PSY 520 Final Exam

Parental conflict as predictor of physiological stress (Dr. Affifi: The Impact of Divorce on Children, Adolescents, and Young adults) *ESSAY*

(how children are impacted by parents arguing) − Conflict is more important than divorce in predicting adjustment − In fact those who stay together and fight non-stop have maladapted children − The way they fight affects children's bodies − Child whose stomach hurt a lot − Children's physiological reactions to parent's fighting: stress hormones. Look at bodies responding after talking about something stressful. • That interaction if parents have a lot of conflict and are still married show less ability to calm down. • Children of divorce had a delayed reaction and were able to calm down. • Children who didn't see the divorce coming had a really hard time as well.

Thinking about friendship

1: Friendship as handy playmate (4-7 yrs)-who spends a lot of time playing and sharing and does not have long-term, enduring quality left. will dissolve friendship when they won't share 2: Friendship as mutual trust and assistance (8-10)-becomes more complex and psychologically based and is mutually agreed upon. trust becomes a defining feature. 3: Friendship as intimacy, mutual understanding and loyalty (11-15 yrs)-stress this three characteristics the psychological closeness which is supported by understanding of values, beliefs and feelings and want them to stick up for them and not leave for others. "getting to know someone" and without have distress.

Psychoanalytic view VS Social learning view in regard to morality as adoption of societal norms

3-6 yrs-desire to posses parent of other sex maintain affections they form conscious by identifying with same-sex parent whose moral standards they adopt pain and guilt if disobey superego ^^FREUDS VIEW NOT RIGHT guilt is found when they intentionally engage in acts to harm other or feel personally responsible when parents threaten, they violate standards and often feel little guilt whereas warmth and responsiveness predict greater guilt

social referencing

8-10 months when infants start to evaluate unfamiliar people and such in terms of own safety and security they engage in this relying on another person's emotional reaction to appraise an uncertain situation 11 months-after delay, by middle of second year, includes indirect emotional signals

Self esteem (emergence of self)

A feeling of personal worth. − How do you feel about yourself? − What should your self-worth be based on: • Achievement • Humanistic approach: not based on achievement − Young children have inflated self-esteem with a major drop when they hit the school age years due to social comparisons and eventually stabilizes. Downward social comparisons are protective. − Self-esteem and self-concept have changed in recent years to focus more on appearance and wealth. Social media have oriented us away from focusing on basic things (ex: family) to fame and appearance. Video on how social media has affected self-esteem: • What is an important value to you? What do you want? • They want money and fame. • Why the change in values? The major change was social media. Values communicated in tv: #1 is fame, and in every other decade it was extremely low on the list. • The areas of the brain the learn empathy are only active when you are not engaged with things, when you are daydreaming and reflecting. • We could be developing a generation that cares less about others. • How will these fundamental changes in the way the brain is wired affect the way people behave?

Childhood outcomes and influences

Attachment Outcome Parenting Secure Socially Competent (sharing, turn taking and cooperation) Likable children Warm and sensitive caregiving (Ex: Child says I'm sorry mom I failed my test, and the mom says I understand you were having a rough day, I'll give you a hug, things will be better tomorrow). Love isn't contingent on behavior Avoidant Bullies (unkind behavior, physically or verbally, victimizing, that preys on vulnerable children). These kids are trying to avoid their parents so they assume the authority role in their own life and have issues with boundaries. These kids adopt the idea that I'm in control and be the authority figure. Intrusive, high control, high intrusion, in your face, no boundaries. Resistant/Ambivalent Victims (kids are made fun of, mistreated). Child feels helpless and hopeless and I don't know if I'm going to be loved. Lack of a feeling of being efficacious. Inconsistent parenting, unpredictable (Ex: Child says mom I scored an A, one day parent say's yay, and another day the parent says that's not good enough you need an A+) Disorganized/Disoriented Psychologically Maladjusted (disconnect from reality, not being grounded in the day to day activities of school) Abusive parents, maltreatment

Gender Dysphoria

Formerly gender identity disorder; distress about the incongruity between gender identity and sex; Psychological Component. Others suffer from this with a lack of acceptance from others. ------ • Lady Valor: The Kristin Beck Story  Kristin Beck, former US Navy Seal: Previously Chris Beck − How one's gender development might develop with the support or lack of support. Chris hid his gender identity for 20+ years due to the encouragement to be masculine. Book: Princess Warrior.

Piaget's theory of moral development

Heteronomous morality (5-8 yrs) children in the first stage view rules as handed down by as having a permanent existence and requiring strict obedience two factors limit understanding (1) cognitive immaturity (realism aka tendency to view mental phenomena as fixed external feature of reality) (2) the power of adults to insist children comply which promoted unquestioning respect for rules and those who enforce them ------ morality of cooperation (9-10 yrs) in which they no longer view rules as fixed but flexible, socially agreed-on principles that can be revised to suit will of majority peer disagreements are especially facilitating-children realize that people's perspectives on moral action can different and intentions should serve as basis for judgement ideal reciprocity--the idea expressed in golden rule (grasp the importance of mutuality of expectations ------- this is not always accurate--by 3-4 they have differentiated notions about legit of authority figures which they refine during school years

Phases of development for attachment

Preattachment (0-6 wks): built in signals--grasping, crying, gazing. know mother's smell, voice, and face but not yet attached to her since they do not mind being left alone with adult Attachment in the making (6 wks-6 months): infants respond differently to a familiar caregiver than to a stranger. as infants learn own actions affects bx of those around them they develop a sense of trust but still do not protest when separated. Clear cut attachment (8 months to 2 years): evident. separation anxiety occurs--becoming upset when their trusted caregiver leaves) does not always occur Formation of reciprocal relationship (2 years on): understand some factors of why people come and go so protest declines. ------ Internal working model-set of expectations about availability of attachment figures, their likelihood of providing support during times of stress, and self's interaction with those figures. is a vital part of personality, serving as the guide for future close relationship.

induction moral identity

an adult helps the child notice others' feelings by pointing out effects of misbx on others, especially noting their distress and making clear that the child caused it generally warm parents provide explanations that match capacity to understand but insisting they listen and comply it is effective by age 2 ----- endorsement of moral values as central to their self concepts

emotional display rules

at first, they serve personal needs and exaggerate true feelings but they learn to restrain bx and substitute reactions (smiling when upset) all societies have this--specify when, where, and how it is appropriate to express emotion negative emotional suppression in first few months collectivists cultures do this more

Fostering autonomy

becomes salient task two vital aspects (1) emotional component relying on oneself and less on parent for support and guidance (2) behavioral component

