosis: recessive pattern 4) Hemophilia: sex linked through carrier to cross-sex child (usually, but not always, sons)

Causes of eating disorders

Anorexia and bulimia have hereditary component Internalizing symptoms - Tendency during middle childhood to be anxious or depressed Other psychological symptoms - Insecure attachments - extreme need for approval - rigidity - trouble expressing needs - poor self-worth - low self efficacy Believe key to happiness is being thin Therapy helps - pretty easily too - Only 1/10 of those affected seek treatment though - Men least likely to pursue treatment because it is said to be a "woman's illness" Most grow out of the disorders by making a happy adulthood

Palliative care

Any strategy designed to promote dignified dying Involves: 1) Educating health-care personnel about how to deal with dying patients 2) Modifying hospital structure 3) Providing alternative to dying in hospital: hospice

Assisted reproductive technology (ART)

Any strategy in which egg is fertilize doutside of womb most common is in vitro ertilization (IVF) - woman is given fertility drugs to stimulate multiple ovulations - eggs are harvested and put in lab dish with partners sperm, then they are inserted back into uterus Odds are very low (under age 35 was less than 50/50. Over 42 was 1/10) Expensive

Understanding highly aggressive children - Pathway to aggressiveness

As they get older, children get less openly aggressive - Some continue to be even into elementary school > Labeled with externalizing disorders, defined by high rates of aggression Pathway 1) Toddler's exuberant/difficult temperament evokes harsh discipline - Parents may use power assertion 2) Child is rejected by teachers and peers in school - Transition to being labeled as antisocial child occurs during early elementary school - Social exclusion provokes paranoia and reactive aggression at any age - Generally have trouble inhibiting behavior, and thus may start failing academically. Amplifies frustration - Boys more likely to be labeled as acting-out Leads to hostile worldview - *hostile attributional bias* - see threat in benign social cues, provoking a more hostile world

Teen parenthood

Associated with difficult economic circumstances, personal challenges in U.S. - High rates of school drop-out, low economic achievement - Deal with own development while caring for baby - If marry, high rates of problems and divorce - Difficult pregnancies, problems at birth Stressed, frustrated, economically challenged, and inexperienced

Breast milk

Correlational benefits have been found - Did not control for SEC Challenges: 1) Impractical with work 2) Physically difficult

FAmily: Context for development

Developmental Niche: unique world of each individual, overlapping spheres of environmental context Shared experiences: siblings may share family experience Non-shared experiences: different experiences even by twins in the same family ---------- Understand nature and nurture, summed up in concept of developmental niche - When genetic potential/environment have a good fit, person benefits

Common Core State Standards

Establishes consistent, demanding, requirements for students in every US public school Encourages teachers to stress innovative thinking, problem solving, and communication skills Uses Vygotskian principle of scaffolding

Cognitive development adolescence

Executive functioning - Better strategies for memory, planning, reasoning - Integrated cognitive functioning Decision making - Supported (or not) by brain development, experience Critical thinking - Integration, heavily dependent on experience, mature hypothesis testing

Puberty

External and internal changes related to physically becoming and adult Lasts around 5 years

Contemporary trends of sexuality (consequences)

Fewer teens are having intercourse Most report using condoms when having sex Teen pregnancy rates dipped (over the late 1990s to early 21st century) US ranks high in teen pregnancy compared to rest of developed world - EU has similar levels of sexual activity Prevalence of gonorrhea and chlamydia was high in US - STDs have longterm impacts

Best time for intercourse (for pregnancy)

For pregnancy, best to have intercourse around ovulation - Egg receptive for ! 24 hours in tube's outer part - Sperm can live for almost a week in uterus, so a few days prior also works

Molecular to behavioral

Genotype: underlying genetic makeup, potential for behavior. Unique, except for monozygotic twins Phenotype: observable characteristics through which genotype is expressed (or not). Gene expression is impacted by environment - Potential of genes interact with environment to express themselves Temperament visible early in life - Some carries through life

Why did adolescence not become a distinct stage until the 1930s in the United States?

Highschool became routine in the 1930s. Until then, adolescents basically just worked and took on adult responsibilities

Cultural variations on attitudes about death

Hmong - Dying is up close and personal, but never openly discussed - Relatives flock upon death and prepare body in traditional garments - If person dies in a hospital, it is important that body not be sent to the morgue immediately > Afterwards, there is extended mourning and hands on care

Worst parenting situation for teenage mental health

Inconsistent parenting - When there are different reactions to similar situations Parents should provide a consistent roadmap

Sensory integration

Infants gradually integrate sensory perception skills across domains -E.g., can match a film to a soundtrack by 4-6 months Sensory integration (intermodal perception) refined over time Problems with sensory integration linked to long-lasting neurological problems, need early intervention

Online relationships

Instituted culture of connectivity - Connected to significant others every moment of the day + strangers (with web 2.0) Web 2.0 developed *social networking sites*

Ageism

Intensely negative attitudes about old age - Aversion varies in emerging adults based on personality traits and phobia to physical decline - Linked with physical and mental decline - Seen as less powerful - Seen as wise/gifted storytellers - Better at calmly handling conflict - Mellower ------------ - Old age was seen as a miracle in ancient times due to its rarity > upperclass men - distinction between active/healthy older people and disabled ones

Attachment

Lasting emotional bond that one person has with another - Acquired sense of connection - Reciprocal and bidirectional - Attachments begin to form in early infancy and influence close relationships throughout life - Based on intersection of social and cognitive development through formation of a working model of relationships based on experience

Language development

Learning to speak or produce oral language, meaning of words, the rules of language, and reading & writing - not just speaking 1) Receptive language - understand + know what is said 2) Productive language - Make sentence

Lifespan vs. life expectancy

Lifespan - We may get to late life and live a long time (~115-120) - Possibility Life expectancy - Based on the age we are now + how many more years we would be expected to live - Gender + ethnicity gap shrinking

Lessons of broader intelligence for schools

Main use of multiple intelligences theory has been in helping nontraditional learners - Instruction tailored to learning has inconsistent evidence

More realistic view of death

Many different emotions; wanting life to go on - more appropriate to view these feelings as "a complicated clustering of intellectual and affective states, some fleeting - *Middle knowledge* = knowing illness is terminal, but that knowledge not being grasped or come to terms with emotionally - When people realize are close to death, "an emotion that often burns strong is hope" > Religion, alternative therapies, idea that medical predictions can be wrong > Hope doesn't mean hoping for a cure "It may mean wishing you survive through the summer, or live to see your wife's book published, and not be bedridden before you die. It can mean hoping that your love lives on in your family, or that your life work will make a difference in the world."

Stimulus-value-role theory

Murstein views finding satisfying love as a 3-phase process 1) *Stimulus phase* - see potential partner and base judgement on superficial signs - Compare own reinforcement value to other person's > If values seem equal, we decide to go on a date 2) *Value-comparison phase* - Select right person by matching up in inner qualities/traits (interests, values, etc) 3) *Role phase* - Work out shared lives Opposites do not attract - *Homogamy* (similarity) is the driving force behind love relationships

behavioral genetics

Nature (all ages) - Name for research strategies that study genetic contribution to observed differences between human beings - Typically use twin + adoption studies *Concordance*: level of similarity biological relatives have on measurable traits - Does not mean people are identical. A range *Heritability*: proportion of trait thought to result from inherited factors - Measure how similar genetic relatives are to each other, compared to those not related ------------- To what degree are the differences I see in people due to genetics?

nurture nature

Nature = biology Nurture = environemnt

ARe most adolescents emotionally disturbed?

No. There is a difference between being highly emotional and being emotionally disturbed

Contexts of development over childhood

Parenting •Styles - Discipline choices School Environments •IQ testing, Intelligences •Learning •Motivation

Divorce

Reasons - Communication problems - Lack of attachment Consequences - Many lifestyle + Financial changes - Can produce emotional growth and feelings of self efficacy - Sexual renewal People in unhappy marriages felt liberated after divorce Relatively satisfied couples had declines in wellbeing

Limits of a similar partner

Relationships work better when one person is more dominant and the other is more submissive Objective similarity doesn't matter as much as beilieving the other has good personality traits Want someone who embodies our ideal self - Happy couples see partner through rose-tinted glasses - Over estimate similarities with partner - Inflate partner's virtues

longitudinal study

Researcher selects a group of people of a certain age, and periodically test them + Offer incredible arrays of information - Long/time intensive - Lots of effort - Expensive - High dropout rate (biased in that people who stay tend to be highly motivated)

Cognition: post-formal

Role of experience: practical intelligence •Appreciation of multiple perspectives -Decline in egocentrism -Can solve problems better with others Cognitive flexibility -Overcome stereotypes, change mind Dialectical Thinking -Create synthesis Reflective & Expansive thinking

Good death vs. bad death

Should be: - After a long life - Peaceful and sudden - In the homeland (surrounded by loved ones) 1) We want to minimize our physical distress, to be as free as possible from debilitating pain. 2) We want to maximize our psychological security, reduce fear and anxiety, and feel in control of how we die. 3) We want to enhance our relationships and be close emotionally to the people we care about. 4) We want to foster our spirituality and have the sense that there was integrity and purpose to our lives. --------------------------- Bad death - Protracted, painful, off-time, alone, in fear

Raising shy vs. exuberant babies

Shy - Don't back off. Be caring and responsive, but gently push them into supportive new social situations - Helps teach coping ---------------- Rambunctious - Many adopt power assertion style of discipline (yelling, screaming, hitting, etc) or give up entirely > Both are counterproductive Need to offer positive guidance - Set limits in a calm and clear way --------------- General rearing: - Provide secure, loving attachment - Understand child's temperament and work with that behavioral style - Goodness of fit parenting: Arrange child's life to minimize vulnerabilities and accentuate strengthss

Speed of learning words: childhood - How do they learn so quickly? > Demonstrating the mechanism

Slow in first year Speeds up at second year Why can they learn them so quickly? - They have an initial set of mental categories, and can quickly make sense of a new word - *Fast-mapping* - hearing a new word in context and connecting it to the object in the environment. > Sometimes wrong, but usually right after a few exposures > Specifically for language > Not an adult skill - Social context Testing fast mapping - Can be demonstrated by giving kids a nonsense word - Two jars in front of an adult > Points to one of them as the nonsense word - Asks kid to show them the "nonsense word" - If fast mapping doesn't exist, kid should pick randomly - If fast mapping works, child should pick "nonsense word" jar - May mix up similar words

Social cognition of infants

Social cognition - Any skill related to managing/decoding human emotion + getting along with others Mean dog, nice tiger video - Shows stuffed animals either helping others or hindering others - Infants of 5 months preferentially grab for the "nice" puppet After 6 months, we can decode intentions (inferred underlying motivations) from how people behave

Impact of play

Studies of play's value have been correlational

T or F: Most adolescents are confident and hopeful about the future.

T

Teach em vs. leave em

Teach 'em (leaving babies alone when they cry) - Doesn't work during early infancy, due to lack of cortex development - Better by month 7 & 8 (otherwise have issues learning to self-soothe Put baby to bed with soft, soothing love

Towards teen-friendly sex ed

Teaching teens about contraception does NOT encourage teens to have sex - most teens don't want to have random sex - They want love Need romance education classes

Secular trend in puberty

The average age of *menarche* (first menstruation) is declining - Many girls can now have babies before teenage years Male signal of fertility *spermarche* (first ejaculation of live sperm) is hidden, and thus not used to measure the secular trend Reflects better nutrition - Can use secular trend as index of a nation's economic development *Psychological maturity lags behind physical

baby boom cohort

The group of babies born between 1946 and 1964 - Large in size - Started lifestyle revolution

cross-sectional study

Typical strategy for changes over life - Compares different age groups at the same time on the trait of interest (snapshot) - Doesn't tell us about real changes that occur as we grow old + Easy to carry out - May not be accurate (Eg. differences as a product of time/cohort) - Measure group differences = no info about individual differences

Global elder-care scene

Used to be multigenerational households Support network fraying in some collectivist cultures historically most committed to family care - In japan, nursing homes are common - China people moving to city to find work. One child policy also makes it difficult. Scandinavian countries (Sweden, Norway, Denmark) - Government-funded home health services - Take care of people in their own homes - Innovative elderly housing alternatives - Free and government funded

Successful schools

Vista school - Do not dumb down the curriculum, offering high-level work - Shows dramatic improvements in reading and writing tests Beacon elementary - Goal to challenge all students - Builds opportunities to share ideas -------------- Overall successful schools: 1) Set high standards - Believe that every child can benefit from challenging work 2) Offer excess of nurture (authoritative approach)

When do we prioritize the present, regardless of life stage?

Whenever we see our future as limited, we pare down social contacts, maximize positive experiences, and spend time with people we care about the most - Also explains why we take time when we are in danger of losing a loved one

Social referencing -

checking back with caretaker to see what is safe and what isn't Seeking information about how to react to an unfamiliar or ambiguous object or event by observing someone else's expressions and reactions. That other person becomes a social reference. Parents use a variety of expressions, vocalizations, and gestures to convey social information to their infants.

Jack in box

good for differentiating stages of sensorimotor cognition - Hilarious to stage 4 (anticipation) - Scary to stage 1

Stagnation

selfish, focused on own needs, desires, no further development, rigidity

lifespan development

the scientific study of human growth throughout life - rooted in child development Puts all studies of life together ---------- 1) Multidisciplinary 2) Explores predictable milestones of human development 3) Focuses on individual differences that characterize human life - Seeks cause in differences - Explores timing 4) Explores the impact of life transition and practices - explores normative and non-normative transitions - What is normative vs. not depends on time - Explores life practices such as spanking and smoking

Periods of Prenatal Development

•Germinal (conception-2 weeks) •Embryonic (Weeks 3-8) •Fetal (9 weeks-birth) These do not match up to trimesters

Cultivation of Expertise

•Selective (domain specific) •Not more intelligent, but more experienced •Automatic and flexible, relies less on stereotypes •Better strategies, especially for unexpected

Infant mortality

Prematurity is primary cause Mortality is at a low with affluent countries - US ranks 46, which is terrible Due to - Income inequalities - Stress - Poor health practices - Limited access to high-quality prenatal care - SES

Socioemotional selectivity theory

Premise: Our place on the lifespan changes our life agendas - During first half of adult life, we look to the future. Want to get to a better place - As we grow older and realize future is limited, we refocus our priorities (make the most of the present) This "making the most of every moment" may be why late life is the happiest life stage - Less interested in where we will be going. Refuse to waste time on unpleasant situations that have a payoff later on - Social priorities shift. > Center lives on the people we love the most (more on family) > Have more positive interpersonal encounters than the young - Limit social encounters

Is the IQ test a good measure of genetic gifts? - Flynn effect

Probably not - Environment makes a huge difference in whether genetic potential can be expressed (ex. being handicapped on language portion of the test if you didn't get that stimulation) - *Flynn effect* = worldwide rise in IQ scores - Poor life situation artificially limits IQ - More reflective of genetic gifts for upper/middle class children

Development + trends

Processes of change + stability throughout life Trends of study 1) Moved from study of babies and children to include adolescents and adult life span 2) Moved from anecdotal approaches (baby biographies) to scientific methodologies, including theories with empirical data

What purposes do these friend groups serve? (teens)

They convey teens to relationships with the opposite sex Unisex cliques (~entry to middle school) v Crowds (late middle school/early highschool) v Mixed-sex cliques (high school) v Romantic partners Crowd provides safety in numbers, allowing for intermingling ---------------- Other crowd purposes 1) Connect with others who share values School size is important to whether crows form - In large high schools > Allows you to find similar people

Metacognition + its component (s)

Thinking about thinking"; the ability to evaluate a cognitive task in order to determine how best to accomplish it, and then to monitor and adjust one's performance on that task. - Required cognitive ability to enter school - Planning (cognition of time) - Ability to assess progress (self-monitoring) > Automated after sometime. No requirement for scaffolding - How we move from the beginning, the steps, and to the end point *metamemory is a component of metacognition *secret* - Know this!! - Be able to define metacognition+ say why it is important > "thinking about thinking" is not enough

Brain development during late adulthood

Thinning of gray matter - Due to loss of neurons and reduction in synapses White matter loss (After 40) - Due to loss of axons, myelin sheaths, and glial cells ----------- When neurons die, other neurons often take over their function and dendrites continue to grow - Not much issue in thinking or behavior Brain slow-down - Decrease in reaction time and sped of info processing - Related to reduction in production of neurotransmitters, total volume of neural fluid, speed of cerebral blood flow, and pace of activity in the brain. - May not affect contexts where expertise, rather than speed is required (Expertise can compensate) ---------------- Use different areas of brain to solve problems --------------- Brain shrinkage - Hypothalamus (memory) and prefrontal cortex (planning, inhibiting responses, and coordinating thoughts)

Which teens thrive?

Thriving does not mean staying out of trouble - Testing limits is nromal Teens that: 1) have superior executive functions and can thoughtfully direct their lives 2) Are connected to school 3) Have a mentor or VIP (very important non-parental adult) 4) Having a life interest , provided caring adults nurture the passion 5) Attending religious services (Especially in two-parent families)

Alzheimers

Characterized by: 1) *Beta-amyloid* plaques 2) Tangles of *tau* (neurophil threads) - Cause microtubles to collapse 3) Loss of connecting neurons among brain cells 4) Brain inflammation Linked to genetics - Early-onset related to mutation of one of three genes - Late-onset doesn't have exact genetic association. Much more common > *polygenic* = an allele on several genes contributes to over-production of *beta-amyloid* protein - Genetic marker for Alzheimer's (APOE-4) Begins 10-20 before actual diagnosis, due to symptoms being explainable with aspects of normal aging - Gradual brain deterioration over 10-15 years Stages (fix...) 1) Problems in remembering new things 2) Problems with finding words (unable to complete sentences, etc) 3) Inability to understand spatial relationships (easily lost, difficulty buttoning shirt) 4) Agitation, psychosis, depression, sleep disturbances (middle or late) 5) Human is gone - Can't communicate, can't remember, can't move - Die of complications of immobility

Do IQ scores predict real-world performance?

Charles spearman - Believed that IQ scores reflect a general, all-encompassing intelligence factor called *g* Evidence for g - People differ in speed that they process info - Correlates with various indicators of life success, but that may be because academic performance is the path to higher status jobs like lawyers Issues with believing in general g - Low score may stay with people psychologically - High score may make people think they don't need to put in the effort, or be scared to try

Cognitive development - milestones (piaget)

Children begin to imitate complex behavior by 6 or 7 months By 11 or 12 months, children can begin to engage in symbolic representation —thinking about something not present, pretending - Need for language - Enter world of play At 18 months Piaget believed children could engage in deferred imitation

Modeling: Bobo doll study

Children watched adults hit bobo doll and make aggressive comments OR did not watch the model V Experienced frustration (researchers removed toys) V Was put in room with doll V Children who watched aggressive model conducted highly aggressive behavior, imitating model Children who didn't watch displayed less aggression, mostly hitting with fists ----------- Exposure to aggressive model has arousing effect that causes child to invent novel form sof violent behavior Children learn 2 things: 1) How to perform specific aggressive actions demonstrated 2) Aggression is an acceptable and enjoyable form of behavior

Boys vs. girls: motor skills

- Girls better at fine motor tasks - Boys better at gross motor abilities - Largest sex difference is in throwing speed. Boys through further and faster

Erikson Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt

(2ndyear) -Toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies - environment must be fit > plan for autonomy desire > Don't do things that set up/result in problems > Think about what is in the environment to be autonomous with Early problems can create an adult who is suspicious and pessimistic (mistrusting) or who is easily shamed (insufficient autonomy) Balance between early learning about moral behavior with exploration - teach that we respect them and they need to modify their behavior ------------

Palliative interventions: Educating healthcare providers

*End-of-life care instruction* - Courses in medical and nursing schools devoted to teaching health-care workers how to provide the best palliative care to the dying. - MAy involve hands on experiences Need to do more Doctors get anxiety of saying there is nothing they can do - May just drop truth and run - May continue with treatments too long

Different parts of childhood

*Early childhood* (Age 2-kindergarten (5)) *Middle childhood* (elementary school) (6-11)

Impact of socioeconomic status (SES)

*socioeconomic status (SES)* - education and income - Living in poverty makes people vulnerable to wide variety of issues (born less healthy, attending lower quality schools, living in dangerous neighborhoods, younger age of death) *developed world* - Nations defined by wealth or high median per-person incomes - Life expectancy high - Technology advanced - Widespread access to education + medical care - Ex. US, canada, australia, new zealand, japan, and every western european nation *developing world* - Countries where people may not have indoor plumbing, clean running water, or access to education - May die from curable infectious diseases

Preoperational/concrete operational ideas about physical substances

- Illustrated through *conservation tasks*. Conservation means knowing that the amount of a substance remains identical regardless of changes in shape or form. o Conservation of mass task: Child shown two clay balls. Asked if same amount. Ball is flattened, and asked if same amount. Preoperational says that flat has more o Conservation of liquid: Same as clay, except one glass is poured into taller thinner glass. Preoperational says this holds more liquid - This "bigger = more" idea extends to every aspect of preoperational thought o Age (taller = older) o Money (nickle > dime)

Causes of obesity epidemic

- Lack of time to prepare meals - Expanded restaurant portions - Easy access to cheap calorie-dense foods - Lack of exercise o Playing has decreased with rise of TV and videogames o May have a bidirectional effect where obese children feel bad about bodies and withdraw from physical activity Lag behind in motor abilities Policy hasn't been effective in reducing obesity because of great individual variation in taking on weight

Threats to growth + motor skills

- Main threat: lack of food - Compromises development of bones, muscles, and brain - Children without food don't have energy and, as a result, don't get experience needed to develop skills - Play is also affected. Play develops bodies and also promotes social cognition (learning to get along with peers). Lethargy from lack of food hurts relationships as well.

*Body mass index (BMI)*

- Measure of how overweight someone is. Ratio of person's weight to height. - At or over 85th percentile = overweight - At or over 95th percentile = obese

*Emotion regulation*

- Skills involved in managing feeling so they don't interfere with productive life

Hearing in old age

- Some hearing loss is normal > May become greater due to environmental factors (ex. loud jobs) - More high-frequency tones than low-frequency tones lost (impairs human speech more than music enjoyment) > Difficulty hearing consonants - Lower pitch background sounds overpower conversation Impairs ability to communicate - More prone to produce depression than any other medical problem (leads to loneliness *Presbycusis* - Age related hearing loss - Caused by atrophy or loss of hearing receptors located in inner ear - Irreversible damage

*twin study*

- Study in which identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins on trait of interest are compared - Fraternal twins only share 50% of genes, so if something is genetically influenced, identical twins should be more alike - Heritability (1=all genetic, to 0=no genetic contribution) used to summarize influence of genes

Eating in babies

- Sucking reflex (gone by month 4-5) - Rooting reflex (turn to anything that touches cheek and suck) ^ these reflexes disappear as cortex grows - Sucking reflex is replaced by operant condition. When breast is near, they suck - 2 year old food caution (only eat a few familiar foods between ages 1.5 and 2) REflexes are automatic and not under conscious control

Misunderstandings of apprentice thinking/Zone of proximal development

- US parents are interested in bettering their children - Vygotsky did NOT recommend any product or buy anything > He observed real life - Not need to drill 2 year old with flashcards - Vygotsky face-to-face person-to-person interaction > No product necessary

Kinkeeper

-A caregiver who takes responsibility for maintaining communication among family members.

