Psy- Addiction

Behavioural (learning) theories -evaluation of SLT (pos +study?

(Support) -many claims of social learning theory have been supported by research evidence -e.g.BENDA- Peer group influences found to be primary influence for adolescents who smoke or use drugs -adolescents who smoked were more likely to associate with other adolescents who also smoke

cognitive model -the self- medication model -evaluation (neg, pos study

-(neg) model suggests that some form f psychological distress comes before drug abuse -(Pos) SANJUAN- sexually abused women were more likely to turn to alcohol or drugs to remove sexual inhibitions than non-abused women

evaluation of disease model? (neg +study, pos -study)

-(neg) neurotransmitters not fully understood - difficulty in understanding which neurotransmitters produce which reward -ASHTON- suggest nicotine can both increase arousal and decrease stress -(neg)- reductionist- neglects social context, irrational thought processes -(pos) VOLKOW- gave Ritalin (gently lifts dopamine levels) to adult volunteers, some loved it and some hated the way it made them feel -produced brain scans: found- those who liked the feeling had fewer dopamine receptors than those who hated it conclusion-some people are particularly vulnerable to the rush of drugs, others have a dopamine circuit that cannot take additional stimulation

biological prevention- treatment evaluation? (2x neg +pos)

-(neg)- biological treatment may ignore underlying psychological problems -(neg)- addicts may relapse after treatment is stopped if this is the only treatment used -(pos)- substitute drugs help stabilize behavior helping the addict address their problems clearly and stabilize their health and social functioning

personal vulnerability- evaluation of attribution theory? (neg x2)

-(neg)- does not show how the addiction progresses in relation to attributions made about self -(neg)- DAVIES' model only carried out n a test of 20 people- needs to be tested further

psychological interventions -evaluations (neg x2 +pos)

-(neg)- may treat the behaviour but not the problem a person may have underlying psychological problems, by getting rid of the addiction they make develop a new addiction -(neg) hard to fully evaluate intervention because usually used at the same time as anther method (e.g. bio) -(pos)- CBT a current psychological method has better outcomes used in conjunction with another treatment

psychological interventions- self-help therapies- evaluation? (neg x2)

-(neg)- people who come to the meetings have hit rock bottom, no way of knowing whether treatment only works on people who are desperate- no comparison with a control group -(neg)- there is no measure of the success or the failure rate of the treatment

personal vulnerability- social context, evaluation (neg x2)?

-(neg)- the relationship between addiction and accessibility is correlational- we cannot estab causality -(neg)- social context such as availability can be affected by treatment and prevention programmes introduced at the same time

evaluation on role of media? (neg x2)

-(neg)-it is inconclusive- more research on how the media influence drug use is needed in order to evaluate the impact on addiction -(neg)- relationship between advertising and addictive behavior is mostly correlational- not possible to make causal connections

Behavioural (learning) theory operant conditioning -evaluation? (Pos +Study, neg +study)

-(pos) the process of developing and maintaining addiction doesn't require a conscious choice or awareness -(support)WEST- explains why addicts frequently experience a conflict between conscious desire to restrain themselves and motivational forces that encourage continuation -(neg) aspects of addiction not dealt with by this explanation -ROBINSON- Point out many people take potentially addictive drugs during the lifetime relatively few become addicts (suggest there are other psychological factors involved in the transition from consumption to addiction)

models of prevention- evaluation of stages of change model? (pos)

-(pos)- explains the unconscious behaviours of addiction that TRA and TPB don't

biological model- specific gens for addiction evaluation? (pos +neg- study)

-(pos)can explain why some addictions appear to run in the family -(neg)- COMINGS- found variant of D2 receptor in people with autism and Tourette's etc as least as often as in alcoholics -creates problem for 'reward gene hypothesis'

cognitive model- evaluation of rational choice theory?

-(pos)explains how some addicts are able to quit while others continue 'out of control' -(neg) doesn't explain why people continue smoking even though the cost economically and health wise are too high

psychological interventions- CBT?

-2 features: motivational interviews, relapse prevention -the technique assumes that addiction is a means of coping with difficult situations -motivational interviewing- encourages clients to give their own reasons for abstaining, encouraging commitment, creating the decision to change -relapse prevention- therapist helps identify situations that present a risk for relapse , creates techniques to learn how to cope with temptation

Behavioural (learning) theory -classical conditioning?