Development o gender constancy

before age 6-7, children cannot maintain the constancy of their gender, just as they cannot pass conservation problems. they attain this understanding only gradually but moving through: 1. gender labeling--early preschool years children can label own sex and that of other correctly 2. gender stability--older preschoolers have partial understanding of permanence of sex, in that they grasp stability over time (even though they know male and female will eventually become men and women they continue to insist that changing activities (clothes, hair) will also change sex 3. gender consistency--during late preschool and early school, children understand sex is bio based and remains same even if person dresses cross-gender or engages in nontraditional activities

Development of happiness anger and sadness fear

blissful smiles and laughter (3-4 months) at first when full, rocking, moms voice, stroke the skis between 6-10 weeks the parent's communication evokes a broad grin called the SOCIAL SMILE ---- distress to unpleasant experiences like hunger, medical procedures, body temp, too much or little stim 4 mon-2 yrs increase in frequency and intensity--become capable of intentional bx they want to control their own actions and effects they produce and will purposefully try to change the undesirable situation especially when warm caregivers does not act as planned ---- second half of first year into second stranger anxiety (most common in children)--wary of strangers because of temperament, past experiences with strangers, and current situations (when unfamiliar adult picks up) show more positive curious bx if the parent is near by and they are crawling around a stranger rise in fear ^ at 6 month keeps mobile enthusiasm for exploration in check once wariness develops, familiar caregiver is **secure base** (a point from which to explore, venturing into the environment and then returning for emotion support) Approach and avoidance seen with strangers

caregiver-infanct interaction

by 3 months a complex communication system is in place; 2-7 months use facial expressions, vocalizations, and body movements to get the parent to response *still face reaction* (turn away, frown and cry) only occurs when natural human communication is disruption (suggested to be built in withdrawal response to caregivers lack of communication) with age, emotional expressions become a more deliberate way to communicate (by 9 month they initiate) *joint attention* following caregiver's line of reward--infants and toddlers pick up on verbal and emotional info

self-conscious emotions

capable of second, higher-order set of feelings, including guilt, shame, embarrassment, envy, and pride--each involves injury or enhancement for our sense of self appear in middle of second year when aware that self is separate, unique individual need adult instruction on when to feel these things as self-concept develops, become more sensitive to praise and criticism

Kolbergs extension of page's theory

clinical interviewing used open ended approach through hypothetical moral dilemmas and asked what they should do and why asked to evaluate conflicting moral values not about content of response but the way an individual reasons about the dilemma that determines moral judgement maturity

friendships and adjustment

close friendships provide opportunities to explore self and develop a deep understanding of another close friendships provide a foundation for future intimate relationships close friendships help young people deal with stressors of everyday life close friendships can improve attitude toward and involvement in school some can interfere with well-being and conflict ridden interactions that occurs between aggressive friends are associated with poor adjustment

styles of child rearing

combinations of parents bx that occur over a wide range of situations, creating an enduring child rearing climate ----LOOK AT CHART FROM CLASS NOTES

Toddlerhood (self control)

compliance--toddlers show awareness of caregiver wishes and expectation and can obey simple requests and commands depends a lot on caregiver support cannot guide own bx until have interpreted standard represented in adult-child dialogue delay of gratification required (wait an appropriate time and place to engage in act)

temperament

early appearing, stable individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation (calm, persistent, cautious, prone to outburst, etc.) reactivity referes to the quickness and intensity of emo arousal, attention, and motor actions self-regulation are strategies that modify that reactivity form the cornerstone of adult personality ---- MEASURING TEMP interviews and questionaaires focus on children who falls at opposite extremes of positive-affect and fearful-distress dimensions: inhibited or shy who react negatively and withdraw from novel stim and inhabited and sociable who display positive emotion to and approach novel stim ---- goodness of fit model-explain how temp and environment together can produce favorable outcomes--involves creating child-rearing environments that recognize each child's temperament while encouraging more adaptive functioning

dynamic systems perspective (DSP)

emotional expressions vary with the person's developing capacities, goals, and context

functionalist approach to emotion

emphasizing broad function of emotions is to energize bx aimed at attaining personal goals events may become personally relevant because (1) you already have it in your mind so you have strong emotion, (2) other's social bx may alter the situations significance, and (3) any sensation or state of mind can become personally relevant and evoke emotion (both positive and negative)

reasoning about beliefs in middle childhood recursive thought

extend false-belif understanding further by 6-7 they realize people form beliefs about other beliefs and second-order beliefs can also be wrong **to reason simultaneously about what two or more people are thinking/a form a perspective taking requires ability to view situation from at least two perspectives

domain approach to moral understanding

focus on children's developing capacity to distinguish and coordinate moral imperatives (protect people's rights and welfare), and form two other types of social rules/expectations: (1) social conventions or customs determined solely by consensus such as table manners and (2) matters of personal choice like friends, hairstyle, that do not violate rights and are up to individuals contract these out of experiences with three types of regularities in social worlds ----- moral versus social conventional--moral violation are more wrong than social by reflecting on their everyday social relations--reason rigidly and superficially within moral domain relation of personal and moral--awareness of person convert through statements like "I'm going to wear this". their conviction that choices are up to them increases and learn that individuals are willing to compromise on personal issues--challenge authority cultural moral and social conventional and personal distinctions--agree adults have no right to interfere on personal matters--all culture seem similar here (behaviors are just classified differently) but when asked about breaking promises, etc. similarities are there

corregulation

form of supervision in which parents exercise general oversight while letting children take charge of moment-by-moment decision making grows out of a warn cooperative relationship between parent and child based on give-and-take

basic emotions

happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust--are universal in humans and other primates and have long evolutionary history of promoting survival begins with attractions to pleasant stimulation and withdrawal from unpleasant DSP--children coordinate separate skills into more effective, emotionally expressive systems as the CNS develops and child's goals and experiences change

social cognition

how children come to understand their multifaceted social world proceeds from concrete to abstract--start with observable characteristics and then aware of internal processes scale errors-attempting to do things that their body size makes impossible

childhood and adolescence (self control)

in place by 3rd year but no compete what children think and say to self promotes resistance to temptation with age performance improves on delayed gratification but still varies teach them to transform stimulus in ways that de-emphasize arousing qualities moral self-regulation--ability to monitor ones own conduct, constantly adjusting it as circumstances present opportunities to violate inner standards

emergence of aggression

in second half of first year, can identify sources of anger and frustration and motor skills to use. by end of second years, two distinct purposes emerge (1) proactive in which the child acts to fulfill need or design (to obtain object) and unemotionally attack a person to achieve goal or (2) reactive which is an angry, defensive response to provocation at a blocked goals and is meant to hurt the other person extent to which they represent distinct styles in unclear

Kohlberg's stages of moral understanding

included adolescents--and followed longitudinally first 3 stages characterize children as moving from morality focused on outcomes to one based on ideal reciprocity--older adolescents in fourth stages where people expand these nations of ideal recip and encompass society rules and laws as vital for ensuring they treat one another justly. 6 stages in three general levels and made stronger claim about fixed order of moral change