Give teenagers an intellectual problem and they can ______ in mature adult ways. But younger teens tend to get ______ in emotionally arousing situations, especially when they are with their ______.

...

Complicated grief forms

1) *Absent Grief* Private people cut themselves off from the community and customs that allow and expect grief 2) *Disenfranchised Grief* Experienced when bereaved is not allowed to mourn publicly by cultural customs or social restrictions 3) *Incomplete Grief* Circumstances interfere with the process of grieving

Stereotypes + facts about alcohol and teens

1) Teens who drink are prone to abuse alcohol later in life - Depends on when you begin - Drinking during puberty = more likely - Drinking during late teens and twenties is normative, so we can't predict it well 2) Involvement in academics/athletics protects teen from abusing alcohol - Complicated. Academics protect children with high genetic risk. Athletic involvement is correlated with binge drinking for boys > Important role of peer environment 3) Middle childhood problems are risk factors for later excessive drinking - Impulse control issues predict problem drinking - Girls who do well academically go on to college, where culture is of drinking, and are more likely to drink heavily

Stages of dying (Kubler-Ross) critiques

1) Terminally ill people don't always want to discuss their situation - People read the theory as all patients want to talk about impending death - Not true !! - Patients broach subject selectively and reluctantly - May avoid discussions that they think others don't want to hear or to protect loved ones 2) Not every person/family feels that it's best to spell out the full truth - People say they want to know the facts - May not want doctors to get specific when prognosis is dire > Can be unloving, insensitive, and rude 3) People do not pass through distinctive stages in adjusting to death - Theory of stages is wrong! - All the emotions are reasonable and real things to feel, not phases. - Theory may encourage insensitivity towards terminally ill

Trimesters of pregnancy

1st (first 3 months) - Feel faint (fainting - Headaches - Frequent urination - Feel tired - Breast tenderness - Morning sickness > Nausea and vomiting > affects 2/3 women. Can affect them all day > couvade is when men develop it with their wives - PRevents mother from eating spoiled or toxic plants, which could be dangerous during embryonic phase - Progesterone (hormone responsible for maintaining pregnancy) - Placenta produces human chorionic gonadotropin to prevent rejection of foreign embryo 2nd - Expanding body - *quickening* (event around week 18 where a bubbly sensation of baby kicking in the womb appears). Woman feels connected 3rd - Beginning of this trimester is when woman can give birth to a living baby - backaches - leg cramps -numbness + tingling as uterus presses against nerves - HEartburn - Insomnia - Anxious anticipation - Irregular uterine contractions

Physical changes of puberty: girls

1st sign of puberty is growth spurt - Picks up speed during late childhood, accelerates, then decreases 6 months after growth spurt starts, breasts + pubic hair develop - breasts take ~4 years to grow on average Finished growing in height before breasts There's usually a window of infertility after menarche while system gears up Variations may occur in this order - especially rate of change > speed may depend on when process starts (earlier proceeds slower) --------------- In charting F puberty, researchers focus on pubic hair and breast development because these can be measured in stages Uterus grows, vagina lengthens, and hips develop fat cushion Vocal cords lengthen, heart grows, and RBC carry more O2 Girls become much stronger

Good death + needs

A death in which a patient is informed of their death and has their needs met - Dying must be recognized as happening - Dying person must accept impending loss of their known life and let go of everyone and everything they once loved Needs 1) to be treated as a human being; 2) for hope; 3) to express emotions; 4) to participate in his/her own care; 5) for honesty; 6) for spirituality; 7) to be free of pain.

Fetal period

9weeks -birth (38 weeks) A) Fetus B) Continued growth and maturation of all physical system C) *Age of viability*: earliest date a normatively developing fetus could possibly survive outside womb with major medical intervention—now seen at 22-23 weeks - If born this premature, experience major risks compared to those carried full term ------------- wks 9-12 - eyebrows, fingernails, and follicles Cushion of fat in final weeks ------------- Brain development - Starts late embryonic - Migration (finished ~wk 25) - Interconnection of neurons (synaptogenesis) (continues for life) - HEaring (~ 6month) - sight (~month 7) - Gyri/sulci start to form ~28 wks - 16 weeks - myelination begins in lower spinal cord From the neural tube, a mass of cells differentiates during the late embryonic phase. During the next few months, the cells ascend to the top of the neural tube, completing their migration by week 25. In the final months of pregnancy, the neurons elongate and begin to assume their mature structure

Synchrony

A coordinated, rapid, and smooth exchange of responses between a caregiver and an infant Synchrony in the first few months -Becomes more frequent and more elaborate -Helps infants learn to read others' emotions and to develop the skills of social interaction -Synchrony usually begins with parents imitating infants Still-face experiment -Adult keeps face unmoving, expressionless in face-to-face interaction with an infant -Babies very upset by the still face, show signs of stress - ex. in depression or addiction

Eating disorders - 3 kinds

A pathological obsession with staying thin - Eating is focus of life - Mainly affect women - Most frequently erupt in early twenties or late teens - Prevalence: binge > bulimia > anorexia 1) Anorexia nervosa - The most serious. - Primarily female - Defined by self-starvation to the point of being 85% or less of ideal body weight - Leptin levels are too low to support fertility and menstruating stops - Distorted body image (still feel fat) - Exercise obsessively - Deny symptoms - Life threatening 2) Bulimia nervosa - Not usually life threatening - Weight usually stays in normal range - Eating many calories and then purging (getting rid of food by vomiting or misusing of laxatives and diuretics) - Causes nutrient deficiencies, mouth sores, ulcers in the esophagus, loss of tooth enamel (due to stomach acid exposure) 3) Binge eating disorder - Recurrent out-of-control eating - Eats large quantities of food, and then is wracked by disgust, guilt, and shame - tied to obesity and threatens health

Infant cognition - information processing theory

A perspective modeled on computer functioning. Information-processing theorists believe that a step-by-step description of the mechanisms of thought adds insight to our understanding of cognition at every age. Information-processing research has contradicted the timing of some Piagetian milestones - milestones still occur Did not understand cognition as stages - More gradual/smooth increase of knowledge

Adolescent Egocentrism (Elkind)

Adolescents can see beyond surface of adult rules - Become aware of difference between what adults say and how they act *Adolescent egocentrism* - Distorted feeling that one's own actions are the center of everyone else's consciousness *1) Imaginary audience* - Feeling that everyone is watching and judging, always on center stage *2) Personal fable* - Belief that their thoughts, feelings, or experiences are unique - More wonderful or awful than anyone else's *3) Invincibility fable* - Egocentric conviction that they cannot be hurt by anything that might defeat a normal mortal (e.g., unprotected sex, drug abuse, risky driving)

Parent care

Adult children's care for their disabled parents - Reverses role of parent caring for child > Burdensome for children (even in collectivist cultures) > A labor of love for happily married older couples - Daughter often has to cut back work hours or leave career > Interfere with child's life plans Sandwich generation - Women pulled between caring for their young children and disabled elderly parents - Rare --------------------- Stressfulness of parental care varies - if needs are minimal, a daughter isn't working, or if she is getting a lot of support, the care isn't an issue Made more difficult when: 1) Coping with other stressful commitments 2) Feeling that siblings aren't doing fair share Older person's personality plays a large role - Alzheimer's is especially challenging - If caregiver perceived parent as difficult/manipulative and became resentful, the situation can escalate into screaming, yelling, or threatening person with nursing home - Can also offer a redemption sequence to child, giving back for years of care

Healthy-life years

Age at which we can expect to survive without ADL limitations Elderly men live healthy longer than woman do

Piaget's Sensorimotor Period

Assimilate and accommodate in different stages - Assimilation = collecting new info and building it into current understanding (did not fundamentally change our idea) - Accommodation = Info was so different that a new schema is needed or current schema must be drastically changed Stages 1&2 -Reflexes, coordination of reflexes -First acquired adaptations - 0-2: baby manipulates objects to pin down basics of physical reality. Ends with development of langauge Circular motions - Habits (Action oriented schemas) that the baby repeats Primary circular reactions - Months 1-4 - Centered on child's body ------------- Stages 3 & 4 (~6 months): Secondary Circular Reactions -make interesting events last, repeat -New adaptation & anticipation, goal directed Secondary circular reactions - Actions oriented on outside world - ~8 months can simultaneously do both grasping and kicking -------- Stages 5 & 6: Tertiary Circular Reactions Tertiary circular reactions - Can change behavior to make sense of the world ~ 1 year - Little scientist phase > Try this and see what happens - Mental combinations, deferred imitation (copying after a delay)

attachment

Attachment: lasting emotional bond that one person has with another. - acquired sense of connection to another person (reciprocal and bidirectional) -Attachments begin to form in early infancy and influence a person's close relationships throughout life -Based on intersection of cognitive and social development through the formation of a "working model"of relationships based on experience with the social world

non-normative transitions

Atypical transitions (ex. divorce, death of a child)

History of death

Before modern medicine - Death arrived quickly - Nature took its course, and nothing could be changed - Death was familiar, predictable, and normal - People died in their community - During 18th/19th centuries, death began to move off center stage, due to fears of disease, and cemeteries were located to outside of town - Early 20th century: medical science successfully waged war against disease > Dying moved toward end of lifespan Modern medicine - Death shifted to hospitals and nursing homes > Disconnected from life - Death became a medical failure > concealed Recent decades 1) Doctors no longer conceal devastating diagnoses 2) Health-care system has developed structures to ease passage through end of life - People urged to document how they want their final act to go

Coping with death and loss

Best for dying persons, family members to know that death is imminent and a reality -Can close life with their own ideas about proper dying -Can complete projects or plans, make arrangements for funeral and for survivors -Can reminisce -Have more understanding of physical sensations and medical procedures

Being early in puberty

Can be a problem for girls 1) Risk of developing externalizing problems - May get involved with "adult activities" - More prone to dangerous decisions with peers - Get worse grades due to testing adult activiites - Less likely to graduate highschool - Unprotected sex > less likely to use contraception or know how to say no 2) Risk for being anxious and depressed - More likely to feel bad about themselves - Shame of generally having a larger body size (end up shorter and stockier) - Low self esteem > Effects may depend on how the world views the changes though - These negative factors happen while they are at risk in other areas of life, and if girls have strong support, the effects of puberty will be much less ---------------------- Early maturing boys: - more prone to abuse substances - At risk for depression if they have prior personality issues and unhappy family life - Because of physical increases, boys get a popularity and self-esteem boost

Brain development pregnancy

Cerebral cortex (outer mantle of brain) During final months of pregnancy and first year of life, brain cells differentiate into cells with axons and dendrites Synaptogenesis (making myriad connections) - different rate in different parts of brain ---------------- Proliferation and Pruning -Making or deleting connections between neurons & synapses - Gain and loss - Major period of pruning after 2nd year Myelination -Encasing of axons with fat cells - Speeds electrical impulses - part for visual interpretation done as soon as 1 year, while frontal lobes still myelinating into 20s Lateralization -Specialization of brain areas according to function (differentiation) Characterized by plasticity (ability to be changed) -Functions can be reassigned to other brain areas - Age 3 - brain is 90% of adult weight

How to make school work best in relation to motivation

Change extrinsic motivations to intrinsic motivations - Ex. instead of: I have to do this to graduate think I want to do this because it will be important to my career - Make the extrinsic learning relate to children's goals 1) Link tasks to passions ( relevance) 2) Satisfy basic need of relatedness/attachment - Doing it to make someone you love proud - foster secure attachments with each student 3) Have tasks that foster autonomy or give choices in how to do the work - Controlling, criticizing, and micromanaging erode intrinsic motivation - benefits both teachers and students

Impact of Gender

Culture's values shape development as males or females Females outlive males by 2+ years worldwide

Sings of aging

Early adulthood - Age changes may be barely noticeable - Younger children may be slightly better/faster at childhood memory games - Younger adolescents may come into physical talents more easily - No lifestyle adjustments required Middle adulthood - Become aware of some changes in appearance and sensory capabilities > Wrinkles > Need for reading glasses > More effort needed to keep healthy weight - Changes are noticeable but do not generally affect quality of life Late adulthood - Changes affect lifestyle and behavior to some degree - Changes in hearing (hearing aid, missing conversation) - Aches and stiffness may make certain exercises and activities painful - Shrinkage in height noticeable (vertebrae compression)

Genetic testing

Genetic counselor (individual skilled in genetics and counseling) 1) Ultrasound - Provide image of fetus - USed to date pregnancy and assess in utero growth - Reveal physical abnormalties - Noninvasive - during second trimester 2) Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) ~ week 10 - Insertion of a catheter into woman's abdomen or vagina and withdrawl of a piece of developing placenta + advantage of knowing early on about problems - Test is slightly dangerous (risk of miscarriage and limb impairments) 3) Amniocentesis - ~wk 14 (enough fluid to safely siphon and enough time to decide to carry baby to term) - During second trimester - Inserts syringe into uterus and extracts sample of amniotic fluid + slightly safer - small chance of infection and misscarriage depending on doctor - quickening may occur before results arrive - Woman must endure trauma of labor to terminate pregnancy - Can reveal geneetic and chromosomal conditions (and fetus' sex) Recommended for women over age 35 - More woman agree to amnio than CVS - more women over 40 do

Remarriage

Harder to find another spouse if you are an older women with children Remarried couples say they are happier and have better communication - Have more witholding and avoidance in disagreements - Seem less committed (more positive opinions of divorce) - Preference for parent depends on length of stay (step vs. biological) - Stepchildren may be resistant to new parent

Childhood memories of generative adults

Have themes demonstrating a *commitment script* - Early memories of feeling blessed - Sensitive to suffering of others from a young age - Identity centered on generative values even in early life Most striking characteristic of generative adults is *redemption sequences* - Examples of devastating events that turned out in positive ways - Turn tragedies into growth experiences - Stressful life events often make us more mature ---------------------- What produces generative adults? 1) Presence of caring adults in a person's past African americans are more represented in generative community-minded adults - Overcome adversity and cope with discrimination - Strong religion - High empathy and sensitivity to suffering of others - Prosociality - High self-efficacy

What are the contradictory stereotypes of teens?

Idealistic, thoughtful, introspective Moody, impulsive, out of control Ultimate rebels but also the driven wholly by the crowd 1) 2) More risk-taking - True in that they are more likely to take risks 3) Emotionally intense - Teens are more emotionally intense than adults 4) Most teens are unhappy or suffer from serious psychological problems - false

Threats at birth

Inability of cervix to fully dilate deviations from normal head-down position (feed, buttocks, or knees first is called breech birth) position of placenta/umbilical cord

Grandparenthood

Involvement depends on society/culture Even in hands off cultures like the West, grandparents have to be more involved than before (while parents work ----------------- Mission to care - Lifesaving - *Family watchdogs* - Step in during crisis to help younger family members cope > Done selectively - Usually function as mediators between parents and children, cheerleaders of family norms, and family glue > Symbols of connectedness

Big 5 personality traits

Largely genetic - personality less heritable as we age - Pretty stable after 30 - Role of personality in choosing *ecological niche* 1) Openness to experience - Passion to seek out new experiences - imaginative, curious, creative 2) Conscientiousness - Hardworking, self-disciplined, and reliable - Erratic, irresponsible (low) - Defined by good executive functions (thinking through actions and modulating emotions) - Have more stable marriages + live longer than peers because they take care of themselves 3) Extraversion - Outgoing attitudes (warmth, activity, assertion, gregariousness) 4) Agreeableness - Kindness, empathy, ability to compromise 5) Neuroticism - Tendency toward mental health versus psychological disturbance

Threats of being born too small

Low birthweight (less than 5.5 lbs) Very low birth weight (less than 3.25 lbs) - 1.4% - Immediately rushed to neonatal intensive care unit Risks of early labor - Infection that ruptures amniotic sac - Cervix that can't hold up pressure - Smoking - Maternal stress Dangers: -impair preschool growth and motor abilities - Compromised brain development - Promoting overweight and early age-related disease - High cost - Limit intellectual and social skills

Dealing with Alzheimers and other neurocognitive disorders

Main interventions are environmental For the person 1) Use external aids + make life predictable and safe - Notecards - Make things easy to access - Double-lock or put buzzers on doors (for safety) - Deactivate dangerous appliances - Put toxic substances out of reach Goals 1) Protect people and keep them functioning as well as possible for as long as possible 2) Be caring and offer lots of support Do not center on the label and forget the human being Positivity skills -------------------- For the caregiver 1) Faith can help with coping 2) Go to support groups 3) Relish the precious moments you have left - Offers a redemption sequence -------------------- Major environmental risk factors: 1) Lack of exercise 2) Stress

Sleeping + milestones

Main newborn state Newborns sleep ~18 hrs - In 2-3 hrs intervals ------------ Adaption to normal sleep patterns over 1st year 6 Month: Milestone - Sleep for ~ 6 hrs a night 1 yr - ~12 hrs sleep a night +morning/afternoon nap 2 yr - Morning nap gone By preschool - Sleep often only occurs at night ------------- Infants - Enter REM sleep instantly. Don't have 4 stages of sleep *Babies never sleep through the night - become self-soothing around 6 months. Can get back to sleep on own - Self soothing is learned! - Good self-soothing skills not in place until early second year > Requires support (sensitive response) - Approach self-soothing on a good time table -------------

Being in college

Main value of undergrad years is to help people grow intellectually and personally Making college an inner-growth flow zone 1) Get the best professors and talk to them outside of class 2) Connect your classes to potential careers 3) Immerse yourself in the college milieu (get involved on campus) 4) Capitalize on the diverse human connections college provides - Don't just stay in your clique. Reach out of it

U.S. retirement realities

Most cannot accumulate the needed pension to support a decent lifestyle for ~15 years Many adults have unrealistic impressions about retirement (e.g. family support or pensions) Reality 1) Longer working lives - Cause: Rising income inequality and loss in real wages - Can't save - Great recession of 2008 also hurt baby boomers' assets - Also helping struggling adult children financially - Particularly difficult for women (discontinuous employment + longer life) 2) Work after retirement - Can be fulfilling if it's a choice - Not much so in the US

Twin/adoption study

Most powerful evidence for genetics - RAre Identical twins separated in childhood and reunited in adult life - If they grew up completely separate but are still similar, that's powerful evidence for genetics ex. swedish twin/adoption study of aging

Widowhood

Must remake identity and take on responsibilities as an individual During first months: - people are obsessed with events surrounding final death (especially if sudden) > Feel impulse to search for beloved (Bowlby attachment response) People do not simply get better after the death of a spouse - They emerge as different, hopefully more resilient human beings ----------------------- *Working model (constructing independent life) phase of widowhood* 1) Fluctuating emotions - Decline in depressive symptoms over time - Life satisfaction dips low at first year anniversary and rises during second year - AFter widowhood, there was a rise in well-being Explanation: - People may not realize how well they can cope on their own. Gain self-efficacy from it - Widowed people have worse mental health (compared to married adults) - *Widowhood mortality effect* > Higher risk of dying for surviving spouse after partner dies 2) Friends are more important than children in determining how people adjust - Need to reach out to friends - Can more openly share distress with friends Most widowed peopl are resilient - Disservice to assume they are incompetent and in need of help

evolutionary psychology

Nature (all ages) Look at nature: inborn biological forces that promote survival - explain behavior Some reactions based in genetic code -------- How might this behavior be built into the human genetic code?

What do teens and parents tend to argue about?

Northern Europe + US - Academic issues Japanese/chinese - School-related conflicts outweigh everything else Middle east - Micromanaging peer relationships > Important to marry within one's own group Southern Europe - Children live with parents into late twenties > dependency and parent-child acrimony is a big concern All - Independence

emerging adulthood

Not a universal life stage - Currently only in western world Function: Exploration - Trying out different options before committing to adult roles - Exploring the self ------------ Challenges: 1) Need to re-center lives - Take control of ourselves and act like real adults - Idea of what is adult may differ depending on culture 2) Entry into an unstructured, unpredictable path

traditional behaviorism

Nurture (all ages) - Said that inner experiences (like thoughts and feelings) couldn't be studied because they couldn't be observed - Said that general laws of learning explain behavior in every situation at any time of life ------ What reinforcers are shaping this behavior? Who is this person modeling? How can I stimulate self-efficacy? ------ Reinforcement: - The general law of learning is *operant conditioning*. > Responses that we reward/*reinforce*are learned. > Responses that aren't reinforced go away or are extinguished Reinforcement schedules (studied with pigeons) - Variable reinforcement schedules (reinforced unpredictably, continuing response because we know reinforcement will occur at some point) Behaviorism makes sense of why children act as they do at walmart, or why loving marriages can end in divorce, or why mental impairments of old age may arise (ex. lack of reinforcement) - not this simple

Bandura theory of psychosocial development (infants)

Parents mold an infant's emotions and personality through reinforcement and punishment *Social learning*-Acquisition of behavior patterns by observing the behavior of others - Acquisition especially for people who are like us/are rewarded - Less likely if a person is punished bobo doll study

Changing landscape of marriage

People used to get married based on practical concerns - Arranged - Short due to lower life expectancy Early 20th century - Thought that people should be married in 20s and be lovers for half-century or more - Defined gender roles Last third of 20th century - Womens movement said that women should have careers and spouses should share child care - Divorce, having babies out of marriage, and not getting married acceptable *Deinstitutionalization of marriage* - Marriage is no longer a standard adult "institution." Optional choice - Resulted in higher cohabitation - *Serial cohabitation* - living with different partners sequentially during life > Unlikely to have marriage goals

Physical development (childhood)

Physical growth in spurts -3 inches, 4 pounds/year Cephalocaudal principle - Children ages 2-12 double height and weight. Then growth slows completely. Three year olds have squat shapes and round heads. - Limbs lengthen and bodies thin out and become less top-heavy as they age. - Ossification (hardening) of bones - Better control of large and small muscle groups through practice They grow at similar rates (and are roughly same size) till preadolescent years

Overview of usual cognitive aging

Sensory Input: age related deficits in sensory detections • Memory Storage: impaired by anxiety, differential changes • Working Memory: slows, difficulty w/multitasking; - helped with more time to solve problems • Semantic Memory: remains strong • Episodic Memory: age related decline • Control processes: lose efficiency, more difficult to regulate and analyze streams of information

Physical changes of puberty: boys

Researchers chart how penis, testicles, and pubic hair develop in stages - Organs of puberty develop first, so they still look like children for a year or two after it starts Changes in body size, shape, and strength - Grow more in height and strength than girls > increase in muscle mass > Heart weight increases by more than 1/3 > Great increase in O2 capacity of red blood cells (shown in big chest, wide shoulders, and muscular frame) Growth takes place in opposite pattern to earlier - Starts from outside of body inward (hands, feet, etc) Boys more prone to acne ------------------------- Timetable - A little later (bc testes grow first, they may appear much more behind girls in puberty) - Based on fertility signs, the timetable is pretty similar

Life as a retiree

Retirement at age 65 usually has no effect on well-being Leaving work early and feeling forced out negatively affects emotional and physical health Satisfying retirement (same as any age) 1) Be open to experience 2) Be generative 3) Healthy 4) Happily married 5) Economic resources to enjoy life Having a serious leisure passion smooths way to retirement Predicting whether people will flourish 1) Is retirement on time + did person voluntarily leave work? 2) What are they like as a person?

Fatherhood

Roles of father have expanded from traditional *breadwinner role* to also being the *nurturer father* - Both bringing home money and taking care of children - Good role models that give children an idea of how men should behave - Authority figures ----------------- How fathers act: 1) Spend more time with sons than daughters 2) Play in classically male active play way 3) Do half as much hands on care as women - Mothers take bottom-line responsibility of scheduling appointments, taking care of sick children, etc Involvement skewed towards play activity ----------------

Memory-systems perspective

Says that there are three basic types of memory: 1) *Procedural* - Info we automatically remember - Unconscious - Ex. muscle memory - Extremely long lasting > Due to fact it resides in a different part of the brain (migrates out of frontal after we master it) - People with alzheimer's retain this 2) *Semantic* - Factual knowledge - Crystallized - Older people do just as well as young in this 3) *Episodic* - Ongoing events of daily life - The most fragile (especially isolated events) - This is what is lost with age

Erikson's psychosocial tasks

Set defined stages - Saw becoming an independent self and relating to others as our basic motivations - Believed this development occurred throughout life (unlike freud) - Each task builds on the other bc previous stages must be completed before moving on All ages ------------ Ex. Qs Is this baby experiencing basic trust? Where is this teenager in terms of identity? Has this middle-aged person reached generativity? ------------ 1) Infancy (birth to 1 year) - Basic trust versus mistrust 2) Toddlerhood (1 to 2 years) - Autonomy versus shame and doubt 3) Early childhood (3 to 6 years) - Initiative versus guilt 4) Middle childhood (6 years to puberty) - Industry versus inferiority 5) Adolescence (teens into twenties) - Identity versus role confusion 6) Young adulthood (twenties to early forties) - Intimacy versus isolation 7) Middle adulthood (forties to sixties) - Generativity versus stagnation 8) Late adulthood (late sixties and beyond) - Integrity versus despair

Goodness of fit: temperament

Set of repeated behaviors/experiences that move development forward A similarity of temperament and values that produces a smooth interaction between an individual and his or her social context, including family, school, and community With a good fit -parents of inhibited babies build a close relationship, give them time to adjust without over protecting -parents of exuberant, curious infants learn to protect them from harm, work harder to socialize -------- Babies bring themselves to the environment *temperament*=basic orientation towards/away from environment+stimuli Parents need to adjust expectations to fit the baby they have

Emotional development - milestones

Smiling and Laughing -Social smile (6 weeks): Evoked by viewing human faces -Laughter (3 to 4 months): Often associated with curiosity, surprise Anger -First expressions at around 6 months -Healthy response to frustration Sadness -Indicates withdrawal and is accompanied by increased production of cortisol -Stressful experience for infants - Crying Pride and Shame: emerge late in the first year, related to advances in understanding both self and others - Pride = sense of self-accomplishment Fear:Emerges at about 9 months in response to people, things, or situations ------------------ v Two milestones of first two years *Stranger wariness*: -Infant no longer smiles at any friendly face but cries or looks frightened when an unfamiliar person moves too close - Occurs when infant becomes mobile - Human universal - Get over it ~18 months-2 years *Separation anxiety*: -Tears, dismay, or anger when a familiar caregiver leaves. -If it remains strong after age 3, it may be considered an emotional disorder. -Will show wave pattern of increase and decrease throughout childhood, even adulthood... just not as strong as in the first two years.

Storm and stress

Stage of life identified by stanley hall

Main marital pathway

Start with high expectations, then become disenchanted - Peak satisfaction is during honeymoon. Decreases after - Decline steepest during first few years. Levels around year 4 Patterns for gay and lesbian partners are similar Satisfaction heavily impacted by demands (work, children, aging parents) *U-shaped curve of marital satisfaction* - After dipping to a low point, couples can get happier at the empty nest (when spouses can focus on each other again) - Swings up again at retirement

Contradictory behaviors (brain development - childhood)

Still impulsive (not controllable without fear intervention (the intervention is bad)) - Arrange environment to account for this Can overfocus on one thing - Give them advance notice of changing activities to help with preservation issues

gerontology

Study of aging - Study began after WWII - Increased during final 3rd of 20th century

child development

Study of childhood + teenage years - Took off between WWI and WWII

epigenetics

Study of how environment (often intrauterine and early childhood) alters cover of DNA, causing lasting changes

Celebrating puberty

The *puberty rite* - Emotional events that challenged children to highlight a young person's entrance into adulthood

Metamemory

The ability to understand how memory works in order to use it well. Metamemory is an essential element of metacognition.

maximum lifespan

The biological limit of human life (about 105 years).

Crying

The first communication signal - Peaks about 1 month after birth - Declines at month 4. Need based Colic - Continual crying in first 3 months; due to immature nervous system --------- Soothing crying: - Human touch is most effective in first few days - Hold and rock - Provide something to suck on - Swaddling (may limit skin to skin contact - Kangaroo care (carrying in sling). Promotes skin to skin and is superior to swaddling

Embryonic Period

Weeks 3-8 - Period during which all major organs are constructed - major structural development - Fastest paced A) Placenta - Nutrition system B) Umbilical cord - Gets nutrition to baby C) Amniotic sac & fluid - Protects + provides O2 D) Embryo: develops 3 layers 1) Ectoderm (outer organs - skin, nervous system, sensory) 2) Mesoderm (blood, elimination system) 3) Endoderm (digestive system, lungs, other internal organs) ----------------- 3rd week - Circulatory system + heart formed ~20-24 days: *neural tube* (spine + brain) formed Neurons formed during first month (not during this time) Day 26 - arm buds form Day 28 - Leg swellings Day 37 - Rudimentary feet Day 41 - Elbow, wrist curves, and finger precursors can be seen - A few days later, ray-like structures (toes) can be seen Week 8 - Internal organs are in place ------------ Mother may or may not know they are pregnant - By end of this, they will probably miss period

Case: Superior parenting

When a child is biologically fragile or genetically reactive, sensitive caregiving matters a lot

Activities in Late Adulthood

Work & Volunteerism - The activities of older people are intense and varied. -Work provides financial resources, social support and status, boosting self-esteem. -Employment promotes generativity. Continuing Education - About one out of five U.S. adults age 66+ was enrolled in continuing education in 2005. • Religious Involvement - Older adults attend fewer services compared to those in mid-life, but show increases in faith and other religious practices • Political activism

Different categories of old

Young-old (70%) - Healthy, vigorous, financially secure older adults (60 to 75) who are well integrated into the lives of their families and communities. Old-old (20%) - Older adults (75 to 85) who suffer some physical, mental, or social deficits. Oldest-old (10%) - Oldest adults (over age 85) who may be increasingly dependent on others, requiring supportive services such as nursing-home care and hospital stays.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) - Definition - Cause - Treatments

defined by deficits in theory of mind —the inability to have normal back-and-forth conversations, share feelings (or be self-aware), and a lack of interest in relationships or friends. in (DSM-5), these severe social impairments must be combined with restricted, stereotyped, repetitive-behavior patterns: rocking, flipping objects, a hypersensitivity to sensory input, an abnormal fixation on the nonhuman world symptoms appear in early childhood rare vs adhd more common in boys ------------ cause ? - genetic - environmental risks (airpollution, prenatal medication, maternal abusive relationships, premature birth) ------------ Treatments: - Applied behavioral analysis > Reinforceemnt of appropriate behavior - Parents and peers are taught to help these children - medications are not effective with basic symptoms, but can help with behaviors and emotional distress

*Strange situation*

procedure - Mother and 1 year old enter a room with toys. After the child explores, an unfamiliar adult enters the room. The mother leaves the baby alone with the stranger and then comes back to comfort them. There is another period of aloneness, stranger, and return Key behaviors to observe: -Exploration of the toys. A secure toddler plays happily. -Reaction to the caregiver's departure. A secure toddler misses the caregiver. -Reaction to the caregiver's return. A secure toddler welcomes the caregiver's reappearance.

Nursing homes

provide shelter and services to people with basic ADL problems—individuals who do require 24-hour caregiving help. Mostly women and older adults ---------- Why people enter nursing homes: 1) Occurrence of an incapacitating event (ex. breaking hip, alzheimer's) ---------- Predicting who ends up in nursing homes: - Both nature and nurture - Availability of network of attachment figures to provide care > The more figures, the lower risk of being in long term care ---------- Different paths once in nursing homes - Short stop before returning home - Short stop before death - Long term care ----------- People start paying out of pocket and eventually spend down until they are impovershed - Nursing homes financed through medicaid (which is specifically for the poor)

Prosocial behavior - When/how does it appear? - Individual variations - Antisocial behavior

sharing, helping, and caring actions We do not need to be taught pro-social behavior. It appears naturally in early life - Toddlers will help to retrieve an out-of-reach object and comfort an injured person - 18 month olds perform sharing acts beyond the adult norm, giving their stickers to an experimenter that has been selfish ----------------- Variations Individual - Differ in impulse to help, comfort and share - People who are prosocial tend to be prosocial at every age Gender - Women report more prosocial attitudes - Less differences seen via EEG - Women showed more arousal to anguished people, suggesting that they may be more tuned to others distress - Doesn't transfer to prosocial behavior *Antisocial behavior* - Actions that are deliberately hurtful or destructive to another person - Declines beginning at age 2 (because we are getting language)

cohort

the age group with whom we travel through life

sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)

the unexplained death of a seemingly healthy baby - peak risk from 1 to 10 months Linked to issues of the brain stem - Manages inhaling and tongue movements that leave airway clear Environmental causes - Inadvertedly smothered

How does early childhood poverty affect later development?

~1 in 4 kids lived under the poverty line 1) Chronic elevated cortisol levels - May wear down body and cause illness or death 2) Less likely to graduate highschool if poor in first 4 years of life - Left behind without basic info needed to succeed 3) Impairs attachment dance - Parent does not have energy/resources to care 4) May not have the space to learn - Insecure living environment ---------- Also has a dose effect. May vary genetically in reactivity to stress Rural vs. Urban distinction - Urban 3 times as likley to experience problems in preschool

Later life transitions: Retirement

"True" average retirement age was 62 for a while -------------------- Different financial retirement cushions 1) Nonexistent - Bangladesh, Jamaica, and Mexico - Lack government-financed programs to offer these protections 2) Mercedes model government support (germany) - mainly financed by employee and employer payroll taxes (like US) - the philosophy has traditionally been to keep people well off during their older years. - Until recently, Germans have had no worries about falling into poverty in old age 3) Solo with some government help (US) - *social security* > Current workforce funds the bare minimum (maybe less) for the retired - *Private pensions* (+personal savings) supplement the rest > Workers put aside a portion of each paycheck, which goes into a tax-free account > After retirement, the person gets regular payouts (lump sum) on which to live

Motor skill milestones (childhood)

(Mass to specific principle) Age 2 o Picks up small objects with thumb + forefinger o Feeds self with spoon o Walk unassisted (usually by 12 months) o Rolls a ball or flings it awkwardly Age 4 o Cuts paper, approximate circle o Walks down stairs alternating feet o Catches and controls large bounced ball across the body Age 5 o Prints name o Walks without holding onto railing o Tosses ball overhead with bent elbows Age 6 o Copies two short words o Hops on each foot for 1 meter but still holds railing o Catches and controls a 10 inch ball in both hands with arms in front of body

Erikson Trust vs. Mistrust

(first year) -Infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their basic needs are met -Feeding and comforting behaviors key to development of trust -Infants develop trust when they can expect their needs will be met -Babies cried less at the end of one year when caregivers consistently responded ------------ Not freud! - trust is an abstract concept - markers (can be observed) > crying less > approach to social situations > sleep well, etc

Age-Based rationing of care (Callahan)

*Age-based rationing of care* - Time when the fight against death must stop 1) After a person has lived out a natural lifespan, medical care should no longer be orientd to resisting death - No age-cutoff can be set (~80) - Doesn't mean that life at this age has no value - When old, death in near future is inevitable 2) Existence of medical technologies capable of extending the lives of elderly persons who have lived out a natural lifespan creates no presumption that technologies must be used for that purpose - Goal of medicine is to stave off premature death - Should not blindly use each intervention on every person

Doing harm: Aggression - Definition - Peak time +reason

*Aggression* Acts designed to cause harm - Physical aggression peaks at age 2.5 > Don't have ability to inhibit responses, but are asked to perform impossible tasks (ex. sitting still), leading to frustration

Newborn assessment

*Apgar scale* - Assesses child's heart rate, muscle tone, respiration, reflex response, and color on a scale of 0-2 - at 1 and 5 min. after birth - Newborns with 5 min scores over 7 are in good shape

Child abuse

*Child maltreatment* - acts that intentionally endanger children's physical or emotional wellbeing (anyone under 18 yrs) *Child abuse* - Deliberate action that is harmful to a child's physical, emotional, or sexual well-being 4 categories 1) Physical abuse - bodily injury that leaves bruises 2) *Child neglect* - Failure to meet a child's basic physical, educational, or emotional needs > Just as serious as abuse 3) Emotional abuse - Continual shaming/terrorizing/exploiting of a child - May be most common 4) Sexual abuse ------------------ Difficult to label when activities cross the line - cultural norms affect what people label as abuse - More individuals report being abused than "objective" statistics

What is the difference between cliques and crowds?

*Cliques* - Intimate groups that have membership sizes ~6 *Crowds* - Larger groups who share common interests, not all friends - Usual mixed gender Selection of friends: - Teens select friends whose values and interests they share - Abandon friends who follow other paths

Middle childhood cognition: Piaget

*Concrete operational thought* Piaget's term for the ability to reason logically about direct experiences and perceptions. *Classification* -The logical principle that things can be organized into groups (or categories or classes) according to some characteristic they have in common *Transitive inference* -The ability to figure out (infer) the unspoken link (transfer) between one fact and another. *Seriation* -The idea that things can be arranged in a series. Seriation crucial for understanding the number sequence. Reduction in Egocentrism: less bound by own preferences or assumptions, can apply logic to others

Spanking (physical punishment)

*Corporal punishment* - any discipline technique using physical measures Spanking is common in the US, but corporal punishment is not the preferred discipline - Short term effective - Primary use of corporal punishment leads to negative lasting effects > Although nothing parents do are fully predictive of outcomes. Adds to the risk factor More likely in - African american community - People who believe bible is literally true - people who were spanked as children (and saw value in it) ------------- *No evidence that spanking is associated with any improvement in child behavior* Against spanking - Conveys message that it is okay for big people to hurt smaller people - Impairs prosocial behavior because it causes children to only focus on themselves - associated with: > Increased aggression > Increased anti-social behavior > Later mental health problems - Affects attachment, parent-child communication, power dynamic - Children learn to solve problems with violence Limits on corporal punishment from for group: 1) *Never hit an infant* - Babies can't control their behavior and don't know what they are doing wrong - Much higher risk of permanent injury Frequent spanking promotes the behavior it is supposed to cure

Molecular genetics of fertilization

*Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)*: - part of the nucleus of cells, contains the genetic "instructions" that direct growth & development •Bases: Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine• *Gene*:basic unit of heredity, a segment of DNA, varying in length, builds proteins that serve many different purposes in the body - Template for protein creation - Turn on and off instructions for growth over time *Chromosomes*: Chains of genes formed from DNA during cell division - Each chromosome pair is a match except sex chromosomes Programmed cell death -> Miscarriage - Error in chromosomal cellular alignment

Prosocial behavior: deeper - Empathy vs. sympathy vs. antipathy - What encourages prosocial behavior?

*Empathy* - Directly feeling another persons *Sympathy* - More muted feelings that we experience for another human being (but don't feel their feelings) *Antipathy* - Feelings of dislike or even hatred for another person 1) Sympathy is related to behaving in a prosocial way, rather than empathy - Empathy can provoke a variety of reactions (ex. laughing out of empathetic embarrassment) - Need to mute empathic feelings into sympathetic response 2) Requires superior information processing skills - Need to decide when to be generous - Need to decide when you can offer aid (need skills) 3) More prosocial when they are happy ----------------- Gender differences - Men may be more prosocial in own competence realm Intense emotional experiences are foundation of moral development

Generativity

*Generativity* vs. stagnation - contributing in worthwhile ways to others and community > Key to happiness (?) - Erikson stage of 40s-60s ----------------- Little difference in generative attitudes - Prosocial behavior appears in toddlerhood Differences in generative *priorities* - Young people centered on identity issues - Midlife and older more likely to report generative goals - Need to resolve personal development before we are primarily concerned with giving to the outside world People don't necessarily move into generativity as they *enter* midlife - As they get older, generativity increases though - Highest in early 60s - Declines as physical health declines

Palliative interventions: Hospice care

*Hospice movement* - Death is a natural process. NEed to let this process occur in the most pain-free, natural way Hospice workers are skilled at minimizing patient discomfort. Trained in providing humanistic, supportive psychological environments - Lets patients/families know they will not be abandoned in face of approaching death ------------- Mainly delivered in a freestanding organization Requires physician to certify that person is within six months of death Home hospice is cheaper than traditional end of life care + medicare fully covers it - Available to all socioeconomic levels

IQ result interpreation

*Intellectually disabled/mental retardation* - label for WISC score of 70 or below AND being markedly behind peers in ability to meet basic requirements of daily life - Often placed in segregated classrooms - Slow or late thinking *Specific learning disorder* - If result is higher than expected, it is defined as any impairment in language/difficulties related to listening, thinking , reading, speaking, spelling, or math - High IQ, low achievement scores *Dyslexia* - Any reading disorder - Regardless of doing well on intelligence tests + having good instruction, child still struggles to read - Mainly male diagnosis *Gifted learners* - IQ higher than 130 (top 2%) - Might be segregated

Childhood: Theory of mind - Definition + age - Ways to demonstrate

*Interdependence theme - Cognitive ability to understand social environment *Theory of mind* ~ 4-5 yrs - Children's first cognitive understanding that other people have different beliefs and perspectives from their own. - Understand that one's brain is private - Gradual aquisition of perspective taking and reduction in egocentrism Theory of mind demonstrations: 1) *The false-belief task* - Demonstrates theory of mind - Hide something in presence of a child and another adult - Adult leaves - Move the toy while child watches - Ask child where the adult will look for the toy - Under 4 will answer first hiding place 2) Instruction task - Child explains a task to another child - Pre-theory of mind children don't fill in the blanks - Older kids explain rules and components - Engage in turn-taking - Checked for understanding

intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation

*Intrinsic motivation* - Drive to do something based on internal forces/interests *Extrinsic motivation* - Doing something in order to get something from the external environment - When people get extrinsic motivators, they lose the drive to do the activity for its own sake - Extrinsic motivators can be important to kick-starting intrinsic motivation though (introducing to new topics, etc)

alternatives to institutionalization (US)

*Medicare* pays only for services defined as cure-oriented 1) Continuing-care retirement community - Residential complex that provides different levels of service - Provides ultimate person-environment fit, with residents getting appropriate care for their needs 2) Assisted-living facility - Designed for people with ADL limitations, but do not require full-time, 24-hour care - Offers care in a less medicalized, homey setting - Residents often have private rooms with their own furniture 3) Day-care programs - For older people who live with family - Provide activities and place for the odler person to go when family is at work - Puts off need for a nursing home 4) Home health service - Helps people age "in place" - Paid caregivers cook, clean, and help older adults with personal care

Adolescent development of morality - Piaget

*Morality* - sense of what is right and wrong and of fairness/justice Stage theories - Piaget's moral realism vs. moral relativism - Kohlberg's preconventional, conventional, and post conventional reasoning ------------ Piaget - *Moral realism* - all rules must be obeyed - *Moral relativism* - Rules can be changed, depends on intentions

Measuring health

*Mortality:* number of deaths each year per 1,000 members of a given population *Morbidity:* rate of diseases of all kinds—physical and emotional, acute, chronic ,fatal—in a given population *Disability:* Long-term difficulty in performing normal activities of daily life *Vitality:* how healthy and energetic—physically, emotionally, and socially—an individual actually feels

Principles of physical aging

*Normal aging* - Body deterioration that advanced gradually over years (Ex. atherosclerosis, fragile bones, vision/hearing problems) 1) Chronic disease is often normal aging "at the extreme" - Physical diseases in moderation are called normal. Called *chronic disease* when they become extreme - Chronic illness results in both death and *ADL (activities of daily living)* problems 2) ADL impairments are a serious risk during the old-old years - Two categories of ADL: > *Instrumental ADL problems* = troubles performing tasks important to living independently (ex. cooking and cleaning) > *Basic ADL limitations* = problems with basic self-care activities (feeding self, bathroom, etc) 3) The human lifespan has a defined limit - Super-centenarians (110+ years)

Palliative interventions: Changing hospitals

*Palliative-care service* - A special unit or service devoted to end-of-life care within a traditional hospital setting Certain groups of inpatients have care managed by team of providers trained in shifting from cure to death Patients not denied cure-oriented interventions AS condition becomes terminal, life-prolonging treatments shift to providing comfort care ------------ Families rate it highly Services are cost effective Does not make death more likely ------------ Access is extremely limited - only 1/4 terminally ill people have access

Case: Old age as best time of life

*Paradox of well-being* - Happiness improves well into later life ---------------- 2 causes 1) Older people prioritize positive emotional states - Focus on positive experiences (*positivity effect*) > Less affected by negative feelings - View distressing life experiences in a less gloomy way (less negative emotions and anxiety) - Adept at minimizing negativity AND know we can rise above the storms of daily life - Seen in nun diary/recollection study and eye tracking experiments 2) Live less-stressful lives - Fewer daily stresses - Outside world treats you with special care

Piaget's stages (preop + concrete)

*Peroperational thinking* - defined by what children are missing - Ability to step back from immediate perceptions - 2-7 years *Concrete operational thinking* - Defined by what children possess - Ability to reason about world in a more logical, adult way - by 7-8 years. Lasting through 12 - At ~6 they may be unsure - Specific conservations come in at different ages (ex. May not conserve both mass and liquid)

Learning in school: reading and writing approaches (~5-6)

*Phonics approach* - Teaching reading by first teaching the sounds of each letter and of various letter combinations - can be frustrating *Whole-language approach* - Teaching reading by encouraging early use of all language skills: talking, listening, reading, and writing *Calling a truce* - Phonics approaches help children get a good start - Whole language approaches help advanced reading comprehension

Other forms of punishment

*Power assertion:* - A disciplinary technique that involves threatening to withdraw love and support and that relies on a child's feelings of guilt and gratitude to the parents - Threatening to abandon child (lying!) > Threatens the attachment bond *Time-out*: - A disciplinary technique in which a child is separated from other people and activities for a specified time. > Doesn't help them learn what they did wrong > Can help parents if used on themselves > Use to help children/parents regain emotional control (NOT humiliating. NOT using your power) *Discipline based in authoritative concepts*: -Age-appropriate communication (understand theory of mind, Piagetian limitations on thinking) -Clear communication of boundaries or expectations -Redirection/distraction rather than punishment -Offering choices when possible to help build autonomy - More work! - Honor them as another human and their emotions ------------------ Do not do things to your kids that aren't consistent with the values - don't lie - don't use power - don't use fear > Interferes with learning

Primary aging vs secondary aging

*Primary Aging* - The universal, irreversible physical changes that occur to all living creatures as they grow older. *Secondary Aging* - The specific physical illnesses or conditions that become more common with aging but result from poor health habits, genetic vulnerability, and other influences that vary from person to person.