Kohlberg's stages of moral understanding Conventional level

individuals continue to regard conformity to social rules as important but not for reason of self-interest but they believe that actively maintaining the current social system ensures positive human relationships and societal order STAGE 3: good boy girl orientation or morality of interpersonal cooperation--desire to open rules because they promote social harmony--want to maintain affections and approval of friends and relatives (golden rule) STAGE 4: social order maintaining orientation--individual takes into account larger perspective/societal laws. moral choice no longer depends on close ties but instead rules must be enforced in same fashion for everyone. believe laws should be obeyed because they are vital for ensuring order and cooperation.

morality as adoption of societal norms

internalization which is adopting societal standards for right action as one's one both focus on how morality moves from society to individual and how they acquire normal for good conduct depends on parental style of discipline, child's characteristics, parents characteristics, and child's view of misdeed and reasonable of parental demands

empathy and sympathy

involves a complex interaction of cognition and affect: the ability to detect different emotions, to take another's emotional perspective, and to feel with that person, or respond emo in another way is is an important motivator in prosocial bx--actions that benefit another person without expect reward for self can be person distress not just acts of kindness end of second year and 2-2 1/2 they become better at inferring from situation what might help to relieve it ---- feels of concern or sorrow for another's plight ---- affective perspective taking seen in older toddlers where they infer how another feels by imagining themselves in that person's places as language develops use words to console temperament plays role in individual differences

Gender schema theor

is an information-processing approach that explains how environmental pressures and children's cognition work together to shape gender typing also integrates the various elements gender typing--gender stereotyping, identity, and role adoption-into unified picture of how masculine and feminine orientations emerge and are often strong maintained at early age they pick up stereotypes preferences and bx organize experience into gender schemas as soon as they can label and appreciate stability, they select gender schemas consistent with it

categorical self remembered self

language becomes a powerful tool in development because it permits them to represent and express oneself more clearly 18-30 months children classify themselves and others on basis of perceptually distinct attracts and bx (age, gender, phys) ---- autobiographical memory comes from adult-child convo about the past life-story narrative grants child this *a more coherent portrait than is offered by isolated, episodic memories in first few years* comes from storytelling, children come to view self as unique, existing in world of others ---- personally significant events talked about and cog skills advance *view of themselves as persisting over time* increase between 3-4

Kohlberg's stages of moral understanding Preconventional level

morality is externally controlled and children accept rules of authority and judge actions by consequences. bx result in punishment are view as bad and rewarded are good STAGE 1: punishment and obedience origination--still find difficult to consider two points of views and overlook intention STAGE 2: instrumental purpose orientation--children realize people have perspective but at first this is concrete. they view right action as flowing from self-interest and understand reciprocity as equal exchange (i do this for you, you do it for it)

Kohlberg's stages of moral understanding Postconventional level

move beyond unquestioning support for laws and rules and define morality in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all situations and societies. STAGE 5: social contact orientation--individuals regard laws and rules as flexible and can imagine alternative to own social order. emphasize far procedures for interpreting and changing law. free and willing participation in system because it brings about more good than if it did not exist STAGE 6: universal ethical principle orientation--self-chosen ethical principles of conscious that are valid for all humanity regardless of law and social agreement. typically mentions abstract principles as equal consideration of claims of all human being and for worth and dignity of each person

Inner self

naive theory of mind--a inherent understand of their own and other's rich mental life *private thoughts and imagining* can confuse veteran mental terms ---- perspective taking-capacity to imagine what others may be thinking and feeling and to distinguish those viewpoints from one's own crucial for a wide variety of sod-cog achievements

achievement related attributions

our common, everyday explanations for the causes of bx-our answers to the question "why did I or another do that?"** environmental causes and internal psychological causes then future into ability and effort

middle childhood to adolescent development of emotion

paid gains in self-reg emergence of mental level of emo self-communication helps reflect on emotions and manage By age ten most shift adaptively between to strategies for managing emo -problem centered coping (appraise the situation as changeable, identify difficulty, and decide what to do about it -emotion centered coping (used when problem solving doesn't work which is internal, private, and aimed at controlling distress when little can be done about outcome)

determinants of peer acceptance

popular prosocial children-combine academic and social competence perform well in school and communicate well popular antisocial-emerges in late childhood/early ad included "tough" boys and relationally aggressive boys and girls who enhance status by ignoring, excluding or spreading rumors--liked less and less with ages rejected aggressive children-largest subtype show high rates of conflict, psychical and relational aggression and ADHD like bx; usually deficient perspective takers, misinterpret innocent bx rejected withdrawn- passive and socially awkward; overwhelmed by social anxiety and hold negative expectation. excluded as early as kindergarten and can impair biased social info processing--academic can falter and lonely

Emotion

rapid appraisal of the personal significance of the situation, which prepares you for actions. Ex: happiness leads you to approach, sadness to passively withdraw, etc. an emotion, then, expresses your readiness to establish, maintain, or change your relation to the environment on a matter of importance to you

ethological theory of attachment

recognized infant's emotional (?) to caregiver as an evolved response that promotes, survival (most accepted view by Bowlby)

Peer acceptance

refers to likability and the extent to which a child is viewed by group of age mates as a worthy social partner not mutual relationships but one sided perspective social preferences are measured using self report--do they like them very much or very little popular children (get many positive votes and are well-liked) rejected children (get negative votes and are disliked) controversial children (receive many votes both ways, liked and disliked) neglected children (seldom mentions, pos or neg)

Quality of caregiving sensitive caregiving interactional synchrony

responding promptly, consistently, and appropriately to infants and (?) them tenderly and carefully moderate related to attachment in both types of mother-infant pairs insecure have less physical contact ---- special form of comm separates experience of secure from insecure babies a sensitively tuned "emotional dance" in which caregiver response to infant signals in a well-timed, rhythmic, appropriate fashion match emotional states like positive ones culture view sensitivity differently--so it depends on attentive caregiving, not moment by moment contingent interaction

Other features of functionalist approach

sense of self efficacy- confidence in one's own ability to control events in surroundings two self-conscious emotions- deal with evaluating self's goodness/badness in relation to standard for morality adapt to physical and social worlds, they must gain control over emotion

Emergence of gender identity

social learning theory says bx comes before self-perceptions and acquire these through modeling and reinforcement only to later organize these into gender-linked ideas about self BUT cognitive development maintains that self-perceptions come before bx ---- gender consistency-a full understanding of the bio based permanence of their gender, which combined three understandings: general labeling stability and consistency children use this to guide bx

attachment

strong, affectionate tie we have with special people in our lives that leads us to experience pleasure and joy when we interact with them and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress become better attached by second half of first year psycho and bx approach emphasize caregiver's contribution to the attachment relationship but pay little attention to importance of infant's characteristics

emotional self regulation

the strategies we use to adjust our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals requires voluntary effortful management of emotions and the capacity for this *effortful control* improves gradually with development of prefrontal cortex attention focus and shifting, ability to inhibit thoughts and bx, planning.