Resilient children - qualities

*Resilient children* confront terrible conditions and go on to construct successful loving lives Qualities of resilient children 1) Often have a special talent 2) Skilled at regulating their emotions 3) High sense of self-efficacy 4) Optimistic worldview 5) Strong faith or sense of meaning in life Being resilient depends on inner qualities AND quantity of environmental setbacks Social supports also matter! - Resilient children typically have at least one close, caring relationship

brain changes in middle adulthood

*Senescence* - Decline in optimal functioning of all bodily systems - firing slows, fewer neurons & synapses 1) Loss of brain volume - Gyri narrow (hills) - Sulci widen 2) Ventricles increase in size 3) Thinning of gray matter (synapses) - where neurons are concentrated - Starts in early 20s - Fine tuning > more efficient processing 4) Thinning of white matter - axon, myelin sheaths, and glial cells - Increases until ~40 - Decreases after

Social clock

*Social clock* Age norms (what behaviors are appropriate at particular ages) - *on time* = matches normal timetable - *off time* Age norms: 1) Some legislated 2) Some optional 3) Change over time 4) Culturally variable The agendas are not necessarily under our control (ex. can't just get married) - Sense of being out of control and pressured

Social awareness: middle childhood *Know social cognition of early vs. middle childhood

*Social cognition* - The ability to understand social interactions, including the causes and consequences of human behavior Knowledge and understanding of the social world, including: - Social inference: guesses, assumptions about others - Social responsibility: Obligations to others - Social regulation: adhering to customs, conventions about social interactions

Self concept: childhood

*Social comparison* - Tendency to asses one's abilities, achievement status, and other attributes by measuring them against peers > Affected by everything that is said to them (interest, no interest) > Think about what you want to stick. The bad sticks harder than the good - Helps gain realistic understanding of own strengths - Less extreme overconfidence - Inhibition rises from 18 months to 10 years - Materialism rises across middle childhood: value things peers value

Socioeconomic status, aging, and disease

*Socioeconomic health gap* - Worldwide health disparity between the rich and the poor within a nation Socieconomic gap most pronounced during adulthood - As normal age changes progress to chronic disease Based on the fetal programming hypothesis, this can be traced back to the womb - Low birth weight > epigenetic links to premature heart disease and earlier death Many negative health forces related to poverty - Obesity and elevated cortisol levels also more common in low-socieconomic preschoolers - All these accumulate to increase allostatic load (overall marker of body breakdown signalling disease) Adult lifestyle forces linked to poverty - Smoking - Lack of exercise - Poor eating habits - Stress of unemployment and crime-ridden neighborhoods

Effects of stress

*Stress* - The body's response to a potential threat Triggers the *fight-or-flight response* - The body's automatic response to stress (either to face danger head on or flee) - Parasympathetic system is suppressed and symapthetic nervous system is activated > Elevated heart rate + blood pressure + muscle tension + breathing rate > Adrenalin and cortisol - Immune system weakened The trigger of the stress response is known as a *stressor* - Can be negative or anticipated events *Chronic stress* can take a toll on the body and cause physical, emotional and behavioral problems

Standard IQ tests: adults + studies of cognition in adulthood

*Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scle (WAIS)* (Crossectional) - Standard test for adult IQ - Similar format as WISC. Has verbal items testing different types of knowledge - Part of it asks test-takers to perform unfamiliar nonverbal activities quickly (known as the performance scale) > Speed is of the essence on this part Using this test, it was found that average scores declined after 18-21 - Scores on verbal sections were stable/declined slowly - Scores on performance scale slid down steadily The researchers ignored educational differences in the study (older people only went through middle school) -------------- Early longitudinal studies - Showed Increases in vocabulary, comprehension, knowledge -------------- *Seattle longitudinal study* - Definitive study of intelligence and age - Combined longitudinal methods (biased positively) and cross-sectional research (biased negatively) - Collected data from 2 cohorts - Followed the cohorts through time longitudinally - At each eval., they selected another cross-sectional sample who they followed longitudinally

Cognitive theory of psychosocial development (infants)

*Working model*: Set of assumptions that the individual uses to organize perceptions and experiences -Child's interpretation of early experiences more important than the experiences themselves. -New working models can be developed based on new experiences or reinterpretation of previous experiences. Social info is organized in brain like any other kind - people replicate social relationships they had early over time

Girl vs. boy play

*gender segregated play* - Only associate with members of their sex - Typical in childhood - not present in toddlerhood - emerges in preschool 1) Activity level - Boy play is more rambunctious, girl play is calmer 2) Playgroup size + way they relate - Boys compete in groups, girls play collaboratively one-to-one - Girls play in smaller, more intimate groups - Boys compete + establish dominance, while girls collaborative Boys are the first to segregate play + generally have more rigid gender barriers - Boys less likely to play with girl toys

Observing the self (childhood - personality) - Self-awareness - Self-esteem > Areas that self esteem depends on > Erikson's tasks and self-esteem

*self-awareness* - the way children reflect on who they are as people Harter, with basis in Piaget's concrete operational stage, asked children to describe themselves When children reach concrete operations, they realistically evaluate their abilities and decide whether they like or dislike themselves - *self-esteem* (tendency to feel good or bad about ourselves) begins to be a major issue in elementary > tends to decline Erikson's task: *initiative vs. guilt* (preschool) plays into this. - Need to test abilities in wider world. Task shifts to *industry vs. inferiority* around age 6-12 - need to manage emotions and work for what we want to achieve (industry). Know we aren't perfect and are vulnerable to low self-esteem. - Inferiority = sense that we don't measure up - Work on regulating temper internally > *effortful control* - Ability to regulate one's emotions and actions through effort, not simply through natural inclination Self-esteem doesn't rely on one area. 5 areas that self esteem depends on: - Important to know which areas they prioritize (differing values) > Can discount some areas (which is important) 1) Scholastic competence (Academic) 2) Behavioral conduct (being good/obedience) 3) Athletic skills (performance at sports) 4) peer likeability 5) Physical appearance

Shame vs. guilt and prosocial acts

*shame* - primitive feeling we have when we are personally humiliated *guilt* - more sophisticated emotion we feel when we have violated a personal moral standard or hurt another human being They both are self-conscious relationship oriented emotions, but have opposite effects - Shame causes us to withdraw from people. Feel furious at being humiliated and want to strike back > Diminishes us - Guilt connects us to people. We feel bad about what we've done and try to make amends > In moderation can cause us to act prosocially and emotionally enlarge Shame techniques are especially poisonous - Can draw on shaming childhood to construct prosocial lives Love is best prosocial socializer, but life's adversities can promote altruism too

Differing body concerns for girls and boys puberty

*thin ideal* - pressure to be abnormally thin - Girls worry about being too tall Boys also have pressure to gain muscle Testosterone may dampen desire to be thin (eg. having a male twin) Outer world pressure also plays a role - Media advocates thin ideal > Effect depends on who their media role models are

Executive functions: Definition + what they depend on

- Any skills relating to managing memory, controlling cognition, planning behavior, and inhibiting responses •Executive functions: 1) Rehearsal (saying something, repeating, elaborating) 2) Selective attention (Ability to not do certain things. Attend to only one thing) 3) Inhibition ability All rely on prefrontal cortex/frontal lobes

Things to look for (maltreatment)

- Anything off time or out of sync with normal time table (can have other causes) - PAtterns of injuries > Lots of accidents/injuries taht don't match reported actions - Kids who explore *extreme* violence in fantasy play > Some violence is normal. But these focus solely on violence > Concepts beyond their developmental stage (talking about body is normal tho) - Slow rate of growth / regression > bed wetting, fear behavior (hypervigilance) of where caretaker is)

Size of obesity epidemic

- Ballooned ~35 years ago (late 1980s). Fraction of obese elementary schoolers had doubled over a decade - Has spread throughout developed world. Differs from nation to nation. o Developing world obesity is most common in cities + affluent boys/girls o Developed world obesity is more common among poor and rural areas o By ethnicity, most prevalent in latino and African americans - Prevalence of preschool obesity declinded significantly

Limiting overweight

- Best to control early on. Focus on pregnancy and early years of life - Never put pregnant woman on diet. Explain that excessive weight gain may have obesity promoting effects for both mother and baby - Reduce chance of prematurity rates too - Limit excessive feeding during first year of life (Especially for overweight or depressed mothers, who are more prone to offer food or prematurely give solid food) - Understand that limiting intake is difficult for overweight children. - Know that obesity control programs are apt to be rejected if they seem insulting to parents or attack self esteem of child.

Testosterone + estrogen gender differences

- Both are produced by males and females - Testosterone + adrenal androgen serve as desire hormones (sexual arousal) > Women produce mainly estrogens > Boys have 8x estrogen girls do after puberty

Information processing perspective: memory

- Break cognitive processes into components and divide thinking into steps Memory: 1) Stimuli is held briefly in a *sensory store* - Split second sensory information 2) That enters *working memory*, in which information is brought to awareness and we act to either process or discard it - Working memory made up of executive processor and limited-capacity holding bins > Processor allows us to remember and manipulate material in working memory to prepare it for permanent storage - Moves into a long lasting store - Differences in working memory predict school readiness o Basic working memory swings into operation around age 6 Stores expand from 2 to 5 bits by age 7 (explains concrete operations around then) 3) *Long-term memory* - Component of info processing in which basically limitless amounts of info can be stored indefinitely > Costs effort, time, and motivation > Some memories remain here easily

Aging changes: vision

- Change after ~40 1) *presbyopia* > Difficulty focusing on small, up-close objects - Eye muscles weaken > Most need reading glasses or contacts 2) Pupils shrink, so eyes react more slowly to changes in light/dark 3) Glare may be an issue (dangerous when driving) The above changes are due to changes in the lense - Lens becomes stiffer, thickens, and develop impurities ---------- - Older lens may discolor, making it difficult to perceive differences in colors - Eyes sink further into sockets > Restrict peripheral vision + reduce field of vision

Socializing prosocial children

- Concrete reinforcements counterproductive 1) Provide children space to spontaneously give 2) Provide caring socialization climate - Model prosocial behavior > Help people in need regularly > Be caring and cooperative with your spouse > Encourage child to talk about emotions and respond to distress symapthetically > Be attuned to caring things your child does and attribute them to their personality (ex. you are a caring person for doing that instead of that was a nice thing you did) 3) *Induction* - A technique in which you get a child who has behaved hurtfully to empathize with the pain they have caused the other > Point out ethical issues + Offers concrete feedback on exactly what they did wrong + moves them off of focusing on their own punishment to the other child's distress + Allows for reparations, the chance to make amends > Works because it stimulates guilt

Early development of physical skills

- Development of complex fine motor skills (like reproducing images) predicted elementary school math and writing skills - Counterproductive if it is forced - Allow young children to exercise their talents, don't push, and create right person-environment fit

Effective scaffolding

- Foster secure attachment. Nurturing responsive interactions - Break larger cognitive challenges into manageable steps - Continue helping until child has fully mastered step before moving on

Lessening impact of normal vision loss

- Make sure homes are well lit, but avoid overhead light fixtures that produce glare - Design appliances with nonreflective materials and adjustable lighting - Put enlarged numbers on appliances Visions are a prime cause of ADL impairments Risk for falling ------------ Social consequences - Not leaving the house for fear of falling - Depending on loved ones and being infantilized (not being allowed to do things they could do themselves) Solutions - Encourage person to visit low vision center for rehabilitation (these work) - Creative coping mechanisms > Manipulating environment > Drawing on positivity skills to take pleasure in what they can still do - Why vision loss isn't linked to depression in old age

Summary of adolescence

- More variable life course trajectories - Increased risk taking - Risk taking combined with non-nurturing environment is most likely to result in real problems - Capable of higher order thought, but often pulled off track by social concerns - Wide variation around the world

Who are teens having intercourse with?

- Most do it within a steady relationship - Outside of relationships, they tend to know the person well - People wanting to change a friendship to a romantic relationship - Exes

Evaluating nursing homes

- Nursing homes may offer perks, whether they be physical or feelings of safety - Movement to make them more homey - More than half of industry experts rate quality fair to poor - 1/5 Michigan families reported relative suffering some abuse (higher risk for "difficult" residents) - Erodes efficacy (ex. having to follow a predetermined schedule) > Every action is dependent on workers providing care *Certified nurse assistant or aide* - Low status work (poverty-level wages) - Understaffing - Difficult to provide adequate care

Critiques of Piaget: Preoperational and operational

- Overstated egocentrism - We don't grow out of animism by 8-9. - Age at which tasks are mastered varies from place to place - Neglected the impact of teaching in promoting cognitive growth - Basic ideas (his) o We develop intellectually through physically acting on the world o Development takes place on our own inner timetable o When we are internally ready, we reach a higher level of cognitive development

Impact of drug use (adolescence)

- Progressive and the first use usually occurs as part of a social gathering - Possible addiction - Occasional drug use excites limbic system and interferes with prefrontal cortex - Drug users are more emotional, less reflective - Long term damage to growth, nutrition, memory, and self-control centers

Elizabeth Schulman (exam)

- She was retired, and her husband had died - Neonatal care unit of her hospital needed volunteers to hold babies on a saturday night - Became known in her community for kindness - She was diagnosed with a terminal illness - Did fundraising to fund "Shulman shift" > Give people some money to fill in that difficult to fill shift > Did it! - Meeting death with integrity on her own terms

Vygotsky's zone of proximal development:

- Thought that people propel mental growth > Children are *apprentices in thinking* (rely on cognitive stimulation from more advanced members of their social group) - Theorized that learning takes place in *zone of proximal development* (difference between what child can do alone and their level of "potential development as determined through problem solving with adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers." - Teach must tailor instruction to child's proximal zone. As child becomes more competent, back0off slowly and allow student more responsibility for directing learning. This sensitive pacing is known as *scaffolding* Ex. Infant directed speech > breaks task into smaller elements > Have someone help them master each step > Move onto more advanced levels > *Temporary* and *tailored* Child also teaches parent how to respond. Bidirectional o Scaffolding is not practiced through all cultures. Some children just watch. - Basics: o We develop intellectually through social interactions o Development is collaborative o People cause cognitive growth -------------------------------------- Matters at two levels 1) Concrete level - the specific task 2) General level - Learning in general *child must be biologically ready (no scaffolding will overcome that)

Memory in old age - Perceptions - Facts

- We perceive decline only - Filmed actors of different ages reading a different speech, each making a couple references to memory porblems - People described the 70 year old as forgetful only - We pass off problems of memory in younger people to *external* forces - For older adults, we interpret it as mental decline ---------------- Facts - Older people's memory is worse than the young - The more difficult the memory task, the more the performance gap grows - Especially do poorly on *divided-attention tasks* (tasks where they need to do something while monitoring something else) > Multitasking impairs memory performance at any age > Young people can master these tasks, but older people can't - Time pressures reveal memory deficits as early as late 20s > Fluid intelligence tasks

Epigenetics of obesity

- Women who gain excessive weight during pregnancy, thus giving birth to large babies, are more likely to have an obese child - Children born premature and small may have the tendency to store fat and overeat turned on in their genes - Rapid weight gain during infancy and early childhood is a strong predictor of obesity (even more than genetic propensity to gain weight)

Hearing and Auditory Perception

-Acuity of hearing improves: at 6 months infants have well-developed auditory perception -Can localize the sources of sounds even within the first days of life, but localization improves over 6 months -Especially attentive to human speech, preferring their mother's voice compared to strangers - Lots of speech directed towards infant - By 8 months, prefer actual speech (not random speech)

Intimacy in emerging adulthood: friendships

-Friendships move to highest level of abstract understanding and duration -Lasting adult friendships involve reciprocity, mutuality, stress relief, emotional support Typically most crucial members of convoy (Antonucci's convoy theory) •Chosen vs. ascribed relationship -Provide practical help and useful advice when serious problems arise •Fingerman et al. (2004) found friendships tend to improve with age.

Parenting styles (Baumrind)

1) *Authoritative parents* - High on nurturing and discipline - Set clear standards but also provide freedom and love - May bend rules - Understand that rules don't take precedence over human needs - Children: > Limits appear to be useful > Kids tend to be conscientious and high achieving 2) *Authoritarian parents* - High on discipline, low on nurturance - Parents seem inflexible, rigid, and cold - Children: > high achieving, high conscientious > Higher risk for guild + depression > Give up in face of challenge > High prevalence for leaving and having weak parental relationships > No internal sense of limits or boundaries 3) *Permissive parents* - High on nurturance, low on discipline - Child centered 4) *Rejecting-neglecting parents* - Low discipline, low nurturance - Parents are checked out - Children basically raise themselves - Children are at risk for becoming neglectful parents Children with authoritative parents were more successful and socially skilled ^best

Two types of intelligence: Crystallized and Fluid Skills

1) *Crystallized intelligence* - Knowledge base that we accumulate over the years - Increases into middle age. Declines by later life - Age losses may not happen for negotiating relationships > Good or better at judging people 2) *Fluid intelligence* - Ability to reason quickly when facing new intellectual challenges - Depends on nervous system being at biological peak - Highest in 20s, then declines - Multitasking abiliities decline - Being old hurts any activity that depends on quickness Career or creativity-wise, we peak in middle age ---------------- Creative activity that is totally original peaks in thirties If form of creativity depends on crystallized experience, people perform best in early 60s Who we are as people, our enduring abilities, outweigh changes that occur with age

Issues with traditional hospital care for the dying

1) *Dying trajectories* (predictions for the patterns that the individual's death would fallow) cannot be completely predicted - Ex. mislabelling of shorter lifespan may hasten death - If person lived longer, multiple "saying goodbyes" could play out > Living transformed into a negative event - When trajectories, death is defined as "bad" 2) Patients only enter hospital setting within days of death (rather than weeks or months) - Health professionals may not be emotionally involved with person - Little understanding of patient/family needs 3) Disagreements between members of the health-care team - Nurses know the patient/family wishes best but doctors make the final decisions > May not speak up for fear of discipline 4) Multicultural society - Difficulties in communication 5) Increase in death-defying technologies - Machines can keep people alive, but this is for a cure mission - May cause harm

Peer influences - Facilitation - Deviancy training

1) *Facilitation* - facilitate both destructive and constructive behaviors in one another - Makes it easier to do both the wrong thing and the right thing - Helps individuals do things that they would be unlikely to do on their own -------------- 2) *deviancy training* Definition: Socialization into delinquency - Destructive peer support where one shows another how to rebel against authority or social norms Happens just by talking to friends in a group - Peer interactions establish, solidify, and entrench teens in problem behavior

Types of motor talents

1) *Gross motor skills* (large muscle movements like running, climbing, and hopping). 2) *Fine motor skills* (small coordinated movements, such as drawing faces or writing)

Marcia's Identity statuses

1) *Identity diffusion (role confusion)* - Young people drifting aimlessly toward adulthood without any goals - Does not know or care what their identity is - Linked to heavy drug use, risks sexual behavior 2) *Identity foreclosure* - A person who adopts an identity without any self-exploration or thought. Premature identity formation - Handed to them by a person in authority - Trouble of decision not having internal motivations. First challenge derails them, causing them to move into moratorium 3) *Moratorium* - Engaging in search for adult life - Socially acceptable way to postpone making identity-achievement decisions - Often unhappy and struggling 4) *Identity achievement* - End point. Knowing what you want to do after thinking it through Identity paths in real life are erratic - Move backward and forward throughout adult years *Ruminative moratorium* - Anxiously obsessing over possibilities, unable to decide between different identities

Adolescent Egocentrism (Elkind)

1) *Imaginary audience* - Feeling that everyone is watching and judging, always on center stage 2) *Personal fable* - Belief that their thoughts, feelings, or experiences are unique - More wonderful or awful than anyone else's 3) *Invincibility fable* - Egocentric conviction that they cannot be hurt by anything that might defeat a normal mortal (e.g., unprotected sex, drug abuse, risky driving)

Types of physical changes in puberty

1) *Primary sexual characteristics* - Body changes directly involved with reproduction - Ex. menstruation 2) *Secondary sexual characteristics* - Many other changes that come with puberty - Breast development, pubic hair, voice changes, etc 3) *Growth spurt* - Dramatic increase in height and weight - Different by sex

Meaning of the IQ test

1) *Reliability* - Does the test give consistent answers when it should? - Yes. Pretty stable in elementary school and even after - Scores are most likely to shift when children undergo life stress > Do not evaluate IQ during family crisis 2) *Validity* - Does it predict what it is supposed to be measuring? - Yes for academic performance

Broader view of intelligence

1) *Sternberg's successful intelligence* - Believes that traditional IQ tests do harm in school environment > Relationship between IQ and school is bidirectional - Children may be assigned to lower tracks on basis of IQ, decreasing it further Said that IQ only measures one type of intelligence, analytic 1) *Analytic intelligence* - Test how well people can solve academic problems 2) *Creative intelligence* - Ability to think outside the box and formulate problems in new ways 3) *Practical intelligence* - Common sense/street smarts Being *successfully intelligent* (having optimal cognition) requires a balance of the three intelligences ------------ *Gardner's multiple intelligences theory* - Not against intelligence tests. Feels that they don't measure unique talents though - Multiple intelligences theory states that abilities come in eight, possibly nine, distinctive forms - Verbal - Mathematical - Interpersonal (understanding others) - Intrapersonal (understanding oneself) - Spatial intelligence (grasping where objects are arranged in space) - Musical intelligence - Kinesthetic intelligence (ability to use body well) - Naturalist intelligence (gift for dealing with animals, plants, or trees) - Existential (spiritual) intelligence - Spawned learning styles myth -------------- Goleman: emotional intelligence - combining social + emotional info of other people

The Hormonal Programmers + chain reaction of puberty

1) *adrenal androgens* - Starts to release around 6-8 - Release peaks ~ early 20s - Produce pubic hair development, skin changes, body odor, and feelings of sexual desire 2) *HPG axis* - Most important - Involves hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and *gonads* (ovaries + testes) Puberty is set of by a three-phase chain reaction 1) Hypothalamic hormone stimulates pituitary gland to step up production of its hormones ~ 9-10 yrs 2) This causes ovaries/testes to secrete estrogens and *testosterone* 3) These hormones cause physical transformations - Estrogens cause female hips to widen, and uterus/breasts to enlarge. Start cycle of reproduction of eggs - Testosterone causes penis to lengthen, promotes growth of facial and body hair, and is responsible for increased muscle mass+internal masculine changes

Eye conditions + diseases more common with age

1) *cataracts* - curable. Remove defective lens and insert contact lens V The below permanently impair sight 2) *glaucoma* - Buildup of pressure that can damage visual receptors 3) *macular degeneration* - Deterioration of receptors promoting central vision 4) *Diabetic retinopathy* - Leakage from blood vessels of retina into the body of the eye - Tear production decreases (dry eyes) > Untreated dry eyes can lead to infections, scarring, and inflammation

Developing speech: childhood Mistakes

1) *overregularization* - misapplication of general rules of grammar - especially for plurals or past tense forms (ex. runned) - Does NOT equal overgeneralization (application of terms to similar categories) 2) *overextensions* - Use a verbal label too broadly (Ex. all furry animals are dogs) 3) *underextension* - category term is to narrow 4) Difficulty with passive voice - Can't tell who the actor is when the people are switched around - Mistake it based on position of usual actor

Dementia types

1) *vascular dementia* - Impairments in vascular system in brain > Impairments caused by multiple small strokes - Limits to blood supply promote neural loss that is Alzheimers - Arteries blocked 2) *Alzheimer's disease* - Neurons wither and are replaced by *neurofibrillary tangles* and *senile plaques* 3) Frontal lobe dementia: - major personality changes due to deterioration of frontal lobes, amygdala 4) Parkinson's Disease dementia: possible consequence of the neurological disorder Biggest risk for neurocognitive deficits is being old-old

Causes of gender-stereotyped play

1) Biological - Gender segregated play present in animals too - Can predict male gender-typed play from hormone levels during first months of life (salivary testosterone) > High levels of testosterone in both genders predicted male play 2) Socialization - Amplifies effect of biology - Peers have a large part in this > In mixed groups, children act in less gender-stereotyped ways - Splitting trains us to behave like own sex > Reinforcement for selecting certain activities > Model each other's play 3) Cognition - Reinforces the above - *gender schema theory* - says that once children understand their gender category, they selectively attend to activities of their own sex - We grasp our gender around 2.5 years (after we begin to talk)

Views of puberty

1) Breasts >Body embarrassment at height when children are going through physical changes - Other research says that girls feel proud of large breasts because they are valued in society (as a symbol of womanhood) - In ballet school, where there is pressure to look young, breast development evokes stress > Depends on world's view ---------------------------- 2) Menstruation - In western world, menstruation was viewed very negatively - Script was changed by upper-middle class mothers, who gave positive responses - Many feel ambivalent about it ----------------------------- 3) Ejaculation - Hidden because it doesn't require outside intervention - Boys feel need to be secretive

Definitions of death

1) Cessation of breathing, heart rate, signs of rigor mortis 2) *Brain death:* - all electrical activity of the brain has ceased for a specified period 3) New Medical States -*Locked-in Syndrome* > May need intervention to keep vitals going. Normative or close to normative brain function > Maintain some motor function -*Coma* > Person is deeply unconscious. Longer they are in a coma, the less likely they are to recover/wake up -*Persistent Vegetative State* > After 2 years of coma > Spontaneous motor movement, vocalization > Impacted by previously expressed wishes, family wishes, religious affinity, cultural heritage

Puberty summary

1) Child's Reaction depends on environment in which they physically mature - Negative more likely when society looks down on a given sign of development, or when the changes are not valued - Living in sexually permissive society or changing to a non nurturing school magnifies the stress 2) Need to take steps to arrange right body-environment fit for early-maturing girls 3) Communication about puberty should be improved, especially for boys - Boys don't get much guidance

Amplifying hearing

1) Choose social settings with little background noise' 2) Speak clearly and slowly 3) Face person and use gestures (multisensory cues) 4) Avoid *elderspeak* (tendency to talk in more exaggerated tones - Mode of communication we use with people who look physically (and thus mentally) impaired - Use simpler phrases + grammer - Use infantile "loving" words that we would never use with a real adult 5) Avoid high-noise environments and cover your ears when you pass by noisy places. 6) Hearing aid - Too small - Difficult to care for - Do not completely compensate for losses described

Core attitudes in relationship success

1) Commitment - Involves positive emotions - Dedication to a partner's inner growth > Sacrifice for partner > Giving up one's desires to further another's joy - Sacrificing for those close to us benefits ourselves (needs to be reciprocal) 2) Sanctification - Feeling destined for a certain person 3) Compassion - Being devoted to the other's wellbeing - Benefits giver more than receiver - Feeling compassion for a spouse cemented attachment 4) Realistic understanding of natural "ups and downs" 5) Not abusing or controlling a partner

Basic environmental processes

1) Conditioning - Behavior modification: learning through conditioning techniques 2) Habituation - becoming used to an experience, able to filter it out 3) Social Learning - Culture - Families

Strategies to save marriage

1) Cool your conflicts - Don't increase hostility - Drop criticism - Don't get defensive - Don't be contemptuous - Don't cut out your partner Fighting about absolutely nothing - Fighting about how they fight - Control struggles 2) Savor your friendship - Give appreciation (tell your partner thank you) - Turn towards your partner - A little sex 3) Heat up your sex life - Loss of intimacy is a main issue - People aren't comfortable asking for what they need. Guys want more, but they want to feel desirable - Quality more important than quality - Talk about sex - Make it a priority

Optimal cognitive strategies in late adulthood

1) Creativity: - new/re-emerging interest in arts, volunteering 2) Wisdom: - unusual expert knowledge system 3) Life review: - Examination of one's own part in life, often takes the form of stories by elders who want to share them with younger ones. - Most older people do this

Types of relationships: Sternberg

1) Crush - Passion 2) Caring - Intimacy 3) Romantic love - Passion + intimacy 4) Empty marriages - commitment 5) Companionate marriages - Intimacy + commitment 6) Passion + commitment = sexual passion shared 7) *Consumate love - Combines passion, intimacy, and commitment - Fragile > Passion falls off with familiarity (hormonal basis) > Intimacy can fall off as they enter the working-model phase

Basic brain principles

1) Development unfolds in its own time - Can't teach baby something before relevant brain part is available 2) Stimulation sculpts neurons 3) Brain is still shaped by experiences throughout entire life

Birth

1) Dilation and effacement - Thick cervix must efface (thin out) and dilate - Accomplished through contractions > These start slowly (20-30 min) apart 2) Birth - Crowning is when baby's scalp can be seen - Fetus descends through uterus, enters vagina 3) Expulsion of placenta - Placenta and other supportive structures pushed out

Managing motor problems

1) Doctors: avoid over-prescribing medications 2) Check out exercise programs focused on improving gait and balance 3) Physical exercise can help to reverse balance, strength, and mobility declines of moderate severity 4) Adjust environment - Use high quality indirect lighting + low-pile wall-to-wall carpeting in homes - Grab bars in bathtub - Place shelves in easy reach Lower body impairments, due to limiting mobility, are #1 barrier to living independently

What are Belsky's recommendations for how society should deal with adolescents?

1) Don't punish adolescents as if they are mentally just like adults - Adolescent work is a brain in progress - Focus on rehabilitation 2) Pass laws user-friendly to the teenage mind 3) Provide group activities that capitalize on adolescent strengths - youth development programs - LEss academic offerings into school day 4) Change schools to provide better adolescent-environment fit - Adolescents that feel embedded in nurturing schools tend to feel good about themselves and the world - Autonomy supporting work - Teachers who respect their pov - Courses relevant to life - Schools adjusted to later adolescent sleep style

Why can't young children do conservation tasks?

1) Don't understand *reversibility* a. Idea that an operation can be repeated in opposite direction. Lack this schema 2) *Centering* (tendency to fix on what is most visually striking) a. Children interpret things according to first thing they take in visually, rather than whole field. (ex. Notice height, but not thinness of glass) b. Concrete operations children *decenter* and are able to step back from immediate appearance. They can understand that increase in one dimension makes up for loss of the other c. Centering also impairs *class inclusion* (knowledge that a category can encompass subordinate elements (eg. not understanding that candies include gummies)

What made emerging adulthood possible?

1) Due to twentieth-century longevity gains - We have more time to figure things out 2) Solidified by need for more education - Makes it so that we establish careers later 3) Promoted by individualistic attitudes about what makes a satisfying adult life - Western ethic stressing personal freedom

basic newborn states

1) Eating 2) Crying 3) Sleeping

Life extending forces

1) Education - Highschool graduates had shorter telomeres than people who attended college (especially among black men) 2) Close relationships - Caring social connections were as, or more, important than good health practices in predicting how long people lived - Caring figures can encourage better health practices - Oxytocin production from close relationships mute anxiety response to stress - Ex. hispanic paradox (at poverty-level, Latinos outlive low-income whites) ---------------- 3) Gender Women - Outlive men due to extra X chromosome - Fewer early heart attacks (estrogen slows process of fat deposits clogging arteries) Men tend to die quicker and sooner Women survive longer but are more frail - Live older = more age related issues - Menstruation + pregnancy related ailments - Higher rates of arthritis, vision impairments, and obesity (which mostly impair ADL but don't result in death)

Characteristics of High Quality Infant Day Care

1) Enough caregivers to be responsive to each infant, continuity of care (low turnover of staff) 2) Age-appropriate encouragement of language, physical development, and social skills 3) Obvious routines for health & safety 4) Well-trained and happy caregivers who are warm and responsive to the children they care for

Finding a career

1) Entering with high (often unrealistic) career goals - Tendency to aim high is present regardless of gender or social class in teens - Issue: Teens are clueless about what it takes to get to dream careers 2) Self-esteem and emotional growth during college and beyond - Self-esteem dips during first semester of college and rises over next few years - Personality matters in thriving. Upbeat and competent people tend to flourish. - Having stable love relationships impacts self esteem, especially for men - People grow in conscientiousness (Reliability, self-control, emotion management, and reasoning in thoughtful ways) > Rise in executive functions 3) Finding flow - Intense task absorption - Enter this state when we are immersed in a challenging activity. Activity depends on the person. - Forget about the outside world. Lose sense of time and feel intrinsically rewarded by the activity - Frequency of flow varies - Depends on being intrinsically motivated + working towards a goal - Requires delicate person-environment fit between level of challenge and person's skill > Boredom vs. anxiety

Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development

1) Erikson: Trust vs. Mistrust; Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt 2) Behaviorism/Bandura: Social Modeling 3) Cognitive Perspective

Percentage of US population 65+ (factors contributing

1) FAmily size down - Birth control access - Economic changes - Where families live - Better understanding of pregnancy - Lower infant mortality - Kids are expensive

Course themes

1) Gain AND loss over the lifespan - development is not linear - Ex. when babies are born they have the potential to learn any language, but lose that ability later on 2) Development can be organized into "domains" - Physical, cognitive, social/emotional > Artificial divisions of information. Parts are easier to study 3) Developmental psych is a science. Uses scientific method 4) Nature AND nurture - Both impact each other 5) Interdependence of domains - Domain = large area of clustered content - Interdependence = not isolated; work together with other domains 6) Individual trajectories - Pathways through adulthood are extremely variable - People have more control and are less biologically driven

Factors of grandparent involvement

1) Gender - Women more involved 2) Physical proximity matters 3) Age - Younger grandparents are able to be more involved, especially with younger kids 4) Technology - Can erode barriers of distance and age - Can feel connected without having any conversation

Case: parents don't matter

1) Genetic fate - As long as environment is adequate, genetic potential will be expressed 2) Environment matters, but peer group socializes us to become adults (Harris) - Believes learning is context specific (cannot use same working model like in attachment theory) - *acculturation* gives testament to harrison's point Children acting out is not always the fault of parents - Genetics and culture also shape Idea that parents aren't important goes too far though

Helping older adults be happy

1) Give older people ample time to learn material and give them a non-distracting environment - Memory difficulties can be lessened in this way 2) Don't stereotype older adults as having a bad memory - Help them to develop skills (mnemonic strategies, etc) - Be realistic 3) Encourage older loved ones (even those with disabilities) to maintain a personal passsion - Helps memory and happiness 4) Understand that older adults may not want to socialize or make new friends 5) Don't imagine older people as unhappy. Assume reverse is true - Be alert to depression in the physically frail and socially isolated - Be generative, feel closely attached, and have a sense of meaning in life

Staying cognitively sharp

1) Health matters - Stay physically fit - *Allostatic load* (overall physical deterioration) - An adult with an allostatic load of 2.7 would rank 3 years older in ability to quickly process info than someone of the same age with a ranking of 1 *Terminal drop* - Dramatic decline in tests of vocab or other crystallized intelligence measures predicts terminal illnesses ---------- 2) Mental stimulation with people may matter - Mental exercise (especially involving other people) may produce a resilient mind (shown in study with rats) - Adults high on openness to experience dsfagrow most dramatically in crystallized IQ - People who work in complex, challenging jobs tend to become more mentally flexible with age - Careers involving people also keep people mentally on their tows ------------ - Develop a hobby that involves physical exercise - Stay/become passionate to learn new things + have a career that expands your mind - Search for careers that involve complex, people oriented work - Understand that tasks with complicated info processing will be difficult - Adopt the *selective optimization with compensation* strategy

Communication styles that distinguish thriving relationships

1) High ratio of positive to negative comments - Caring comments strongly outweigh critical ones (below 5:1 = risk of getting divorced) 2) Don't get personal when they disagree - Confine themselves to the problem - Unhappy couples personalize conflicts: put-downs, sarcasm, look disgusted, roll eyes (expressions of contempt) - Don't get disgusted with other 3) Sensitive to partner's need for space - Trouble: If one person provides too much "support" > Micromanagement of other, excessive advice (does not qualify as compassion) - Know when to be close and when to back off

Stages of parenthood

1) Image making: preparation 2) Nurturing: compare actual to imagined, adjust 3) Authority: rule setting 4) Interpretive: help children understand the world 5) Interdependence: form new relationship with "almost-adult" 6) Departure: what has my parenting been? What's next?

Consequences of theory of mind

1) Important to convincing others 2) Important to understanding that others may not have your best interests in mind - Mean monkey experiment (takes child's reported fav sticker). Children older than 4 lied about favorite sticker to get theirs 3) Lies

Grandparent problems

1) Important to maintain good relationship with parents if you want to be involved - Not criticizing discipline style 2) Paternal grandparents at risk of not being involved - Since women are closer to own mothers and control family's social relationships 3) Divorce of parents - Can lock grandparents out of family life 4) Grandparents don't have intrinsic legal rights to visitation 5) Feeling compelled to be more involved than you want - Role conflict - *Caregiving grandparents* take full responsibility of raising grandchildren. > Tend to be poor > Deeply distressed because parent can't perform job > Feel angry at being forced into this off time role > Feel a generative watchdog responsibility to protect the grandchild

Consequences of child abuse

1) Insecure attachments - Children learn to consider other people to be hostile and exploitative - Makes them fearful, aggressive, and lonely 2) Suffer from internalizing and externalizing problems > Get rejected by peers 3) May compromise developing frontal lobes - Seen in orphanage reared babies 4) Epigenetic changes - Primed to biologically break down 5) Death 6) Suffering in all domains - Cognitive + emotional development. Physical Effects are longterm - Adolescent antisocial tendencies - Adult executive function deficits - Depression + substance abuse - Higher rates of midlife heart disease - Abusive adult-love relationships - Difficulty in lovingly bonding with baby > Maltreatment of own children Most become decent, caring parents - People who break cycle of abuse tend to have good intellectual and coping skills - More genetically resistant to stress - Stable, loving marriage ----------- Early onset and chronic maltreatment associated with worst outcomes

Changing marriage in other countries

1) Iran: Eroding male dominated marriage - Marriage is only acceptable life path - Women subservient to men > Take care of house - Changed now. Woman can initiate divorce and draw out prenuptial agreements. + Property rights - Becoming more gender equal 2) India: From arranged marriages to eloping for love - Arranged marriages declining - Eloping = running away and getting engaged without parental consent 3) Western variations - Challenges of getting and staying married

Reasons against assisted-suicide/active euthanasia

1) Killing violates principle that only got can take a life 2) Fear that euthanasia may allow doctors/family to "pull the plug" on people who are impaired but don't want to die - People may be pressured to ask for death - Government may euthanize to spare expenses ------------ Older people are apt to be against physician-assisted suicide 3) Where to draw the line - If they're in pain but not fatally ill? - Chronic depression?

Language acquisition theories:

1) Learning Approach (behaviorism) - Infants need to be taught - Spontaneous babbling is usually reinforced. - Parents are expert teachers, and other caregivers help them teach children to speak. - Frequent repetition of words is instructive, especially when the words are linked to the pleasures of daily life. - Well-taught infants become well-spoken children. 2) Language Learning is Innate - *Language acquisition device (LAD)* -hypothesized mental structure that enables humans to learn language, including basic grammar, vocabulary, intonation. Unique use of syntax & vocabulary Deaf babies babble at the same time hearing babies do 3) Social Impulse Toward Communication - Infants communicate in every way they can because humans are social beings, dependent on one another for survival, well-being, and joy. - *Infant directed speech*: young children do respond to, and prefer, IDS (1st 2 years) IDS - Follows usual grammar rules - Give a little extra > Slightly higher pitch (early hearing isn't great. Grabs attention) > Slightly slower rate of speech - Helps baby NOT baby talk, which is about the adult

Why might older adults be unwillingly pushed to move into care facilities?

1) Leaving home means shedding one's possessions and robbign people of identity and memories attached to real life 2) Fear of loss of privacy 3) Loneliness 4) Don't have the money - Only wealthy (not even middle class) can afford

Reaction to divorce depends on:

1) Level of hostility between parents - do they stop fighting? > continued fighting impacts kids negatively *Parental alienation * - Poisoning children against ex partners - Lure of relational aggression 2) Actual amount of change in child's life - more = more difficult 3) Long term commitment and engagement from both parents to be parents 4) Developmental stage - Do they understand logic? Cause and effect? - How egocentric? > (young, egocentric children more apt to blame themselves)

Understanding Mourning during childhood

1) Look at child's developmental stage - Infants/toddlers can't grasp death. May impact attachment response - Preoperational preschoolers can't grasp death as permanent. Egocentrism may produce guilt. Temper tantrums, sleep disturbances, and regressing to more baby-ish behavior are ocmmon responses - After reaching concrete operations (~9-10) children can grasp finality of death. Mourn in traditional sense. Bereavement response centers around acting out behaviors and internalizing symptoms (ex. nonsuicidal self-injury and depression) 2) Looks to the child's life situation - Most children are resilient (coping without any signs of prolonged grief) - Complicated symptoms more likely when: > death is sudden or violent > Child is already emotionally unstable > Person's family life is unstable - At this age feelings can't be channeled into a redemption sequence, so mourning may occur in fits and starts (with fresh waves of grief during milestones years later) 3) Interventions should involve a multifaceted, community-centered approach - Listen sensitively, offer emotional support, allow child to openly discuss and process the feelings of loss

Effects of transition to parenthood

1) Makes couples less intimate and happy - Applies equally to gay and heterosexual couples - Being married may heighten our commitment to family life 2) Parenthood produces more traditional (and potentially conflict-ridden) marital roles (if couple is heterosexual) - Conflicts centered on *marital equity* (feelings of unfairness) - Conflicts over differing parental styles Pre-baby attachment dance matters most in how couples are affected - Strengths and weaknesses amplified

Finding a happy career

1) Match career to personality - The closer the personality-career fit, the more success at a job - Holland's six personality types > Realistic (Physical activity/manipulation of tools) > Investigative (Find things out through researching and analyzing data) > Artistic (Creative and non-conforming) > Social (Enjoy helping others) > Entrepreneurial (Like to lead others) > Conventional (Like organizing and manipulating data) 2) Finding optimal workplace - Autonomy, nurturing, and relatedness (in our environments) - *Intrinsic career rewards* (work that is fulfilling in itself) - *Extrinsic career rewards* > Important depending on situation (ex. for breadwinner men) > Security needs (economic survival) - Feeling powerless to shape work conditions + role ambiguity = poisonous - *Role overload* = having too much to do to do an effective job - *Role conflict* = competing life demands *Family-work-conflict* - Family life interfering with work and vice versa 1) Women have more erratic, less continuous careers than men (caring for child and parents) 2) Women earn less than men, jobs are gender defined - Not due to *occupational segregation* (work division into traditionally male/female jobs) - Even in the same career, women get paid less 3) Society prioritizes salaries for fathers and expects married men to out earn wives

Barriers to hospice

1) Means confronting reality of death - Family may want to keep pursuing caregiving treatments 2) Doctors may not want to "give up" on patients 3) Misconceptions about hospice care - Not aware that people can receive curative interventions - Minority groups may not understand that medicare pays for it, or that it can happen at home > African americans may cling to cure-oriented treatments (fear of traditional medicine) > Rural areas may not have access to hospice teams 4) Patients may not want to be taken care of by family - No privacy to vent feelings - No control - Embarrassment - Care by strangers is free of guilt (protect loved ones

Expectations and Motherhood stress

1) Media provides unrealistic and idealistic view of motherhood (blissful) 2) Unrealistic performance pressures - Good children make mothers feel competent. Difficult ones make women feel like a failure - Bear responsibility for how child turns out, despite reality Moms are spending more time with their kids

Variations in emerging adulthood

1) Mediterranean model: Living with Parents and Having Trouble Making the Leap to Adult Life - Against *Cohabitation*, or sharing a house in an unmarried relationship - People only push to leave home when they find a serious romantic partner and can support a spouse 2) Northern European: Expect to Live Independently, Hopefully with Government Help - Economy is better, so people can live together and have babies out of marriage - Strong social safety net provides healthcare and other benefits - *Nest-leaving* (moving out of a parent's home to live independently) begins at brink of emerging adult years 3) The United States: Alternating Between Independence and Dependence - has features of both - Young people Cohabit and have children out of marriage - Move out of parent's house at 18 - Does not help young people find work - Economy is slow, so it's difficult to exit the nest - More erratic passage into adult life. Income inequalities also cause differences in progression - Boomerang process

Predicting at risk widowed adults

1) Men have a better chance at finding a new mate - Women are more emotionally invested (sometimes) and ahve better social support networks 2) Whether death was predicted or a surprise - On time/expected deaths are less stressful because people can prepare - Also a sense of relief if suffering was long term Husbands whose wives died were at much higher risk of dying than other widowed adults Death of a spouse hits women harder when event happens at an off-time (young) age ----------------------- Developmental systems approach!! - Emotional resilience of widow - Other attachments or passions - Attachment style (secure tend to have other secure attachments) - Wider environment > Financial situation - How culture treats widowed people Allow parents to find new romantic attachments

Things that affect motherhood negatively

1) Money worries, issues in partner relationship, or being a single parent - Make daily life difficult and impair attachments to children 2) Number of children - More = harder motherhood 3) Child with difficult temperament/chronic medical issues 4) Being a young mother

Three changes in work

1) More career + job changes - Used to be a more structured work path. Found job after school and stayed with same organization until retirement (*Traditional stable career*) - Start new careers as they travel through life. This shifting work pattern is known as *Boundaryless careers* 2) Disappearing barrier between work and family - Flexible, nonstandard work hours common - Technology moved work into the home 3) Longer hours and more job insecurity

Baby trends (parenthood)

1) More parenting possibilities - More types of people/relationships can be parents - Freedom not to be parents 2) Fewer children - *Fertility rates* (Average # births per woman) in decline in developed countries > People waiting longer to have babies

birth options past and present

1) Natural childbirth - Vague label for returning birht to true nature - Doula (nonmedical pregnancy or labor coach who provides comfort but doesn't do medical procedures) - Midwife (trained medical professional. May call obstetrician if things get bad) 2) Cesarean section - incision made in abdominal wall to manually remove baby - usually occur when there are difficulties with labor

Nature AND nurture principles

1) Nature (genetic tendencies) shapes nurture (life experience) *bidirectionality* - Who we are causes others to react to us in specific ways *evocative forces* - FAct that our inborn talents/temperament evoke (produce) certain responses from the environment *active forces* - We actively select our environments based on genetic tendencies - Ex. good at reading > reads more > better reader ------- 2) We need the right nurture (life experience) to fully express nature (genetic talents) - Ex. IQ is rising in general because humans are more nourished, more educated, and more technologically adept *person-environment fit* - making the environment such that we can express our human best

Wrap up of late adulthood

1) Not all old people are the same 2) Wide variation of normal across lifespan 3) dEvelopment unfolds across multiple and interacting domains 4) Development is NOT just gain in first half of life and loss in the 2nd half

Keys to happiness in old age

1) Opennesss to experience 2) Self-efficacy 3) Ability to reinterpret upsetting life events as growth experiences 4) Generativity - Remain lovingly attached 5) Reaching the milestone of integrity - Accomplishing what we set out to do - Not afraid to die if we don't have regrets To reach integrity, people must review their lives and make peace with what they have previously done Happiness involves finding purpose and meaning in your present life - Having sense of purpose predicts living longer Largest group of oldest-old group of people in a study weres stable in terms of life satisfaction and being socially engaged - Retained reasonably good memory

Lessons for thinking about parents

1) Parenting styles don't operate in a vacuum - Affected by child and life situation 2) Retreating emotionally is normal when dealing with a child with problems - Signals parental distress 3) Don't accuse parents of being soft. Celebrate that being child-centered is possible

critiques of classic parenting style ideas

1) Parenting styles vary from child to child and may shift at different life stages - Parents with difficult to raise children often change for the worse. May become distant and closed off - Parenting is very bidirectional 2) Parenting styles +definition of sucessful parenting can vary depending on one's society - Chua made a case for rule-oriented parenting. Not good though. Authoritative parenting was correlated with better mental health - Asian parents are not necessarily more authoritarian than others - In dangerous societies parents may be more authoritarian for their child's safety 3) Original sample had little economic, ethnic, or cultural diversity 4) Focused more on attitudes than daily interactions, possible disagreements between parents or across situations - Interviewed but did not observe parenting (bias) - Behavior does not perfectly follow values _ ideas 5) Parenting involves more than providing love and discipline - Scaffold learning - Coach children about relationships

What changes tend to happen during late adolescence?