developmentally appropriate practice

these standards, devised by the US national association for edu of young children, specify program characteristics that meet the developmental and individual needs of young children, based on both current research and consensus among experts affected by microsystem of individualistic values and weak gov regulation

desire theory of mind belief-desire theory of mind

they think people always act in ways consistent with their desires and do not realize the less obvious, more interpretive mental states like beliefs, also affect bx toddlers comprehend mental states that can be readily inferred from their own and others' actions--understanding is limited to simplistic ** ----- between 3-4 increasingly refer to own and other's thought and beliefs and from 4- they exhibit this more advanced view in which both beliefs and desires determine actions** they understand the relationship between inner states

Documentary: Preschool in Three Cultures Revisited (US)

• 7 am- • Grounds on episcopal church near Pearl Harbor • Most kids are driven to school by parents on way to work • There is an alarm on the gate to enter school • Educators support children's language development by using words and asking questions to draw them out • 20:2 child/teacher ratio (lower in US than in Japan and China) o Important quality indicator • Curriculum around themes on early child guidelines and children's interests • Two free-choice periods—explains what centers are available o Emphasis on choice (seen as developmentally appropriate practice) o Inherently more pleasurable then assigned, fosters intrinsic motivation and facilitate learning, democracy (exercising rights of democratic citizenship) • Emphasis on self-expression • 30-min playground time after first free-choice • Concerned about climbing and getting hurt (in China and Japan they feel as though this stunt developing their own judgment but US teachers say regulations don't allow it, they would get sued) • Intervene quickly when children argue o Don't use misbx, call it mistaken bx—reminds them that the child doesn't mean to bx badly and just needs guidance on correct way to bx • Don't bother others while going to the restroom • Teachers move from table to table and ask questions and write down what kids say • Increasing pressure from parents to have academic tasks as opposed to "play time" o Have had to get more professional about articulating how and why they use this system

Documentary: Preschool in Three Cultures Revisited (JAPAN)

• 7 am-6 pm • Infancy to 6-years-old • Built on Buddhist grounds • Come by foot or bus • Take shoes off before entering building • After 9, the formal school day begins—line up in boy and girl lines • Do rock-paper-scissor to decide who leads into the classroom • Have free play (small-group) • 17 children (considered to be too low)—small class sizes reflect falling birth rate o **Here and China have large class size in order to promote community • Each day there is a teacher led activity (origami, etc.) • Swimming—change into suits in classroom • Remove swimwear and line up in straight line to be lined up o Caused concern when American educators watched but not Japanese • Second period of free play • Others were critical of teacher not intervening in argument o Keeps a close eye but intervening will interfere with learning to handle disputes—give message they can't understand their own agreements • Opportunity to experience greater social complexity • Parents have grown increasingly fearful and protective • Lunch served in the school as opposed to first doc where boxed lunches were brought • Nap time • Kids are assigned each day to help in infant/toddler room—gives chance to develop empathy • Math and science are not studied at all (done in the household); focus is social interaction

Documentary: Preschool in Three Cultures Revisited (CHINA)

• 7:30 am-6 pm • In a 5 story building • Parents begin dropping off at 7:30—school nurses check each students health when they arrive • Hot meals are provided to the children throughout the day • Go to bathrooms after snack—separate bathrooms now for boys and girls but still all squat down in a line (troughs) • 35 children in the classroom (35:1 child/teacher) • Group calisthenics each day—important event that gives sense of pride about being part of the group (promote individuality but a sense of collectivism still needs to be instilled) • Gym time designed by OT's • Neglect is the biggest concern of teachers as opposed to spoiling in original doc • Check foreheads for fevers several times a day for early intervention of illness • Nap—afternoon teacher comes in and spend the rest of the afternoon preparing for the next day Struggle • Trying to stay true to collectivistic culture while still trying to encourage individuality • Emphasize individualism by free gym time and story telling—creativity!

Bluth and Wahler

• A mental state in which one actively engages in paying attention in a particular way and on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally. • Parenting effort and mindfulness and the interaction between the two • Hypothesis: Parenting effort will be negatively associated with mother's mindfulness • Participants: 50 mothers of preschoolers • Materials: Mindfulness Attention Awareness Scale, Parenting Effort Scale (Preschool) • Results: The hypothesis was confirmed, negative association between mindfulness and parenting effort (more mindful mothers, less effort) • Discussion Implications: Greater awareness of habitual cycles, parents are better equipped for success

Smahel et al. (2012)

• Adolescents use the internet all the time. It isn't all bad, but are adolescents addicted to the internet? • How do we operationalize something (internet addiction) that isn't defined as a disorder yet? • Sample: 394 Czech youth • Measures:  Classified on age, approach to friendship, internet addiction, self-esteem, preference for online communication, hours online • Results:  Those who had an exclusively offline approach to friendships − Had significant less friends offline, spent less time online than the other groups, had significant lower preference for online communication, scored the lowest on the addiction scales  Certain factors seem to be associated with increased risk of internet addiction − Being more oriented toward online friendship − Preferring online communication − Spend more time online

Gender Development

• Are you are boy or girl? Boy • If you put on a skirt will you be a boy or girl? 4 years: Girl, 7 years: Boy: Reflects gender constancy • In a few years will you be a man or woman? Reflects gender stability • Transgender: Persons whose gender identity, gender expression or behavior does not conform to that typically associated with the sex to which they were assigned at birth. Someone might be transgender but don't have dysphoria.

Attachment

• Attachment refers to the first early relationship that an infant has with their primary caregiver. Examines whoever spends the most time with that infant and the quality of their relationships. Attachment forms in the second half of the first year of life. • Assessing Attachment  Attachment Study (Ainsworth, Sroufe) − Purpose: To look at the quality and variation of attachments early on − Participants: 1-2 year olds − Methods: Strange Situation • Series of separations and reunions • How does the little one adapt to these changes − Results • 4 Attachment patterns  Secure (60%): Majority of infants had a secure attachment − Upset when separated (crying, where is mom) − Warm greeting at reunion (reaching out for mom) − Return to toys  Insecure-Avoidant (15%) − Little distress when separated − Avoid contact at reunion (running away, walking away, looking away) − Absorbed in the toys throughout the strange situation  Insecure-Ambivalent/Resistant (10%) − Distressed when separated − At reunion they mix proximity-seeking and anger at reunion (calling out for parent, then kick, pinch- love-hate relationship) − Fail to return to toys due to being so worked up  Disorganized/Disoriented (15%) − Dazed and confused facial expression − Appear to be disconnected − Frozen postures − Odd behaviors (rocking as self-soothing, loosing muscle control)

Family and parenting

• Authoritative parenting: Balance warmth and control in the household • A high quality parent-child relationship is critical for healthy development • Marriage and divorce is highly relevant to families and it impacts children  Common experiences in western cultures  Good marriages are good for children  Protects from mental, physical, educational, and social problems  40-50% of married couples divorce  Divorce rate for subsequent remarriages is higher • Statistics to put family into context  Nuclear family of 2 parents, 2 kids, dog, picket fence: Rare today  Postponement of marriage and child rearing (4 years later)  Decrease in marriage, fewer kids (avg. 2)  Single parenting is common (12 million single parent families exist as of 2014), more than 80% of those households led by single moms  1 in 4 kids are being raised without a father (17.4 million) • Transitions are difficult for children. The more transitions in the life of the individual, the harder the adjustment is and the tendency to show lower scores on indexes of social and emotional well-being.