1) Parents feel that their children are more responsible and mature, so they provide more freedom to the children 2) Children's priorities also shift from rebelling to constructing an adult life 3) Process of separation - Social markers of independence eliminate family strain - Jobs, car

minimizing puberty distress

1) Parents should Discuss puberty with same sex children - Start talks when it is emotionally easier, before changes happen - Especially dads 2) PArents of early-maturing daughters should get them involved with positive activities - especially with same-age kids - Pick best school environment 3) Environment matters tremendously - Nurturing schools are very important (6+7 grade) - Need to provide more puberty education (typically happens after the fact) =

Risk factors for child abuse

1) Parents suffering from psychological disorders AND lack of understanding of normative development - Abusive parents tend to suffer from psychological disorders (ex. depression and externalizing problems) - Hostile attributional biases (assume bad behavior from benign activities) - unrealistic expectations and determination not to spoil baby 2) Life stress with social isolation - Often young and poorly educated - Tend to be coping with overload of life events - This match is most likely to bring child abuse 3) Child vulnerabilities (disturbances in attachment relationship) - Emotionally fragile children, children with medical problems, or premature children may provoke caregiver wrath > Parent may only target that one child *You cannot blame child for their victimization!

Critiquing research

1) Participants - How were they selected - Generalizability? 2) Study measures - Accurate? - Biases? 3) Correlation does not equal causation - Third variable issue 4) Cross sectional findings do not tell how people change with age (only a snapshot) 5) Longitudinal studies may be biased due to people who stay (motivated)

Prenatal Environmental Influences

1) Paternal age: sperm do age 2) Maternal age: teens and over 35 riskier, compared to mothers in 20's 3) Maternal health & nutrition 4) Prenatal health care 5) Teratogens - Any substance that crosses the placenta and harms the fetus (diseases, medications, drugs, etc) - Most likely to cause damage during embryonic phase (before implantation, teratogens either kill or don't) - Affect brain possibly through pregnancy - Have a threshold level above which damage occurs - exert damage unpredictably 6) Critical periods - When something must occur - DEvelopment may not be reversible if interrupted 7) Sensitive periods - Time when a certain organ system is activating - When teratogens usually cause damage ------------- Smoking - Main risk: smaller than normal baby - Restricts blood flow (nutrients) to fetus - Hyperactivity - Less sleep regulation Alcohol - fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) - Small birth weight + brain - Facial abnormalities ( flattened face) - Developmental disorders (seizures, hyperactivity) - Highest risk for binge/high drinkers Chemotherapy, AIDs medication, other medications - Incompatible with pregnancy

Why bad crowds cause kids to do bad things

1) Peer sway - Model "leader" (most antisocial member) - Causes increasingly risky actions 2) Impact of being in a group - Group high = do increasingly crazy things

Issues with advanced directives

1) People are reluctant to think about their death - Most older adults in US have advance directives - Minorities and low-income elderly are particularly resistant 2) Living wills are vague and subject to misinterpretation - Even if we have detailed checklists, can people be expected to make detailed decisions?

Reasons for assisted-suicide/active euthanasia

1) People shouldn't be forced to unwillingly endure pain/humiliation of dying 2) Is it humane to stand by when diseases cause agony?

Contrast the feelings of depression in the three crowds in Figure 9.8. Are you surprised by these findings?

1) Populars/jocks - High depression in elementary, decreases to lowest in highschool 2) Brains (intellectuals) - Lowest depression in elementary school, slightly higher than populars in high school 3) Burnouts (deviants) - Consistently highest depression from elementary to high school 4) Residual types - Goths, loners, independents

Attachment phases (bowlby) book version

1) Preattachment phase (first 3 months) - Reflexive responses to world - Social smile > Milestone that occurs around 2 months. Smile in response to any human face (Reflex) 1.5) Attachment in the making (~4 months) - May show slight preference for caretaker, but happy with anyone 2) Clear-cut attachment (~7-8 months) - Phase of intense attachment that lasts throughout toddler years - Signaled by Separation anxiety (discomfort when caretaker leaves the room) - Stranger anxiety (agitation with unfamiliar others) - Peaks around ages 1-2 - Tends to end around 3 years > Can carry a working model/internal representation of their caretaker in their mind

How we know what babies know: sensation and perception

1) Preferential looking paradigm - Found that distance vision is poor. 20/400 - By age 1, have same vision as adults -Observation -Eye Tracking 2) Habituation and Dishabituation Paradigm -Use infant reflexes or looking behavior - Habituate to familiar stimuli - Interest in novelty - If they perceive difference (something new) they dishabituate (show surprise, etc) - Sucrose sucking (rate of sucking. Increase=dishabituation) 3) Visual cliff

What early warning signs might predict whether a child will have a stormy adolescence?

1) Prior emotion regulation problems - If problem behaviors are already causing them to fail, they'll be drawn to antisocial groups, who reinforce dangerous behaviors - Tests of executive functions strongly predict 2) Poor family relationships - Feeling alienated from one's parents - Insecure attachment > People want to be listened to and respected > Need to know they are unconditionally loved - Need authoritative discipline styles - Attachment dance at any age is bidirectional 3) Live in a risk-taking environment - People close to you or values of environment affect how we act

Beginning of emerging adulthood: Nest-leaving (?)

1) Produces better family relationships - Less conflict and more adult-to-adult relationships - Nest leaving doesn't happen in portugal, and not doing it has no impact in portugal - Does not mean distant family relationships > Mothers in particular remain a vital support 2) Leaving home makes people more competent in adulting - Nest-leaving has a clear economic cause, so people may not leave if they don't ahve the means - Values (e.g. collectivist values) may dissuade people from moving out Nest leaving no longer qualifies as entry point for emerging adulthood - People do not need to live independently to act mature

Protecting and teaching functions of friends

1) Protect and enhance the developing self - Insulate children from many things, including genetic tendencies to develop depression, bulling, and symptoms of ADHD 2) Teach us to manage emotions and handle conflicts - Love of friend is contingent

Theories of development

1) Psychoanalytic (erikson) 2) Behaviorist (Skinner) 3) Social learning (bandura) 4) Cognitive theories (Piaget, Vygotsky, information processing) 5) Systems theories (Bronfenbrenner) 6) Attachment theories (Bowlby, Ainsworth)

What is language development dependent on?

1) Regular opportunities for social interaction - Need to be a part of social interactions with language and see it in action 2) Inherited capacity for language - Evidenced by overregulation

Grandparent styles

1) Remote: - emotionally distant from grandchildren. - Often young 2) Companionate: - entertain and "spoil" grandchildren. 3) Involved: - active in grandchildren's day-today lives - Back up parents - Affected by distance 4) Surrogate: - parents raise their grandchildren

Summary of social policy retirement issues

1) Retirement is an at-risk life stage - The lack of pension income in US + other assets - Possible cutbacks in social security - *Old-age dependency ratio* (proportion of working adults to retirees) decreasing dramatically > Makes social security unsustainable 2) Older workers are (currently) an at risk group - Age discrimination in being made to retire early and not hired - Situation is changing 3) Older people are more at risk of being poor - Medicare helped to reduce poverty among older adults

Why do children dislike school?

1) School involves extrinsic reinforcers 2) School learning (rote memorization) is not intrinsically interesting - Does not tap creativity 3) Performance based on comparison to rest of class - Children cannot set their own learning goals.

Friendship: - Core qualities - Gender differences - Older children

1) Similarity - preschool based on similar interests in activities - Elementary school similarities based on shared morals 2) Trust 3) Emotional support --------------- Progression from geographical location to activity based similarities to abstract concept Gender differences -Girls talk more and share secrets. -Boys play more active games. Friendships lead to psychosocial growth and provide a buffer against psychopathology. - Provide a place of acceptance --------------- Older children (10+) - Demand more of their friends - Change friends less often (more loyal) - Become more upset when a friendship ends - Find it harder to make new friends - Seek friends who share their interests and values > More complex similarities

What to seek in a romantic partner

1) Someone who is similar in values/interests, but doesn't necessarily share your personality traits 2) Someone you respect as an individual - Qualities embody self you want to be - Focus on the good special qualities of your SO 3) Someone who differs in your need to take charge 4) Look for someone who is securely attached Expect bumps along the way When things don't work out, it may have nothing to do with you, the other person, or how you get along

What are some tips for parents of teens?

1) Strong emotions may not have the same meaning for the teen as for you (Ex. I'm so dumb) - It is normal for children to be secretive and rebellious - Just because your child gets mad doesn't mean they don't love you 2) Sampling forbidden activities is normal, but if the teen is getting involved in illegal activities or seems seriously depressed, you should be concerned 3) Understand that child's peer choices (and peer group status) offer hints about behavior - Striving to be in popular crowd can have unpleasant consequences 4) Roll with the punches, encourage the child's passions, and enjoy the teenager

Pathways to death

1) Sudden death (1/6 people in developed nations) - Ex. accident - Person seems healthy before death 2) Death occurs after steady decline - Ex. advance stage cancer 3) Dying is a long and erratic process - Ex. congestive heart failure, AIDS - Most common Deaths in affluent countries are typically slow - Dominated by medical procedures - Protracted, uncertain course

Variation in father involvement:

1) Traditional views of women's roles (both male and female parents) •Highly religious •Highly gender stereotyped 2) Increased workload of the woman 3) Woman'sattitude toward man's involvement •Expectation of equality/Shared responsibility? •Criticism of man's performance of parenting responsibilities? No difference in attachment styles

Having an enduring, happy relationship

1) Understand natural timecourse of love - Honeymoon high, decrease, increase with empty nest, increase with retirement 2) Be fully committed to partner 3) Act on that feeling by being devoted to person's development and take joy in sacrificing for your partner 4) Share arousing, exciting activities (that both are passionate about) 5) Be very, very positive after you get negative 6) Avoid getting personal when you fight 7) Be sensitive to partner's need for space *One key to sacrificing is reciprocity - If relationship is totally one-side or someone is being treated with lack of compassion, it is time to reconsider one's committment

Keeping memory fine-tuned

1) Use selective optimization with compensation (Baltes) A) Selectively focus on what you want to remember (don't clog bin) B) Work hard to manipulate this into permenant memory C) Use compensation (external memory aids) - Over-relying on environmental support causes problems when those supports malfunction 2) Mnemonic techniques - Emotional events are solidly embedded because they activate wider areas of the brain - *Mnemonic techniques* are strategies to make info emotionally vivid 3) Work on person's mental state - Self-doubt and biased tests - Self-fulfilling prophecy when given memory tests (worse performance) - Subjective memory complaints aren't linked to test scores - Depression is • Prevention study (Willis et al., 2006) - Reasoning training and booster sessions caused less difficulty in activities of daily living up to 5 years later (14 sessions total)

Variations in theory of mind

1) collectivist children may take longer to pass these tasks - disagreement less acceptable 2) Western siblings pass at younger ages than only children 3) Bilingual preschoolers pass earlier 4) Autistic children have the most difficulty Social skills intertwined with this task

Stages of dying (Kubler-Ross)

1) denial - Immediate reaction after diagnosis - Thinks there may be a mistake and tries to get other opinions 2) anger - Person lashes out at others, bemoaning their fate 3) bargaining - Pleading for more time - Putting off death for a bit 4) depression - Reality sinks in 5) acceptance - Individual is weak by this time, and no longer feels upset, angry, or depressed - May look forward to the end Important in raising awareness about the person in the diagnosis

Individual differences in puberty timetables

1) genetics - Identical twins go through puberty at roughly same age - Asian americans tend to be a bit behind - African american and hispanic people tend to be ahead Biggest contribution ------------- 2) Overweight + early puberty (girls only) Higher BMI during elementary school predicts entering puberty earlier Rapid weight gain in first 9 months of life is linked to menstruating at a young age ------------- 3) Family stress + early puberty (girls only) - Evolutionary psych predicts that unhappy childhoods may signal shorter life, thus spurring earlier maturity > Smaller contribution - being insecurely attached at age 1, growing up in a single-mother household, and mother use of power assertive technique predict earlier menarche

Bullying

10-20% fall into categories of 1) *bully-victims* - Less common - highly aggressive. Bully, get harassed, then bully again 2) Internalizing issues - classic victim - anxious, shy, low on social hierarchy, unlikely to fight back Internet makes bullying a 24/7 concern --------------- Cyberbullying - Aggressive behavior repeatedly carried out via electronic media More toxic in several ways: 1) Large, amorphous audience that multiplies distress - Uncertainty, loss of trust 2) Easier to do emotionally - Free from immediate consequences 3) Non-stop Same motives - Demands an appreciative audience - Least likely to bully when peers don't condone behavior "when bullying is frequent in a given classroom, or the class norm supports relational aggression, everyone is prone to bullying regardless of whether or not people personally believe this behavior is wrong"

Correlational study

A basic research design in which researchers chart relationships between the dimensions of interest - Explore as they naturally occur Lots of things to consider 1) Sampling (*representative sample* (one that reflects characteristics of the population you want to generalize to) or not) 2) Validity (accurate measure of variables) 3) Techniques A) *naturalistic observation* > Codes action (either present or active) > Typically used during childhood or with impaired adults > Observes behavior in natural environment (as it occurs). + Direct unfiltered record of behavior - Very challenging practically (time intensive) - Response bias, etc B) *self-report strategy* > Adults and older children > They evaluate their behavior anonymously via questionnaire. Mostly for adults + Cost effective + easy and quick - Subject to bias (especially with undesirable behaviors) Observer reports > Typically used during childhood or with impaired adults > knowledgable individuals completes scales evaluating person + Structured look at behavior - Biases of observer --------- Important notes: Correlation does not equal causation!! - There may be a third variable, or some bias in the sampling - We may be mixing up result with the cause (ex. adults in good physical health may be more likely to be active, rather than other way around)

What did the Gardner and Steinberg study demonstrate about adolescent behavior?

A video study that asked younger teens (13-16) and emerging adults (18-22), and adults (24+) to play a computer game where extra points could be earned by taking risks. Two conditions: 1) Play alone 2) Play in presence of two friends Findings - Being with others has no impact in decision-making of adults - Huge effect of taking risks when with peers on young teens

Baby, marriage, and happiness

Addition of a baby: - Perceived as less central to marriage now, but are still important - Causes hormonal changes in caregivers that increases nurturing - Parents less satisfied with marriage Reasons for unhappiness 1) Sleep depravation 2) A lot of work Surviving marriage after a baby: 1) Realize that you're all in the same boat - People wind up ignoring each other and feeling alone - No time for each other - No time for affection, romance, or passion - Absorb focus - Running on empty - Relation satisfaction decreases ! ------------------

*adoption study*

Adopted children are compared to both biological (genes shared) and adoptive parents (environment shared) - Evaluate heredity

Sexual desire

Adults often don't talk about sex and leave teens to figure it out for themselves Desire may begin before puberty ~ 10 yrs (4th grade) when adrenal androgens are rising but testosterone production hasn't geared up A threshold androgen level is needed to prime initial feelings of desire Environmental feedback also plays into it

*Median age* trends + reason

Age at which 50% of population is older and 50% is younger - Rising 1) Baby boomers becoming young-old 2) Twentieth-century lifespan revolution - longevity 3) Falling fertility - Birth rates declining

Moral development: Kohlberg

Argued that during adolescence we develop a moral code that guides our lives *Preconventional*(middle childhood) - Focus on external consequences - Does not demonstrate any moral sense - Age 13 Stage 1) Heteronomous Morality: fear of punishment Stage 2) Individualism: Pursue own interests, let others do so also ("golden rule" reasoning) *Conventional* (late adolesence) - Morality revolves around need to uphold society's norms - Typically where adults are - By 15-16 (many stop here, due to Kohlberg's demanding criteria) Stage 3) Relationships - Value trust, caring, loyalty - To be thought of as a good person Stage 4) Social system - Value justice, law, social order - Must follow rules to prevent breakdown of society *Postconventional* (adulthood?) Stage 5) Social contract and individual rights - Principles that transcend law - Ex. rules sometimes need to be broken for the welfare of others Stage 6) Universal ethics - universal understanding of human rights - Individual conscience is followed --------------------------------------

Physical health (emerging adulthood)

At physical peak - Skeleton (height peaks around this time, then declines) - Muscle (atrophy and are replaced by fat) - Heart (muscle weakens and thickens) - Lungs (ability to breathe and exhale forcefully declines) -Accidents leading cause of death in early adulthood (Men more likely) - Other diseases that may cause later problems (e.g., heart disease) may begin Variations in amount/speed of decline - Impacted by health behaviors

Attachment styles (Ainsworth)

Attachment styles 1) Securely attached (type B) - Use mother as a secure base to explore toys - May or may not become distressed when she leaves - Happy when she is back - Mother tends to be sensitive ^ Most common (50-70%) 2) Insecure: avoidant (A) - Excessively detached. Don't show separation anxiety or emotion when primary attachment figure returns. 3) Insecure: Anxious-ambivalent attachment (C) (resistant) - Too scared to explore. Very distressed when mother leaves, but shows contradictory reactions upon her return. Often inconsolable 4) Insecure: Disorganized (D) - Bizarre manner. Freeze, run around erratically, or look frightened when caregiver returns - Unpredictable behavior and cognitively impaired - severe trauma (Abuse, war, famine) - worst sign - no working model of attachment Not a difference in underlying connection. Every infant is closely attached

theory

Attempt to explain what causes us to act the way we do *Developmental theory* - A systematic statement of principles and generalizations that provides a framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older NOT a guess (that's a hypothesis) 1) Tested 2) Modifiable 3) Falsifiable (supported or not supported) - Not "proven" true

Toddler vs. baby vs. infant vs. early childhood vs. late childhood

Baby = 0-1 yrs Toddler ~ ages 1-2 Infancy = fist two years of life Early childhood (preschool years) = 2-5

Divorce: general info

Bad Divorced children are at a disadvantage academically, socially, and in terms of mental health - May be an economic issue - Children feel a sense of loss and worry about what will happen to them Good - Most children cope with divorce well, especially if it is drama free Children of high-conflict marriages are better off with divorced parents

Intergenerational equity

Balancing needs of young and old Getting rid of support programs for old makes them rely on their young family members - Hurts everyone

Why do humans take so long to grow up?