Lamb et al. (2009) gender typing

• Gender Typing: The process by which you learn what you gender behavior should be • Negative outcomes when the environment promotes traditional gender roles, especially if the child displays atypical roles. • Peer influence plays a bigger role than was previously thought • Purpose: Implementing an intervention to help kids contest more gender stereotypical concepts. • Participants: Kindergarten - 3rd grade • Methods:  Pre-test measures: gender stereotyping of others, personal-gender typing, gender identity, hypothetical sexist remarks  One of Two interventions: Practice (Peer-directed, active learning), Narrative (modeling based on stories rather than actively practicing retorting sexist comments)  2 week post-test  6 month post-test • Hypothesis 1: Peer-directed, active learning based intervention would be more effective for teach children to confront peers' sexist comments than would a modeling-based intervention  True • Hypothesis 2: That behavioral changes would lead to decreases in gender typing of the self and others  No significant differences in inward gender stereotyping • Hypothesis 3: Children with nontraditional gender identities would be more responsive to the interventions than would traditional peers  Couldn't find any marker of nontraditional gender identities • Hypothesis 4: Would intervention effects last  Yes, children said they were more likely to confront sexist comments

Implications for parenting from NY study

• Goodness of Fit: The fit between the infants temperament and your adult caregiving and parenting. It is important to match temperament type.  Difficult infant, wonderful fit would be warm, sensitive, patient caregiving, poor fit would be impatient, cold short parent.  Temperament is heritable to some degree but biology is not destiny because temperament can be affected by parenting.  It's important to know that you can adjust your baby's temperament through your parenting.

Holder (2009) Paired Study

• Leisure includes non-work activities: enhances well-being • Passive leisure are negatively correlated with well-being, active are positively correlated with well-being • Goal: Determine relation between active and passive leisure and positive well-being in children. • Methods  Participants: 514 students 8-12, and parents  Measures − Piers-Harris 2: Self concept − The Faces Scale − The Children's Questionnaire − The Parent's Questionnaire  Procedure − Parents completed questionnaire − Children completed the remaining questionnaires in classrooms  Results − Happiness and self-concept ratings: More than 93% of parent's and children's responses in first 3 smiling faces − Active leisure and well-being were positively correlated − Passive activities and well-being were negatively correlated. − Children who reported that their involvement in sports made them feel good and that it was important to them were given higher happiness ratings from parents  Discussion − Children participating in active leisure activities reported higher levels of happiness and self-esteem. − Parental support can enhance enjoyment

Park et al. (2010) paired study

• Male and female differences on priming effects of math and science • Romantic imagery: Goal is to be seen romantically • Intelligence imagery: Goal is to do well in school • Participants had an introduction psychology course, either intelligent or romantic imagery. Asked them before and after, their interest in STEM. • There were intelligent vs. romantic differences, and gender differences. Difference in women and men. Women can't be intelligent and desirable in male dominated fields.

Chandra et al. (2010)

• Many youth from military families experience significant parental absence • Purpose to address development, and assess the experience of deployment • Participants: 1507 Families from National Military Family Association • Most caregivers were women and employed outside the home, majority with college education • Procedure  Telephone interview • Results  For childhood wellbeing, parents thought children were doing better than the children actually reported. 30% of children showed anxiety  More problems with family functioning and more emotional difficulties  Older children and females showed more problems  Children of military families show greater emotional problems than national average  Reintegration: Older children and girls have more problems during reintegration

Van der Oord et al. (2012) paired article

• Mindfulness in parenting children who suffer from ADHD • ADHD is a heritable disorder • Evidence based child ADHD treatment • Other plausible treatments: mindfulness training • Paying attention to the child in a non-judgmental way • Hypotheses:  Reduce children's and parent's inattention impulsivity/hyperactivity  Improve parental mindful awareness  Reduce stress • 22 children and parents • Measures and Interviews:  Anxiety disorder interview schedule, disruptive behavior disorder rating scale, parenting stress index, mindfulness attention and awareness scale, the ADHD rating scale • Treatment:  8 weekly 90 minute sessions  4-6 children and parents per group  Manuals Used  Goals: Increased the presence in the here and now in a nonjudgmental way, self-care, acceptance of children, answer do not react • Procedures:  Enrollment and quasi-waitlist assignment  Pre-test measures  8 week treatment  Post-test measures  8 week follow-up • Child Results  No significant difference between waitlist and pre-test  Pre-post: Reduction in inattention, hyperactivity/impulsivity • Parent Results  Reduction in ADHD symptoms  Reduction in parental stress and over-reactivity • Overall results were supported and parents had more mindful awareness and less over-reactivity to the child.

Applewhite and Mays (1996) paired article

• Paternal separation: unhappiness, conduct problems, increase in sibling rivalry, disruptions in relationships • Separation is linked to psychological development later in life • Children who have experienced maternal separation will demonstrate a greater deficit than paternal separation • Procedure  4 part questionnaire: psychosocial functioning and family stressor index • T-Test  Hypothesis not supported: no difference between mothers and fathers  Children of active duty mothers scores lower in those areas but after controlling for that there was no significance

Aknin (paired study)

• Purpose: Examine the development of sharing across childhood through adolescence • Participants 244 children and their primary caregivers from a community sample (4, 8, and 12) • Method: Measured sharing using a dictator game, Measured sympathy through child and caregiver's self-report, negatively valenced moral emotions, and positively valenced moral emotions. • Results  Main effect of sharing for age, 8 year olds were highest,  There was an increase in the sharing response between age 4 and 8 only for boys. • Discussion  NVME may serve as a compensatory emotion.  Many 4 year olds have not yet internalized forms of fairness and equality.

Aknin (2012)

• Purpose: Happiness more from giving treats to others vs. receiving treats • Toddlers played a social game: playing with a puppet and giving a toy or just playing with a toy. • Emotional benefits from giving and sharing in toddlerhood • Main Study  Acclimate toddlers with a puppet  Give children treats and let them share  Introduce them to "Monkey"  Experimental Phases: A (Start off with no treats), B (find 8 treats and put in child's bowl), C (find a treat and put in puppets bowl), D (find a treat and ask child to give it to puppet), E (ask the child to give the puppet a treat from their bowl)  The children exhibited the most happiness when giving out of their own bowl. The child finds acts related to personal sacrifice emotionally rewarding.

Emotional Development

• Self-regualtion: Modulate emotional reactions • Theory of Mind: Being able to understand people's thoughts, feelings, and emotions. How kids are able to connect with others when they are able to take other people's perspectives, share, give and take. • Pre-teens in this day and age have difficulty reading emotions in others. Being in a camp for 5 days without technology improved their social abilities and reading emotions. • A functional approach to emotion: Emotions serve an important function. Argument that emotions prepare us to respond. Emotions are the assessment of the value or importance of an event. For example, if you asses something as positive, it can prepare you for future action. Emotions have to roles in infants:  Emotional Self-Expression  Emotional Self-Regulation

Holder (2010)

• Temperament: Early developing personality traits • Temperament: Heritable, observable, stability, and continuity • Goal: To assess the relation between children's temperament and happiness • Hypothesis:  Children with extraversion should be happier  Children with neuroticism should be less happy • Methods:  Participants: 311 children ages 9-12, and their parents  Measures − Piers-Harris 2: Self concept − The Faces Scale − Subjective Happiness Scale − Oxford Happiness Scale − Emotional Activity and Sociability Temperament Survey  Procedure − Permission from school districts, principals, teachers, and parents − Parents rated children's temperament and happiness − All 5 questionnaires administered in classrooms to children (self-report)  Result − Support for hypotheses: • Less shy, emotional, and anxious = happier • More social = happier • Activity = happier • Free from anxiety = happier  Discussion − Temperament traits were predictors of children's happiness. Children who had neurotic traits were less happy, and those with extraversion were more happy. − Activity was also a predictor of happiness, and was thus a significant component of temperament in children.

Morality

• The case of aggression  Hostile aggression overt vs. relational − Intended to harm, clear desire to harm another person. Harm can manifest overtly through physical aggression, or less obvious through relational (exclusion).  Instrumental aggression − Intention is to gain some sort of privilege or outcome, not to harm someone.

Ybarra and Mitchell (2004) paired

• The intention and overt act of aggression toward another person • Face to face bullies report more alcohol use, fighting, below average achievement • Possible influence of caregiver-child relationships • Participants: 1501 youth who were regular internet users and one caregiver. • Measures:  Online harassment  Caregiver-child relationship  Psychosocial challenge  Internet use  Youth characteristics • Results:  15% of youth identified as internet harassers  Caregiver relationships: 19% of non-harassers vs. 44% of harassers reported poor bond  Psychosocial challenges were associated with internet harassment  Internet usage characteristics were associated with online harassment  Males and females were equally likely to be harassers, likely to be 15-17 years, white and higher income were more likely to be harassers

Education

• The school is a formal institution designed to transmit knowledge and skills children need to become productive members of society. By high school graduation children in the developmental world have spent on average about 14,000 hours in school.  How are we using these hours optimally?  What knowledge and skills are valued? − Communication skills: being expressive (non-expressive children are ridiculed) − Science and technology − Over emphasis on standardized testing − Being evaluative in your thought process  How are these transmitted? − Labs in the classroom, showcases − Technology (electronics, computers) − In the classroom vs an outdoor education camp (Uhls et al., 2014) • Those with hands on experience with living things: had increased understanding of emotions vs. those who did everything electronically. Highlights that incidental learning can occur. Had a large impact and has transformed the way we think about education.

NY Longitudinal Study

• What kinds of temperament exist? • One of the first studies to look at temperament longitudinally • Participants (infancy→adulthood)  Every 3 months, 6 months, then annually • Parental interviews  Found 9 dimension of temperaments based on parental report  Does your infant sleep and eat on a regular schedule? How does your infant adapt to novelty?  1. Activity level − Low to high  2. Biological rhythms − Regular or irregular  3. Approach/withdrawal  4. Adaptability − Quickly or slowly  5. Mood − Positive to negative  6. Intensity of Reaction − High or low  7. Sensitivity − Bright light, loud noises, and touch  8. Distractibility  9. Persistence • Based on these Thomas and Chess defined 4 temperament type  Easy (40%) − Temperament was relatively stable through development − Positive mood, low intensity of reaction, good adaptability  Difficult (10%) − Negative mood, high intensity of reaction, poor adaptability, irregular biological rhythms  Slow to warm up (15%) − Slow adaptability (Ex: give them a new gift, they watch you play with it first and then might approach)  Average (35%) − Not high or low on any of these dimensions and hard to characterize.  Video on infant temperament: InfantTemperament.mov

Puzzle study with 5th graders

− Fixed vs. growth mindset • You want to promote a growth mindset in children and encourage them to work hard. − Manipulation: What kind of feedback is her lab providing to children when performing a challenging task • First easy task and then hard task, and after each feedback is given. What happens to their motivation based on the feedback they were given. • Kids praised for their intelligence want to go back to their easier ones. • Fixed: The belief that intelligence is innate and cannot be changed. Growth: No matter who you are you can always become smarter. They feel smart when working on something and making progress. • Kids praised for effort want hard problems • Sensitive to what is going on in a situation, what other people value, what they are being judged on. − Praising based on effort, boosts self-esteem. Empty praise is not helpful. − While achievement shouldn't be what your self-esteem is based on, your effort and work matters. We shouldn't be praising people frivolously. Her view is that effort matters.

Emotional Display rules

− Strategies used to adapt to our environment. − Emotional display rules are expectations for when it is appropriate to express certain emotions. − Video: The display rule of showing gratitude when receiving a gift, including gifts you don't want. What would you do? • 5 Year Old: Cry, I don't want that • 7 Year Old: I'd say thanks for the gift • 11 Year Old: She's not there: I'd throw it, She is there: Thanks Grandma, you shouldn't have. • Emotional Display rules come in around 7 years

Friendship studies (Damon)

− What do children think about friendship? − Methods • Interviews (what is a best friend?) • Cross sectional and longitudinal − Participants • Preschoolers to teenagers − Results • 3 kinds of friendships  1: Handy Playmates (~4-7 year olds) − Anyone who is willing to play with you is your friend − The function of friendship is entertainment − Easy to initiate and end friendships − Optimistic view of the world  2: Mutual Trust and Assistance (~8-10 year olds) − Capable of mutual trust and assistantship in their friendships  3: Intimacy and loyalty (11-15 years and older) − Capable of deepening intimacy in the relationship − People have 1-3 of these friends − Person you turn to if you are struggling with your life − These are typically people that have been a part of your life for some time  How is social media affecting friendship? − Typical teenagers send 3,000 texts a month, has 300 facebook friends, and 79 twitter followers. − There is a decline in intimate friendships between young people as a result of their use of social media. Instead many young people now derive personal support and affirmation from likes and feedback to their postings. Kids are opting for efficiency of connection over intimacy (Greenfield)