Because we have the ability to build on each generation's intellectual advances. Linked to social cognitive capacity to put ourselves into others' heads and intuit intentions. Needs a large, slow-growing brain

Language changes of 1st two years - milestones

Birth - Crying (conveys need), phoneme perception 2 months - Non-reflexive meaning; cooing, fussing, crying, laughing 3 months - Add squeaks,growls, vowel sounds 6 months - Add babbling, understand words (receptive language) - Alternate vowel-consonant sounds ~ 8 months - lose ability to distinguish tones of different languages. Can hear differences in similar sounds 9 months - Understand simple words, first words, word-like utterances, gestures for communication 12 months - Holophrases (single word that stands in for additional info), slow vocabulary growth 18 months - Two word phrases, Vocabulary explosion 24 months - Telegraphic speech (may miss some grammar, but combines words) , increase complexity, rules of grammar

Newborn sight - milestones

Born with blurry vision, improves over first year - Can focus on objects between 12-18 in. (holding distance!) -Focusing ability develops by 3 to 4 months, including binocular vision -Improve ability to discriminate between colors by 6 months -Engage in selective visual attention, especially drawn to pictures of their mothers, other human faces -Develop depth perception by about 6 months: visual cliff paradigm (walk over glass cliff) --------- Faces - Can recognize mother and focus specially on faces - Gravitate towards attractive faces - Gravitate towards relationships (ex. eye contact, mimic facial expressions) - 3 months can discriminate between all ethnicities - Discriminate faces from our racial group better (9 months)

Sexual double standard

Boys are supposed to want sex, girls are supposed to resist - Boys are reinforced for having sex - Girls experience danger and ambivalence Stereotype that girls are looking for relationships and boys are looking for sex feed into this - Not true. Most do it in a committed relationship. Feeling emotionally intimate was a reason for sex for both genders - Neither gender likes going too fast - sex decisions are mutual usually Girls tend to make more comments online

brain development in adolescence

Brain achieves full size ~18 years Growth in connections with neurons + synaptic pruning + myelination occur - due to maturation of prefrontal cortex - Myelination until ~40 Frontal lobe (especially the prefrontal cortex) within the cerebral cortex shows significant changes - This area inhibits impulses, focuses attention/planning Limbic system - Automatic emotional expression - Motivated behavior - Involved with reward and pleasure (explains decline of happiness) Teen brains have slower metabolism (due to no longer building new synapses + pruning synapses to make brain more efficient) Hormones - Hormones that increase excitability rise around 7 yrs and plateau around adolescence - Hormones released by gonads are linked to increases in moodiness, aggressive behavior, and aggressive thoughts in both genders (small effect) ------- Uneven neurological development - Limbic system before prefrontal - From the inside out to cortex, back to front - Hormones affect amygdala more directly than cortex Benefits of uneven brain development - Decreased rxn time (myelination) - Enhanced dopamine activity - Synaptic growth enhances moral development and openness to new experiences/ideas - Continued plasticity+potential for learning

Brain development: Middle childhood - Limiting factors - Causes of growth - Important ways of growth - Functions of prefrontal cortex

Brain grows more slowly in size (Between 6 and 8) - Limited by closing of gaps (sutures) between skull parts - By age 10, brain is 95% size of an adults Growth during this time is due to - More dendrites on neurons - Myelination on neural fibers ------------ Brain grows in two important ways: 1) Myelination fo connecting fibers 2) Pruning of synaptic connections - synapses that are not used are lost - These changes are more pronounced in prefrontal cortex -------------- Prefrontal cortex is responsible for 1) Inhibiting impulsive behavior 2) Stopping emotional outbursts 3) focusing attention 4) goal setting 5) planning

contexts of development

Broad general influences

Characteristics of preoperational thought

Builds on schemas developed in sensorimotor stage -Lasts from age 2 to 7 -Builds on symbolic representation abilities -Uses language to leave sensorimotor exploration -Shows typical limitations on understanding the world -------------- 1) Young children lack *identity constancy* (idea that people are still essential selves despite change sin visual appearance) 2) *Animism* (difficulty young children have in sorting out what is really alive) o Preschoolers see inanimate objects as having consciousnesses 3) *Artificialism* o Young children believe humans made everything in nature (Ex. Have power to turn off the stars) 4) Artificialism and animism illustrate idea of assimilation - Child knows they are alive, so apply alive schema to others o Seeing adults do amazing things, generalizes adult ability to manipulate to everything in world 5) *Egocentrism* - another aspect of preoperational thought. Inability to understand that others have different points of view. Believe that they themselves are at center of world o Does NOT mean they are vain and uncaring Ex. Assumes what comforts them will comfort you o Example of centering (unable to decenter from own mental processes) 6) *Reification* - Belief that stories and dreams are real - Need to approach the issue from the dream state (acknowledge that it's "real") 7) *Static reasoning* - Child thinks that nothing changes. Whatever is now has always been and will always be that way (ex. why am I not in your wedding photos?) - 4-5 8) *Irreversibility* - Child thinks that nothing can be undone. A thing can never be restored to the way it was 9) *Lack of conservation*

Developing speech: childhood - Phonemes vs. Morphemes vs. Syntax vs. semantics - Talking with other children

By kindergarten, adult language is basically nailed down *phonemes* - the word sounds of language - age 3 children have trouble pronouncing multisyllabic words - get over these issues (for the most part) in elementary school *morphemes* - meaning units of language (Ex. boys has 2: boy + plural s) - As children age, average # of morphemes per sentence (*mean length of utterance (MLU)*) - Between ages 2-3, these are rapidly acquired *syntax* - system of grammatical rules in a language - No: First added to beginning of sentence (no go), and then moved to the inside next to the verb (I no sing) - Question starts as declaritive with rising intonation, then is replaced by propper word order - Typically create grammatically correct sentences by the time they enter school *Semantics* - understanding word meanings - Grows throughout life --------------- Talking with other children: 1) *Collective monologues* - Not true conversation. No sharing, but no colliding of speech either - Turn taking 2) *Pragmatics* - Social and cultural aspects of language - Picked up from modeling

Types of aggression + who does what more

By motive: 1) *Proactive (instrumental) aggression* - Hurtful behavior that is initiated to achieve a goal (ex. to get something) - Emotionally cool and carefully planned - May feel sense of self-efficacy 2) *Reactive aggression* - Response to being hurt, threatened, or deprived (ex. hitting back) - Involves rage, causing blind lashing out - Frustration-aggression hypothesis states that we are biologically primed to retaliate or strike back By form: 3) Direct aggression - Everyone can see it - Peaks around age 2-3 - More common in boys (especially physical) 4) *Relational aggression* - Acts designed to hurt our relationships - Targets self esteem + involves more sophisticated social skills. Thus, follows different developmental paths - Rates of open aggression decline during middle childhood, but relational aggression rises - Peaks during adolescence. Common through adult life - No obvious gender difference We all behave in every aggressive way. Being aggressive is not bad (helps climb social ranks, etc), but excessive reactive aggression ensures troubles in the social world - Boys do instrumental, reactive aggression, and direct aggression more - Powerful people use relational aggression (possibly more by boys) Aggression is harmful but also necessary sometimes

Willie murphy (exam)

Championship power lifter at 81 - Took up in lat 70s - Lone person in 80s who competes - Generative attitude (bringing younger owmen into the sport) - Looking back and forward - Investing in other people Still lots to do, bring, and enjoy in old age

Brain development: Early childhood

Changes result in more rapid thought, coordinated behavior, better planning, and goal setting. --------------- 80% of adult size by 2 - Most of growth is increase in dendrites and synaptic connections - Overall more synapses are added than removed Growth slows after 2nd birthday ------------ Myelination mostly complete by 3rd birthday, but continues throughout life - myelinated nerves are white matter - unmyelinated are grey -------------- *Corpus callosum* - band of fibers that connects left and right hemispheres of the brain - Rapidly myelinates during early childhood Lateralization continues ---------- Prefrontal cortex is last part of brain to fully myelinate and mature - Myelinated around 3-4 years high metabolism reflects remodeling of synaptic connections ------------------- Frontal lobe growth Cerebral cortex takes ~ 2 decades to fully mature. Myelination occurs into 20s. Synaptogenesis occurs for a long time too, especially in *frontal lobes*, which are responsible for higher thinking. - Frontal synaptogenesis doesn't start until ~9 years. - Frontal lobe is important to self-control, physical abilities, and cognitive abilities. -------- Not quite ready for school - Impulsivity, lack of focus - *preservation* - being unable to switch gears or attention to something else - More regular sleep - Emotional organization (outbursts self-monitored)

School: impact of SES

Children from low income families do worse on average than upper-middle class children Also put into worse schools

Changing concept of childhood

Children were seen as little adults, and childhood wasn't really a thing - They worked, had high mortality and poverty, and abusive parenting practices were normal 17th century changes: Rousseau and Locke said that children entered life innocent and were blank slates (respectively) Late 19th century - Universal education (primary school) became mandatory - School protected children from working - Still worked after primary school - Ushered in kinder idea of childhood Early 20th century (modern age) - Living standards improved and ideas of 17th century could be implemented Beginning 20th century - Hall identified adolescence - During great depression (1930s), Roosevelt signed bill making high school attendance mandatory. Made adolescence standard Recent decades: - With college + grad. school, adulthood is being delayed. *emerging adulthood* (18~late twenties) involves exploring our place in the world - Can postpone marriage because of long life expectancies

Germinal period

Conception -2 weeks - When cell mass has not fully attached to uterine wall 1) *Ovulation* - Typically around day 14 of cycle - *hormones* (chemical substances that target certain body parts and cause change) orchestrate ovulation - Fallopian tube takes up ovum from ovary. Contracts to propel ovum to uterus over course of 3 days 2) Fertilization - union of sperm and egg - Sperm from testes expelled into the vagina. Travel up fallopian tubes - Sperm drill into ovum - One gets in, and all others are shut out 3) Zygote (36 hrs) - Single celled - STarts extremely rapid cell division 4) Blastula (blastocyst) - ~100 cells differentiated into layers. Present once zygote reaches uterus - Hollow ball filled with fluid (~.1-.2 mm) 5) Differentiation - Not random - Process of specializing towards ultimate function 6) Implantation - Embedding into uterine wall. NOT in fallopian tube (which is the dangerous ectopic pregnancy)

Push/pull retirement decision (Impact of age discrimination)

Concerns 1) Do you have enough money? 2) Health (Can I continue at work?) 3) Age discrimination Impact of age discrimination - Illegal in the U.S. but difficult to prove that firings were because of age - Lavish incentives are used to get workers to retire - Negative stereotypes about old workers (be rigid, make more mental mistakes, be fearful of technology, and be less adaptable) > False!!!! > Age made people more flexible, compliant, reliable, and less likely to take time off for being sick ----------- 4) Wanting to work longer or retire - Positive choice too - Passion to stay - Excitement to go

Career happiness and success

Core self-evaluations predict work success 1) High-self esteem - go for more fulfilling career 2) Optimism 3) Self-efficacy (feeling of control in life) > Seek realistic feedback and ask for support that will make them effective - Emotion-regulation (Ability to disengage from job stress) - Gravitating towards challenging tasks Goal: To view job as a calling, perfectly expressing identity and mission in life - Comes from time committed

Piaget's cognitive developmental theory

Covered birth through adolescence - Staid that children progressed through qualitatively different stages (qualitative meaning they think about the world in completely different ways) Humans want to grow and learn - Growth occurs through *assimilation*, in which we fit the world to our existing cognitive structures (Schemas) -*accommodation* occurs and we change our thinking to fit the world Children -------------------- How does this child understand the world? What is his thinking like? -------------------- 0-2) Sensorimotor - The baby manipulates objects to pin down the basics of physical reality. ending with the development of language 2-7) Preoperations - Children's perceptions are captured by their immediate appearances. "What they see is what is real." They believe, among other things, that inanimate objects are really alive and that if the appearance of a quantity of liquid changes (for instance, if it is poured from a short, wide glass into a tall, thin one), the amount actually becomes different. 8-12) Concrete operations - Children have a realistic understanding of the world. Their thinking is really on the same wavelength as adults'. While they can reason conceptually about concrete objects, however, they cannot think abstractly in a scientific way. 12+) Formal operations - Reasoning is at its pinnacle: hypothetical, scientific, flexible, fully adult. The person's full cognitive human potential has been reached.

Co-sleeping + stereotypes

Cultural - individual societies tend to dislike - Collectivist cultures value ------------ Stereotypes 1) Makes a child less independent and mature - May promote resilience and maturity 2) Disrupts parent + child sleep - Babies get back to sleep quicker. Do not wake up more. - Not detrimental to sleep 3) Can cause a baby to be smothered - May have risks due to sleeping facedown

What defines a gang? What purposes do gangs serve?

Definition: - A close-knit, delinquent peer group - Share collective identity Purposes: 1) Provide teens with status 2) Provide physical protection in dangerous neighborhoods 3) Offer a pathway for making a living Kids moved to middle class neighborhoods did worse than kids who stayed behind - Due to lack of nurturing in new community

Advance directives

Definition: Any written document spelling out instructions regarding life-prolonging treatment when people are irretrievably ill and cannot communicate their wishes - Ideally provide roadmpa so people don't have to guess care Four kinds: 1) *Living will* - Mentally competent indivduals leave instructions about treatment wishes for life-prolonging strategies if they become comatose/incapacitated - Typically write to refuse aggressive medical interventions 2) *Durable power of attorney for health care* - Indivdiuals designate a specific person to make end-of-life decisions when they can't make these choices known 3) *Do not resuscitate (DNR) order* - Filled out when sick person is impaired, usually by doctor in consultation with family - Says that if a cardiac arrest takes place, patient should not be revived 4) *Do not hospitalize (DNH) order* - Specific to nursing homes - During medical crisis, mentally impaired patient should not be transferred to hospital or emergency care

Parkinson's disease

Degeneration of a specific group of neurons (substantia nigra) in midbrain - These neurons play important roles in movement, balance, speech, and other functions - The neurons communicate via dopamine, and when the neurons die this circuit malfunctions - Stiffness, slowness, and tremor emerge L-dopa can improve symptoms

cognitive behaviorism (social learning theory)

Demonstrated power of *modeling*(learning by watching + imitating what people do) Most likely to generally model: 1) People who are nurturing and relate to us in a caring way 2) People we perceive to be like us > Gender self-segregation AS we get older, modeling is tailored based on our understanding of who we are ---------- *self-efficacy* - Our sense that we can be successful at a given task - Efficacy determines goals we set, predict activities we engage in, etc - When efficacy is high, we may continue to act well past when traditional extinction should occur

Inner motherhood experience

Destroys fantasies like: 1) Being calm, empathetic, and always in control 2) Loving all children equally - Feeling loved by child - Child easy to raise and does well in wider world = more loved

Problems with behaviorism

Does not address motivation

Best advance directive

Durable power of attorne Best to have an evolving series of discussions with loved ones, then choose designated family member to make a final choice May lead to jealousy Does not ensure no mistakes

Development of attachment ideas

During much of 20th century, attachment was seen as irrelevant - Behaviors minimized need for attachment - Watson warned against too much love People noticed that babies with adequate food but no attention in orphanages wasted away Lorenz, an ethologist, saw that every species had attachment (like ducks) Harry harlow monkey study (wire monkey with food vs. cloth monkey) - Showed that mothers were not just dispensers of food. Love was needed too - Babies preferred cloth monkey - Psychological issues arose without the moms. They were uncaring, abusive parents, couldn't have sex, and were frightened of peers. Late 1960s - John bolwby synthesized the above findings and argued that having a *primary attachment figure* is crucial to development (and at any age) - Said that attachment was genetic (based in evolutionary theory) By final decades of 20th century, attachment was central

Predictors of a good pregnancy outcome

Economic concerns impact Most important is feeling loved by one's partner - Not specifically partner. What matters is if woman feels generally cared about and loved The way that women handle stress matters the most - coping style + personality

Happiness and marriage

Effect varies from place to place - Marriage provides additional sources of self-esteem and refuge from loneliness Factors of marital happiness: 1) Age at time of marriage - Teen couples more likely to be depressed, violent, and less educated than those who marry later in life 2) Quality of relationship - Childhood family relationships - Homogamy - Cohabitation - Big 5 personality traits (OCEAN) > Openness > Conscientiousness > Extroversion > Agreeableness > Neuroticism

What does Belsky mean by adolescence being eliminated for some young people? What factors play a role?

Eliminated for 1) children who enter the sex trade 2) Child soldiers These children don't have the chance to be teens Adolescence requires kinder, gentler societies - Impoverished/dangerous areas may not have the extra years of insulation from adult life

adult development

Encompass at end of adolescence to end of life - Grew during final third of 20th century - Related to gerontology

Peer pressure

Encouragement to conform to one's friends or contemporaries in behavior, dress, and attitude; usually considered a negative force, as when adolescent peers encourage one another to defy adult authority.

When is middle age?

Enter ~ 40-50 and exit ~60/ 65(?) - Roughly half of people in late 60s and 70s call themselves middle aged - Healthy and working people could still be considered middle age Factors that affect view of aging 1) Middle aged adults may embrace aging and feel frightened if they contract an off-time chronic disease 2) Gender and socioeconomic status also affect - Females + affluent adults have more upbeat aging attitudes 3) Personality (the most important) - Neuroticism

What triggers the hypothalamic hormone?

Environmental chemicals, life stress, body weight, nutrition level (body fat), light , climate, genetics, growth Threshold amount of hormone leptin (tied to level of body fat) - Stunted bodies experience puberty later - Obesity may play a role in declining age

Finding love: shifts in searching for love

Erikson: - Intimacy vs. isolation --------------- Many more potential partners - Before, marriage was often arranged during puberty - Today, people freely choose partners, and that has expanded beyond our social networks - Dating outside of own ethnic group > Impacted by ethnicity (minorities more open to it than whites) > Religion (if literal interpretation Same-sex romance - Embracing your identity/self gives feeling of self-efficacy and relief

Erikson: emerging adulthood

Erikson: Search for identity - Identity vs. role confusion -Intimacy progresses from attraction to close connection to ongoing commitment. *Identity* - A consistent definition of one's self as a unique individual, in terms of roles, attitudes, beliefs, and aspirations *Identity achievement* - Erikson's term for the attainment of identity, or the point at which a person understands who he or she is as a unique individual (in accordances with past experiences and future plans) - Into one coherent self *Role confusion* - No sense of an adult path Moratorium - Taking time to explore different paths - Crucial to forming a solid adult identity

Interventions for child abuse

Even when reported, very few cases are investigated or go on trial Children can be removed from home if in danger - can be placed in foster care - Parental rights can be terminated (but parents cannot be punished) Lots of doubts of whether to not report Homes of abuse get worse over time

Play milestones

Fantasy play - with parent around toddlerhood (1-2) - collaborative fantasy play around 3-4 > can play together - can continue into early adolesence

Evolving ideas about grieving

First months after death - Mourning, crying - Have trouble eating or sleeping - May ruminate about loved ones, carry reminders, share stories, look through photos, or focus on person's last days 6 months after - Expected to recover (in reconnecting to the world) - They still care about loved one - Loved one's memory can be evoked at special times ------------- Grief patterns shaped by each society's unique norms - Some expect people to mourn for decades - Some expected to mourn beforehand *Persistent complex bereavement-related disorder (prolonged grief)* - When person's symptoms of grieving continue or become more intense after 6 months to a year, and that individual shows no signs of reconnecting with the world - Controversial > Calls mourning pathological

War to prevent Alzheimer's

Focuses on amyloid protein - Basic constituent of senile plaques - Central to producing cortical decay (hypothetically) - Difficult to dissolve plaques after formation Early diagnosis crucial - No current test showing that person is getting ill - Steps: 1) Look for history of steady mental deterioration (signals delirium) 2) Rule out other physical/psychological causes 3) Explore person's performance on neuropsychological tests Mild cognitive impairment is important to study of aAlzheimers ------------------ Things you can do 1) Heart-healthy diet - Cardiovascular problems closely linked to cognitive loss 2) Being well educated - Offers cognitive reserve to buffer decline 3) Maybe mental exercise 4) Physical exercise!! - Slows plaque formation in adults with APOE marker

Changing concepts of later life

For most of history *average life expectancy* (50/50 chance of living to certain age) was very low Toward end of 19th century, it shot up from 20 to 46. During twentieth century, it wen up to ~7. This *twentieth-century life expectancy revolution* was due to several factors: 1) Infectious diseases wiped out due to advances in medicine+public health - Allowed life past midlife Increase in average life expectancy has slowed because we now die from chronic diseases that are tied to the aging process itself ----------- Beginning of old age has moved beyond 65. Split old age *Young-old* - 60s-early 70s - Often look and feel middle aged - Active and relatively healthy - Reject idea that they are old *old-old* - Late 70s+ - Chance of being disabled by disease increases dramatically - More likely to have physical + mental disabilities - More prone to be frail and dependent

Popularity - Popularity vs. friendship - Trends over grade - Rejected children

Friendship is one-to-one, while popularity is a group concern - Becomes very important in elementary school (entering concrete operations > sensitive to social comparisons) ---------- Elementary school - Often friendly, outgoing, prosocial, and kind Starting early as 3rd grade - Linked to being relationally aggressive (much stronger for girls) - especially strong during pre-adolesence ------------ Being liked doesn't equal being popular - After 6th grade, caring, prosocial people are liked ------------- Rejected children 1) Often have externalizing and internalizing problems - Externalizing children always rejected - Socially anxious people are avoided as early as first grade > Shyness gets more intense as people avoid them > Increasingly likely to be rejected and victimized > Bidirectional: Anxiety makes others nervous 2) Don't fit in with dominant group

Evaluating broader views of intelligence

Gardner's particular abilities may not reflect success in other areas Sternberg - Creative or practical intelligence may not exist outside of particular fields Neither has developed a replacement

Day care for toddlers (1-2 yrs)

General - Low staff-child ratio - Routines for health and safety (clean areas, background checks, etc) - Warm and responsive caregivers Physical - Lots of large, colorful toys (stimulation) - Room to exercise (foam padding for safety - Outdoor area Emotional/social - Train staff to have realistic expectations for emotional regulation (particular people arouse specific emotions at this stage) - Train staff in stranger wariness + separation anxiety - Allow toddlers to have autonomy, but also train caregivers in setting boundaries (erikson autonomy vs. shame and doubt) Language - Have reading sessions to encourage vocabulary growth - Face to face lanuage interaction

Day care for Babies (0-1 yrs)

General - Low staff-child ratio - Routines for health and safety (clean areas, background checks, labeling of bottles, etc) - Warm and responsive caregivers Physical - Beds (babies sleep a lot (~18 hrs) > make sure they are sleeping on their back to avoid SIDS - Dipers - Large toys - Colorful room Emotional/social - Caregivers should meet needs consistently (erikson trust vs. mistrust)

Major neurocognitive disorder (Dementia)

General label for any illnesses producing serious, progressive, and often irreversible cognitive problems that impair a person's to function - Minor forms (according to DSM) do not impair living independently People forget basic semantic information - Cannot recall core facts about lives Executive functions impaired Abstract reasoning becomes difficult People no longer think through options in decision-making Language abilities compromised Act inappropriately or behave recklessly ------------- Tend to happen in advanced old age - Irreversible loss of intellectual functioning caused by organic brain damage or disease - more common with age - abnormal & pathological even in oldest- old

Adult Happiness

Generativity is the key to *eudaimonic happiness* - Having a purpose and meaning - NOT related to *hedonic happiness* (feeling good) > Main adult mission isn't hedonic happiness, but purpose - Youth is not the happiest life stage (emerging adulthood peak for developing emotional problems) - Money can't buy happiness, but ONLY once we are fairly comfortable economically - Happiness can be measured and (probably) taught - Nation/government greatly affect wellbeing, and thus affects happiness ----------------- Patterns by major life events: Inverted U-Shaped •Patterns by age: strongly happier with age -Max happiness in 60's worldwide -Positive moods outweigh negative ones -Emotions more stable with age

Youth development programs

Give adolescents places to explore passions during late afternoon hours Foster the 5 C's - Competence, confidence, character, caring, and connection These settings can encourage group bullying and antisocial acts - Must be well socialized

Bullying interventions

Goal is to develop social norm to not tolerate peer abuse Work to some extent - Present to some extent at every age ---------------- Helping shy children to succeed 1) Need to connect to close friends - became less shy 2) Loving sensitive parenting to externalizing toddlers

Cognitive Output in late adulthood

Gradual decline in output of primary mental abilities (e.g. verbal meaning, spatial orientation, inductive reasoning, number ability, word fluency) is normal. • Health Better predictor than age - Terminal decline: faster loss of cognitive ability in last 12- 24 months of life • Cognition in late life can be improved - Training can improve cognitive ability, even for very old

Beyond primary caregivers

Grandparents, other family members -Esp. important for single parent families -Offer more approval, sympathy, less discipline Child Care/Day care: Outcomes are positive, can depend on: -Family SES -Quality of the care -Quality of parental relationship (esp. mother) -Hours spent in care Attachment styles do not differ depending on day care vs. home care experience (Huston & Aronson, 2005)

Three theories of teenage thinking: Formal operational thinking (piaget)

Greater ability to think abstractly 1) Can think logically about concepts and hypotheticals - Manipulate concepts in our minds - Can think about untrue concepts (no longer only concrete objects) 2) Can approach problems in a systematic way - Think like real scientist - Pendulum test (pendulums of different weights and string lengths) 3) Acquire more knowledge 4) Mature use of metacognition 5) Ability to use more efficient, complex storage adn retrieval strategies for memory Concern with social, political, and moral issues

Holistic lifespan disease-prevention approach

How to increase healthy-life years and get closer to biological limit of life 1) Focus on childhood - Need to prevent premature births, make inroads in child poverty, and improve early childhood education - Encourage teens to finish college 2) Focus on constructing caring communities - Commit to making cities senior-citizen friendly - Walkable, planned communities that allow people to exercise without going to gyms - Build services that provide nurturing social relationships

Heritable qualities

IQ - Most heritable tendency to be religious, vote for conservative republicans, drink to excess, or get divorced

Intelligence + IQ tests - Achievement tests vs. aptitude tests - What is the IQ test

Idea of intelligence varies from culture to culture *Achievement tests* - Yearly evaluations that measure knowledge in various subjectst *Aptitude* - The potential to master a specific skill or learn a certain body of knowledge - Can't measure this *IQ test* - test designed to measure intellectual aptitude (ability to learn in school). Originally, intelligence was defined as mental age/chronological age*100, giving IQ. Measures achievement - May be biased in the things it measures ---------------- Intelligence test designed to predict academic potential or ability to master school related tasks - Given individually by a trained psychologist *Wechsler Intelligence scale for children (WISC)* is current standard intelligence test Divided into sections, each testing a basic ability - Several hours of testing concluded with written report. - Bell shaped curve - Taken most often during elementary school (when child's performance is questioned)

Maturity case

Increased by confronting challenges of adult life - Living with a romantic partner increases need for maturity (not true with roommates Agreeableness, extraversion, and especially conscientiousness rose from youth to middle age People's self criticism declines with age - Not narcissism - Older people tend to have a less egocentric, more altruistic attitude toward life - Greater generosity

Mourning a child

Incredibly difficult to cope with - Some parents show prolonged grief even after 4 years Evoke powerful feelings of survivor guilt > Failing one's mission as a parent A child's death can never be good because it is off time Does it help parents to discuss death with the child (if the child seems to understand and has inoperable cancer)? - No parents who talked with the child regretted it - More than half of parents who didn't and believed the child understood what was happening felt regret If parents feel satisfied that they said goodbye to their child, this helps lessen the pain. Helps grieving parents to *not sever the attachment bond* with the child key to recovering from terribly unfair deaths depends on finding new meaning in one's disrupted life story, and so restoring the idea that the universe is predictable and fair

How does culture affect pushing for autonomy?