Short term, long-term effects of divorce and remarriage, generational differences (Dr. Affifi: The Impact of Divorce on Children, Adolescents, and Young adults) *ESSAY*

− What impact? It depends − Fair better if moved from turbulent environments, some fair worse, some aren't affected − Anxiety, depression standard of living decreased, poorer relationship with parents, low se − More psychological issues, Less satisfied relationships with parents, and romantic relationships, more likely to be divorced − Effect sizes are small due to large differences − These effect sizes may be getting larger − Maybe it is because the reasons for getting a divorce are difference: getting divorced too easily, getting divorced for personal happiness. Children say that they are closer to their parents now. 90% of students talk to their parents at least once a day and feel extremely close to them. Times are changing, so when divorce happens it may hurt them more. − The effect sizes are still very small. − There is one variable that determines how well children function: parent's conflict

Peer Acceptance Studies (Hymel)

− What is liked/disliked? − Participants: School-aged children to teenagers − The ability to be valued as a worthy social partner is extremely relevant in the school context: predictive of peer acceptance or rejection − Methods • Sociometric Measures  Measure social preferences for peers  Try to get people to nominate others: Positive/negative nominations • Cross-sectional and longitudinal: Do social rankings persist over time? Shown to be pretty steady. − Results • Acceptance Categories  Popular: high number of votes. Popular kids can be pro-social (cooperative, sharing) and anti-social (hostile). Anti-social children are often kids others are fearful of and through fear they are voting. Fairly stable across time longitudinally  Controversial: + and - votes. Most children don't know what to make of these individuals. These kids often show prosocial and antisocial behavior depending on who they are with. High correlation between this assignment and kids who have a high number of transitions in their lives (move a lot). Less continuous over time.  Rejected: high number of negative notes. Two types: aggressive (conduct disorder behaviors) and withdrawn (children who internalize vs. externalize, anxious, shy and depressed). This peer acceptance group assignment is pretty stable. Parents of rejected children are often very socially awkward. Interventions for families to engage in healthy social interactions.  Neglected: Receive few votes. Examined children in other contexts and they turn out to be just fine. They usually get a high number of votes elsewhere.  Average: Few extreme votes, no clear pattern in their data • Peer Acceptance Video  Popularity: Friendliness, size or strength, physical attractiveness

What can parents do to ameliorate the negative effect of divorce? (Dr. Affifi: The Impact of Divorce on Children, Adolescents, and Young adults) *ESSAY*

− When children feel torn between their parents, they struggle and feel torn − When parent's use inappropriate disclosure and rely on children to give emotional or social support − When children feel caught is creates anxiety, and they solve that dissonance by forming an alliance with one parent and loose the connection with the other. − Because of that divorce I lost the relationship with my mom or dad − Children also avoid if they feel caught, or they mimic conflict and become aggressive, or confront and say keep me out of this. − As they age they gain efficacy and say don't put me in the middle of this, which is healthy for them. − What can parent's do? Try to create rules between each other about how you are going to communicate, and try to co-parent. Don't engage with the other parent, focus on your own behavior. If you don't engage, it isn't a game anymore. Figure out where the emotions are coming from. Why are you so angry? Figure out how to re-define your relationship. How do you go from spouses to co-parents effectively. Take away some of the emotions. Diffuse some of the emotions. Email instead of talking face to face. The more important thing you can do is listen to your child's voice. Try to put yourself in your child's shoes.

Documentary on development of aggression (4)

 As brains grow and develop children develop the ability to control their emotions. Around 15 months children develop self-awareness. Children realize that they are different from other people and start to experience other emotions (pride, shame, embarrassment). These help children hold aggression in check but are also new sources of aggression. The neural circuits that are needed to regulate aggression and emotion are not yet fully developed. They must learn that these are not acceptable forms of behavior. Because the brain is maturing they develop language that they can use to express their feelings and resolve conflicts. The more children are encouraged to use language, the more they will use it instead of hitting. The more children live and experience they more they remember other solutions than aggression.  The young learn the rules of dealing with aggression through socialization by mixing with other members of the group.  Play fighting teaches you a lot about social relationships.  Play fighting can be useful to a child's development. By competing physically with others, the child learns about compromises, and about who is stronger and what weaknesses are. Play fighting teaches youngsters to control emotional behavior. Discipline is important in controlling emotional behavior.  Stop hitting, see how you are hurting your brother. Stop hitting or you will be punished. Stop hitting, and hit the child. Evidence that children who are hit are more likely to be hitting later on and it is a good predictor of crime.  From two years of age to school entry: less physical aggression.  The environment has significant impact on the ability to control behavior. Ex: Smoking mothers, children are more likely to be antisocial, criminal, and violent. Interferes in the developmental of the fetal brain. A difficult birth or babies that have been abused (shaken baby syndrome) also show inhibited ability to control aggression. Cerebral deficits that dispose children to aggression also find it difficult to learn and solve problems, language difficulties, and often fail at school. Children do not suddenly become violent in adolescents. Rejected by traditional peer groups, and all meet together, and cause damage. By removing violent children from nonviolent children, they never learn good behaviors and encourage each other to continue bad behaviors.  Children's ability to inhibit aggressive acts is also linked to their interactions early on. Parents often say that aggression developed around 18-24 months. Children can learn to regulate their emotions and develop into healthy, happy, moral humans with the kind, sensitive, positive support from older individuals.

Acceptance (peer sociability)

 Children are more accepting of gender consistent children  Gender influences acceptance and friendship  Acceptance: No reciprocal nature, doesn't guarantee a friendship  Acceptance: Likability, whether child is viewed as a worthy social partner. How likable are you as a potential social partner. Evaluation or judgement that someone is making about you.

Don't Divorce Me! Kids' Rules for Parents on Divorce *ESSAY*

 Do's and don'ts offered by children  How to best handle conflict  An opportunity for kid's to have a voice  Don't put me in the middle  It's not their fault  Don't use the kids as a messenger  Don't say one parent is better than the other  Stop hiding things from me  Don't break my heart  Listen to me  Don't say bad things about the other parent  Don't ask me to spy  Don't fight in front of us  Don't take your anger out on me  Respect my feelings  Don't make each other cry  Don't talk about money  Be honest with me  Henry − Listen to your kids − Make sure your kids get both parent's equally − Your kids didn't want this  The Lunch Bunch Support Group − Mom made the decision to get divorced: mad at mom • Felt like I was split in half  I don't like changes  Fairytales don't happen in real life  Give us more love than we need  Help me say goodbye  Try to live close to each other  Don't get mad at us  Spend time with us  Learn to get along for our sake  Be careful when choosing my step-parent  Tell us it's not our fault  Tell me you love me  Be together more • Mindful Parenting: Paying attention to the here and now with your children, listen to them, enjoying the moment instead of worrying about the past and future.