Individualistic societies - Strive for parent child adult relationships that are less hierarchical, more like friends Children who move to other cultures - Clash with parents in fundamental worldviews - May have role reversal (with children translating as adults) - The sense of self-sacrifice on the parents' part may make the child feel closer to them > Helping in navigation can promote self-efficacy and empathy too *Immigrant paradox* - Despite coping with overload of stresses, many immigrant children in poverty do better than their peers

From an evolutionary perspective, why would the teenage struggle for power make sense?

It arises during puberty, so the hormones may propel it

How did Roosevelt's actions create a generation gap?

It boosted the intellectual skills of a cohort of americans, which separated them from their less educated, often immigrant parents

From an evolutionary standpoint, why does a heightened emotional sensitivity during adolescence make sense?

It propels adolescents to venture into the world - Vital to leaving parents and forming new, close attachments as adults

Emotional Self-regulation

Key to socialization Particular people begin to arouse specific emotions -Toddlers get angry when a teasing older sibling approaches them or react with fear when entering the doctor's office. -Memory triggers specific emotions based on previous experiences. - Self regulation linked to prefrontal cortex (1-2 year olds still have small, unmylenated, and not well connected) Cultural variations of emotional expression/regulation!

Object permanence

Knowing that objects exist even when we can't see them A not B error - An error where babies around 9 or 10 months will look for an object in the original hiding place, even when they see it get moved. ----------- Emerges fully around 2 years according to Piaget vs. 4-7 months now understood

true experiment

Manipulate the independent variable and randomly assign individuals to different groups - Can't have pre-existing differences (bias) Can infer causation Not usually practical with children

Sex life in old age

Many older couples still enjoy sex - Men reject idea that erectile capacity defined sexual selves - May be more considerate and tender - Sex is more carefree and prolonged Sex here is all about intimacy, communication, and authenticity - Some report that sex is better in old age

Nutrition and malnutrition

Marasmus: wasting away of the muscles and fat stores caused by starvation (lack of calories) Kwashiorkor: protein insufficiency; wrong type of food Headsparing: biological mechanism that protects the brain against malnutrition-brain is last part of body to be damaged by malnutrition (>> Physical stunting) Breast feeding encouraged -proper blend of nutrients, "customized"to that child -sterile (unlike contaminated water mixed in costly formula) -provides better immunity Culture determines when children are weaned: world-wide range of 2 months-5 years ------------- When you don't want to breastfeed - Drugs for depression - Chemotherapy - AIDS - Alcohol -------------- - Breast feed allows babies 6 months of food. After, there are inequalities in access Undernutrition - Chronic lack of adequate food Stunting - A measure of undernutrition. % of children who rank below fifth percentile in height according to age. Food insecure - Reports of not being able to afford a balanced diet or worrying about running out of food money

Facts related to physical sexual decline - men - Andropause - women - menopause

Men - Desire remains 1) Need more time to develop erection 2) More likely to lose erection before ejaculation 3) Ejaculations less intense 4) Most cannot have another erection for 1-2 days after having had sex *Andropause* -Drop in testosterone levels in men, which may result in a reduction in sexual desire, erections, and muscle mass. ------------------ Women 1) Can be just as orgasmic in old age 2) More apt to turn off to sex than men - Due to environment. Being without a partner, having an older spouse with a chronic disease, not having anyone to respond to you sexually 3) *Menopause* (~50) - Estrogen production falls and women stop ovulating - Marked by not having menstruated for a year - Menstruation becomes more irregular leading up to it (perimenopause) - Lack of energy, back aches, joint stiffness, hot flashes, some sleeplessness (varies in culture and person) - Show minor rises in anxiety and depression (no direct impact on mental health) - Find menopause a relief - Vaginal wall thins and becomes more fragile - Vagina shortens and opening narrows - Size of clitoris + labia shrinks and blood flow decreases - Takes longer after arousal for lubrication to begin, and less lubricant is produced

developmental systems approach

Most interested in unified theory of development - Development as a system. Relationships 1) Need to use many different approaches - Many valid ways of looking at behaviors - Multiple causes to behaviors 2) Need to look at how processes interact

attachment theory

Nature + nurture - Infancy mainly, but also all ages Believed that early experience with caregivers shape adult ability to love - focused on attachment response Bowlby believed in nurture, but attachment theory is anchored in nurture - Attachment response genetically programmed to promote survival ---------- How does the attachment response unfold in infancy? What conditions evoke this biologically programmed response at every life stage?

proximity-seeking behavior

Need to make contact with an attachment figure - Present at all ages Response to either external or internal threats

Lessons for parents

No firm guidelines 1) Provide firm guidelines and show lots of love 2) Adapt discipline to your unique child 3) Special challenges when child is in dangerous environment or child is difficult 4) Your power is limited at best Child's future does not depend on you - Focus on quality of your relationship and enjoy

Baby/toddler sign language

Non-verbal language production Physical development to support speech slower than coordination of hands (mass to specific) Can be ASL based or not Does not delay spoken language production - adds to it

Ethnic identity

Our sense of belonging to an ethnic category - Identifying with one's ethnicity is correlated with host of positive attributes + traits - Buffers against becoming depressed or taking risks when faced with discrimination - Important to reach out to wider culture People of mixed racial/ethnic backgrounds (biracial or multiracial) face greater challenges - Identity achievement has widespread benefits - Having biracial/cultural background pushes people to think in more creative, complex ways about life AND promote resilience

Relationships with parents: teens

PUsh for autonomy and new closeness Conflicts - PEaks in early adolescence; sign of attachment Bickering - Petty, peevish arguing (about stuff that doesn't matter much) - USually repeated and ongoing Parental monitoring - Mixed outcomes > Too little and kids give into risk-taking behavior > Too much (not effective, problematic) Teens - Don't want parents to stop caring, check out, or give up on them - Know value of parental monitoring

US hospice path

Path depends on illness (individual trajectories) - Average hospice stay is ~2 weeks - 1/10 spend close to a year Issues in pain control rank high among hospice caregivers

How does Elkind's adolescent egocentrism differ from the egocentrism that is part of Piaget's preoperational thought stage?

Piaget's egocentrism is literally the idea that children don't realize that others think differently than they do Elkind's teens understand that others have different thoughts. They just think they are at center stage

Attachment stages (bowlby)

Pre-attachment: birth to 6 weeks - not a lot Getting attached: 6 wks to 8 mos - social smile - baby seeks any attachment figures Style set: 8 mos to 2 years Launching pad: 2 years to 6 years - use good attachments to engage in new relationships outside home Mutual attachment: 6 to 12 years New attachments: adolescence - romantic Adult attachments: adulthood - children

normative transitions

Predictable life transitions (ex. retirement, beginning middle school)

Dementia Prevention & Treatment

Prevention: • Regular physical exercise: Reduces the incidence of all forms of dementia by half • Avoiding pathogens, polypharmacy Treatment: • Overall health evaluation • Specific neuropsychological evaluation • Medications • Rehabilitation to prevent further loss • Safe environment: don't wait

Motor milestones (1st year)

Progression of physical abilities during first year Follows all three growth principles Cephalocaudal - Babies lift head - Pivot upper body - Sit up without support - Stand Proximodistal sequence - Can control shoulders before arms or fingers Mass to specific - Big uncoordinated movements to small -------------- Rate at which babies master motor milestones has no relatino to later intelligence -------------- Gross motor skills 2 yrs - walks well, runs, goes up and down stairs on own, kicks ball 3 yrs - runs well, marches, rides tricycle, stands briefly on one foot 4 -skips, standing broad jump, throws ball overhand 5 - hops and skips, good balance, skates, rides scooter

Home deaths: pros + cons

Pros: 1) Avoid life-prolonging machines 2) Spend final days surrounded by loved ones 3) Spend final days in physical setting you love cons: 1) Worries about family members not being able to control your pain 2) Fear of burdening family with care 3) No privacy to vent feelings 4) Embarrassment of depending on loved ones for help with intimate body functions

quantitative research vs. qualitative research

Quantitative techniques - Use groups of people + statistical tests - Main approach used tos tudy human behavior Qualitative - Doesn't make numerical comparisons - May use in depth interviews

Social Context: Adult Children

Relationships with Younger Generations - In past centuries, most adults died before their grandchildren were born. - Today, some families span five generations. - *Beanpole family* (very few children) *Filial responsibility* - Obligation of adult children to care for aging parents. - Major goal among adults in U.S. is to be self-sufficient

Information-processing perspective on memory change in old age

See memory as progressing through stages - Gateway system is working memory > Limited memory space > Executive processor transforms temporary storage to long term memory - Working memory declines through adulthood Reason - Deficits in executive processor > Can't attend to what they need to learn > Symptom is the difficulty with divided-attention tasks - Reflect deterioration of the frontal lobes > Erosion of myelin and synaptic loss

Baltes guidelines for successful aging

Selective optimization with compensation 1) Selectively focus on our most important activities - Put aside less important priorities 2) Optimize - Work harder to perform your best in the most important areas of life 3) Compensate - Rely on external aids when we cannot cope on our own

Theories of Late Adulthood

Self Theories • Theories of late adulthood that emphasize the core self; maintaining functioning, identity. - *Selective optimization with compensation is central to self theories* Integrity versus despair (Erikson): Older adults seek to integrate unique experiences with their vision of community. Socioemotional Selectivity (Carstensen): Older adults maintain good functioning by limiting social interactions to people who help maintain emotional stability Continuity theory • Changes & behavior are consistent with earlier behavior (personality stability)

Self-esteem distortions - Externalizing problem vs. internalizing problem

Self esteem usually based on signals from outside world 1) Externalizing problem - Blame others for their problems and doesn't take personal responsibility - Don't see need to improve - doesn't improve - continues to fail 2) Internalizing problem - Hypersensitive to environmental cues and read failure in benign events - Risk of developing *learned helplessness* (feeling powerless to affect fate) Both cut off opportunity to change behavior and ensure failure

Emotional development: self-awareness - milestones

Self-awareness First 4 months: Infants have no sense of self and may see themselves as part of their mothers. 5 months: Infants begin to develop an awareness of themselves as separate from their mothers 15-18 months: Emergence of the Me-self-Sense of self as the "object of one's knowledge" Mirror recognition test (18 months) - dot something on nose - Looks at self in mirror and is confused by dotted person (themself) not matching self image ---------- Signs: 1) Language ("I") 2) Behavior - mirror test

What happened in the late 1960s and early 1970s? (Adolesence)

Sense of an adolescent society bonded against elders and peaked during this time - Rejection of conventional rules related to marriage and gender roles

Sex and reproduction: emerging adulthood

Sexual-reproductive system vigorous: peak production of sex hormones •Sex drive powerful, infertility rare, orgasm frequent, birth relatively easy, with fewer complications Sex in relationships: •Fertility •STI's

Specific signs of aging (parts)

Skin - Dryer, thinner, less elastic, more wrinkled - Age spots Hair - Loss (Especially men) - Grayer + thinner with age Body shape - Body fat redistributes. Collects in hips + torso (pot belly) + lower face (double chin - Not a serious health issue 10) Brain - There is cognitive decline - Brain is flexible and can be trained and exercised even in old age

Motor performance in old age

Slowness - Puts older people out of sync with physical world > May contribute to our prejudices in our fast-paced, time-oriented society - Due to loss of info processing speed (slower *reaction time*/decline in ability to quickly respond to sensory input) Back - Women develop a stoop (bend in upper back) > Due to osteoperosis (loss of calcium that leaves bones brittle) Loss of muscle strength + joint flexibility - *Osteoarthritis* (breakdown of cartilage which leads to joint inflammation, stiffness, and pain) Lung capacity - Declines with age - Loss of muscle tone leads to inability to fully expel carbon dioxide > Less room for taking in O2 = less O2 circulating Heart - Pumping capacity declines as heart rate slows and heart muscles thicken/become more rigid > Primary aging contributes, but secondary aging may contribute - Risk for *angina*, *arteriosclerosis*, blood clots, lung infections, and abnormal breathing patterns

What can make old age the unhappiest time of life?

Social connectedness is critical to happiness - Loss via death takes a toll Combine this with physical losses When people are frail/disabled and death looms, life can lose purpose and joy

Love: adult attachment styles

Studied via current relationship interview where people are asked about their goals and feelings about their romantic relationships. Responses are then coded - Time intensive 1) *Preoccupied/ambivalent* -Fall quickly and deeply in love - Engulfing and needy, so tend to be rejected or chronically unfulfilled - Dependent and angry at not being treated correctly 2) *Avoidant/dismissive* - Unable to get close in relationships - Witholding, aloof, reluctant to engage - Talk about advantages of being together in non-intimate terms 3) *Secure* - Capable of genuine intimacy in relationships - Coherently describe +/- of relationships - Talk freely about desire for intimacy - Adopt other-centered perspective (nurture other as primary goal) - Balance own needs with those of partner Best predictor of being securely attached is maintaining close friendships as a teen People can change attachment status - Somewhat enduring and consistent, arising partly from recent love experiences - Stable because they operate as a self-fulfilling prophecy Correlational

What is the experience-sampling technique?

Subjects carry around a pager, which emitted a signal at random intervals during each day for a week When beeper went off, subject fills in the information on a chart - Mood, day, time, what they were doing ++ thinking about

Finding love: A more erratic, extended dating phase

The largest group of emerging adults (1/3) are low involvement - SPoradic or no romantic involvement Have on-again off-again relationships - Break up and get back together Extended finding-love phase related to time it takes to construct a career - In places with many career options, love is put off until school is finished People with one-night stands or friends-with-benefits encounters are at risk of having poorer mental health - FWB less problematic for woman than ONS - ONS have fewer mental health downsides for men than other sexes

Childhood relationships: Play - Trends + functions - Categories > Function > Effects > Peak + decline

The most productive and enjoyable activity that children undertake - Primary place of learning - Universal - Amount of play in US has declined - Form changes with age Categories: 1) *Rough and tumble play (active)* - The excited shoving, wrestling, and running around - Mimics aggression, but *there is no intent to harm* > Expressions and gestures signify that child is pretending (non-verbal learning) > Children learn what is too far - Biologically built into males. Also influenced by social norms - Ample space, distant adults, and presence of friends increase likelihood (NO adult involvement) - May positively affect prefrontal cortex development - Stops after middle school -------------------------------------------- 2) *Fantasy play (sociodramatic)* - Heart of early childhood - Takes a stance apart from reality and makes up a scene. Children act out various roles and themes in stories that they create Enable children to: - Explore and rehearse social roles enacted around them, especially adult roles - Test their ability to explain and to convince playmates of their ideas - Practice regulating their emotions by pretending to be afraid, angry, brave, and so on - Develop self-concept in a non-threatening context - Increase understanding of social norms - Increase emotional processing, verbal skills, and cooperation Development and decline of fantasy play - Emerges in toddlerhood (when they realize a symbol can stand for something else) > Initiate fantasy episodes but need a parent to expand on scene - Age 3: Transfer skill of pretending with mothers to peers - *collaborative pretend play* - fantasizing together with another child (gets going at 4) - Demonstrates theory of mind (since you need to understand that the other has a separate script)

Culture of children

The particular habits, styles, and values that reflect the set of rules and rituals that characterize children as distinct from society - Influenced by larger culture - Fasion - Language (slang, swear words, codes for different situations, etc) seen in play - Peer culture

Critiques of piaget sensoriomotor stages

Timing was off 1) Infants grasp basics of physical reality way before 1 year - Infants were surprised when a rabbit disappeared in a physically impossible way 2) Understanding of physical reality develops gradually

Touch, taste, and smell development

Touch, taste and smell fully operational at birth - Discriminate among sweet, sour, bitter at birth, salty by end of 4 months - Distinguish the smell of their mother by 4 months, perhaps as early as first week - Touch well developed, even in newborns, thus also feel pain

Summary of personality (and well-being)

What emerging adults can expect: 1) To grow in maturity and become more conscientious - Core personality will probably not change much over the years 2) Become more self-assured and altruistic 3) Priorities shift toward more generative concerns and grow in generativity 4) If you rank high on conscientiousness and other positive big 5 traits; have prosocial, generative priorities; and deal productively with trauma; you will have a more fulfilling middle age Note: Difficult to grow emotionally if you are in poverty or in a society full of conflict/corruption where life traumas are routine - Happiness depends on living in a generative society > People happiest in nations where they trust government to be fair/effective, and income inequalities are relatively small. - Most likely to flourish when people around us are flourishing too

Driving in old age

Worry that being unable to drive means they will have to leave their homes Requires/is affected by - vision - hearing losses because we become alert to the location of other cars partly by their sound - muscle strength to push down the pedals - the joint flexibility to turn the wheel. - slowed reaction time. Older people limit their driving - Some don't realize how bad their driving is though Most trouble at complex intersections + poor visibility + left turns into traffic - Divided attention needed - Complex info processing -------------- Interventions 1) Need to give older drivers neuropsychological tests 2) Redesign driving environment > adequate lighting > Construct walkable communities > Invest in mass transportation

What is the difference between adolescence-limited turmoil and life-course difficulties?

adolescence-limited turmoil - Antisocial behavior during teenage years life-course difficulties - Antisocial behaviors that continue into adult life

Who is having intercourse?

average first age: 17.8 (women) and 18 (men) - 1/8 do it by age 15 Earlier transition to intercourse (forces) 1) Biological (earlier puberty timetable) 2) Ethnicity (African american) 3) SES (low-income) 4) Personality (higher impulsivity, externalizing tendencies) - High risk-taking + low social self-worth correlates with earlier sex (girls) 5) Peers are a big influence - older partner = more likley to have sex 6) Media is also an influence - Sexually oriented programs make it more likely at a younger age (content) - NOT just watching television - Bidirectional influences

Principles of prenatal growth

periods do not equal principles 1) Proximodistal - Most interior to most exterior sides 2) Cephalocaudal - From top to bottom 3) Mass to specific - Gross (large) structure before more complex refinements Apply after baby leaves womb

Postformal thought

postformal thought: - A uniquely adult form of intelligence that involves being sensitive to different perspectives, making decisions based on one's inner feelings, and being interested in exploring new questions ------------------ Qualities: 1) Relativistic - Realize that most problems do not have clear-cut answers - Accept validity of multiple perspectives - Embrace ambiguities of life - Truth is relative - Make better decisions because they are open to changing ideas 2) Feeling oriented - Go beyond rationality - Less rigid, more open, and in touch with inner lives 3) Question-driven - Less focused on solutions - Thrive on developing new questions and reconsidering their opinions Not all people reason in this way, due to it being linked to enduring personality All can take a more realistic view of societal change ------------------------- Expert knowledge system involving excellent judgment about critical, practical life issues -Focuses on important, broad issues -Requires superior levels of knowledge, judgment, and ability to advise -Based on depth and breadth of knowledge: peak of human cognitive achievement -Wisdom combines mind and virtue for personal and broader benefit -Wisdom is easily recognized by most people

Overextension

predictable error Extension of what a child knows to other things - Based on schemas and categories - Ex. call all things a dog that have fur and four legs DO NOT - punish child for speech errors > causes fear of you > fear undermines learning > learns more slowly Language, cognition, physical development, and social development are all interdependent

Fetal programming research

studies exploring how intrauterine events may epigenetically change our genetic code

Successful Aging

• Ability to maintain functioning, valued activities, meet challenges of aging • Majority of older Americans perceive themselves to be healthy, engaged • Social comparison crucial - How well we do in comparison to others • Life satisfaction influenced by: Health, money, social class, marital status, adequacy of housing, and amount of social interaction

Dimensions of grief

•Grief -- emotional numbness, illogic, disbelief, separation anxiety, despair, sadness, and loneliness Many dimensions •pining or yearning •separation anxiety •despair and sadness •hopelessness and defeat Mourning: rituals, public expression of loss, culturally, religiously prescribed *Complicated grief:* longer than 6-12 months past loss

Making sense of the world: grief

•Grieving may stimulate attempts to make sense of the world •Bereaved want to put death in a perspective they can understand •Placing blame another way to attempt to make meaning; less positive outcomes •Trying to make meaning not always logical

Cognitive development (infants)

•Growth and refinement of the intellectual processes of thinking, learning, perceiving, remembering, and understanding •Infants may be born with the ability to perceive the world in categories •Piaget:infants construct their world through schemes Pattern of errors - Not random due to schemas and categories - not about attitude or manipulation - particular errors that can be predicted