Documentary on development of aggression (2)

 Exploratory aggression: pulling hair  1 Year: hit, and run away  2 Years: tiny terrors, "no's", explosions of rage − Tantrums are provoked by seemingly trivial reasons. Parents often pick up and cuddle the upset child  3 Years: Child is capable of any aggressive moves that adolescents and adults are capable of  4 Years: Physical aggression begins to decrease, and use indirect aggression − Indirect aggression is aggression that is behind the back of the individual but is still designed to harm. Less danger of immediate retaliation. Indirect aggression requires a certain social skills.  Changes in form and frequency of aggression after age 4. Children under 5 engage in far more physical assaults.  Children under 5: 1 in 4 interactions results in physical aggression

Friendship (peer sociability)

 Friendship: Mutually agreed upon relationship  Acceptance could contribute to the development of a friendship  Early on friendships serve a single function and over time they serve multiple functions.

Emotional Self Regulation

 How we express our feelings to others.  Temperament − There are some aspects of temperament that are agreed upon: individual differences in emotional expression (intensity), biological component (a minimal part of temperament are partially biologically based), but temperament is also grounded in the environment that you are being raised.

Self-recognition (emergence of self)

 Realizing that the self is a unique being. Understanding that you are unique and who you are based on appearance.  It takes time to develop self-recognition.  "Baby Mirror Studies" (Lewis & Brooks-Gunn) − Subjects: 9-24 mos. − Method: Rouge test. Mother puts red dot on baby to see if babies realize that when red is placed on their face that they will show awareness that something is wrong. Researchers are looking for self-consciousness: emotions such as embarrassment and shame through giggling or trying to wipe off the red, or verbalization "no". Signs of self-consciousness emerge with development. − Results: < 15 months they do not touch the red mark, 15-24 months they do touch the red mark. Stare at mirror or try to interact with image in the mirror, as if it is another child. Signs of self-consciousness become present around 15 months. − Conclusions: Have self-recognition by 2 age years. Parents who are warm and sensitive generally have children who display self-recognition earlier than two years. Know that parents will be responsive to your unique needs.

Documentary on development of aggression

 Scientists are looking for the earliest signs of violent behavior  Michael Lewis: First signs of anger in newborns − In studying emotion in young children: anger, fear, disgust, sadness, interest, happiness. − You can have these emotional states from birth on.  Suggestion that children are driven by an inborn aggressive instinct, others conclude that children learn aggression by imitating others. At what age are humans most likely to be violent: adolescence.  Richard Trembly: Rehabilitating criminals − Examined onset of aggression in children − Age crime curve is based on studies focused on adolescents and adults, those who get arrested. Many use aggression and do not get arrested (for example, children). Boys are highest in physical aggressing in kindergarten. − Study of a large group of children starting at birth. Humans are most likely to resort to physical aggression around the age of two.  As infant skills develop, movements become more precise: exploratory aggression.  Peter Smith: Developmental Origins of Aggression

Self concept (emergence of self)

 Self-recognition serves the basis for further identity development (Ex: self-esteem).  Self-Concept: Your personal narrative about who you are, including attributes (physical: height, weight, hair color), abilities (strengths, talents: athletics, music), attitudes (optimism, pessimism) values (religious and political affiliation), who you are.  I am a hard worker, I love helping people and try to kind and empathetic to everyone, I love making others feel good, I smile a lot and am optimistic, I work hard in school.  Most preschool aged children focus on name and physical attributes, for two reasons: 1: self-concept is not fully developed, and 2: it is a hard question to answer.  The Puppet Method − To help identify self-concept in preschool children, researchers use the puppet method. Present a puppet show of puppets who say opposite things: ex: I love to try different foods, I only eat one type of food, and have children identify with one puppet. − Indirect way of tapping into self-concept.

Documentary on development of aggression (3)

 The tendency to result to physical aggression is natural (evolutionary basis). Mechanisms are in place to temper natural physical aggressive tendency.  Social animals are programmed to curb their aggressive behaviors. This programming is in our brains. Emotional processes occur in the brain and as the brain develops there is a gradual increase into the capacity to control emotions and suppress anger/aggression. Frontal regions are important for this type of control.  The brains ability to control negative emotions is influenced by temperament. Temperament may also be determined by genes. In certain people the accelerator is dominant and in others the brake. Some babies are calm while others are restless and difficult, and easily frustrated. The environment is also important in sculpting the human brain and in affecting temperament. Born: human brain 500 grams, in the next 4 years, brains grow and by the age of 5 they are about the size of the adult brain. Brain and changing and growing in the first four years. Even children with difficult temperaments grow to be nonviolent adults in the right environments. Through contact with others they learn that if they hurt someone they might find themselves all alone. Individuals who persist in using physical aggression are eventually excluded. Brains develop the particular neural circuits to control aggression and these circuits grow over time. Reconciling after an argument is behavior common to all animals. Wanting to be part of the group encourages ways to cope with anger.  Social Behavior in Monkeys − Overly aggressive monkeys are kicked out of their group.  Tryptophan made individuals less aggressive and more dominant.

Story of transgender children

 Transgender explanation: Identify with the other gender, feels trapped in the wrong body. Hormone imbalance during pregnancy may cause incorrect gender imprint.  Jazz: Born a boy, identifies as a girl. Youngest documented transition from male to female. At two Jazz asked mom when a fairy would come and change her to a girl. Met all 4 criteria for gender identify disorder as a 3 year old.  Riley: Born a boy, identifies as a girl. Can always remember feeling like a girl. Sees herself as growing up to be a woman. I want a pink cup, quiet and meek, jealous of sister's clothes at age 2. Tried to cut it off at age 2.5. Every night he prays for a girl body. Would say he just wanted to die, he wishes he didn't exist at age 6. He had panic attacks. Diagnosed with gender identity disorder. Transitioned from a boy to a girl. Known as the girl with a dick and is bullied. Believes that the only people that like her are the ones that don't know. Hormone blockers to stop testosterone. Then between 14-16 to take estrogen shots to allow them to get breasts, and re-distribution of body fat. Can't remove Adam's apple or change voice. It can also render them sterile or increase cancer rate.  Jeremy: Born a girl, identifies as a girl. Felt trapped between genders. Sad when he found out the mother still didn't see him as male. Angry about feeling trapped and cut himself. Started hormone replacement.  Results of Study from San Francisco State University − Trans children rejected by families are 4x as likely to use drugs and attempt suicide, and 2x as likely to contract HIV, compared to children who do receive loving support.  Still Unknown: Cause and how many?