-Initiation (role of secondary reinforces) stimuli that occur at the same time or precede a learned stimulus (drug) become secondary reinforcers (formed through association) -GLAUTIER- research shows that alcohol related stimuli e.g. sights and sounds of the pub illicit many of the same physiological responses as alcohol itself (e.g. heart rate increased arousal -maintenance&relapse- once a drug habit is created it may be maintained through threat of withdrawal symptoms WEST- in classical conditioning terms drug effect is unconditional stimulus which challenges the internal regulation of the body the body bodies defensive response to the challenge is an unconditional response body tries to restore equilibrium any stimulus that proceeds drug e.g.environmental becomes condition stimuli building to unconditioned response from body in anticipation of the effects of the drug conditioned responses occurring in absence of drug put body in disequilibrium (Motivated to drug take again)

Behavioural (learning) theory - social learning theory?

-Initiation- extends idea of classical and operant conditioning to include learning that uses observation and communication -addiction begins through operant conditioning- use a learns about consequences of drug taking (any positive effects experienced directly/vicariously will result in repeated use -maintenance &relapse- because most drugs have both positive and negative effects users are motivated to both approach a drug (gain pos effects) and avoid it (neg effects) -WEST- create an approach-avoidance conflict motivation fluctuation -Addicts learned through classical conditioning to associate other stimuli with the drug e.g. ritual of shooting up) -if after a period of abstinence they come into contact with queues they are at a higher risk of relapse (Support)- MARLATT- The presence of multiple queues arouses positive outcome expectations which trigger and motivation to use the drug again

personal vulnerability- addictive personality- study +evaluation (neg study)?

-NATHAN- some people are more prone to addiction than others due to an addictive personality, a pre-existing character defect in individuals -(neg)- TEESON- it is difficult to disentangle to effects of personality on addiction from the effects of addiction on personality

cognitive model -expectancy theories? (study +support

-addicts differ from non-addicts in terms of their expectations on the pos vs neg effects of drug -initiation- costs vs benefits weighed up -support- SOUTHWICK- heavier drinkers shown to have more pos expectations about effects of alcohol than light drinkers -maintenance &relapse- BRANDON- as addiction develops activity is influenced less by conscious expectations but more by unconscious expectations involving automatic processing (explains loss of control of addicts and difficulties abstaining)

interventions- public health?

-adopt strategies: preventing gambling related problems among those who are at risk of addictions -promote balanced and informed attitudes towards gambling etc. -surveillance and reporting systems to monitor trends in gambling addictions etc.

personal vulnerability- evaluation of individual differences?

-common traits found in addiction may not be specific to addictive behaviour- may not predict the start of addiction

personal vulnerability- social context, study?

-environmental factors- availability, cost and average consumption by general population -VOLBERG- the prevalence of pathological gambling increased after significant increased acceptability

the biological model- genetics? (2x study +support study)

-family studies- MC GUE- genes control 50-60% to the development of alcohol dependence for both men and women -SUPPORT: -twin studies- estab. co-occurrence of some disorders influenced by genetics -KENDLER- analysed data from the Virginia Twin Registry found- common genetic factor contributed to presentation of alcohol dependence and adult antisocial behaviour

psychological interventions- classical conditioning different therapies

-in vivo desensitisation (real life)- pairing cues for addiction with no addiction behaviour and feelings of boredom -systematic desensitization therapy- a gradient of increasingly powerful cues for the addiction, at each step of arousal it is extinguished by relaxation -relaxation therapy- training relaxation techniques when the urge to relapse occurs

cognitive model- the self medication model? (study +support study

-initiation- GELKOPF- indiv intentionally use drugs to treat psy symptoms- drugs selected for its effects maintenance- smokers mention 'stress relief' as their reason for smoking -COHEN- smokers usually rrt higher stress levels than n-s- the continual stress arousal leads the continued use of the drug

Learning/behavioural model -gambling?

-initiation- learnt behaviour of the imitation observational learning schedules of reinforcement -SKINNER- theory that success in early gambling lead to increased likelihood that gambling would continue even if the individual won less often -maintenance- GRIFFITHS- there is a veritable ratio of winnings (gambler will win sometimes

behavioural (learning) models?

-operant conditioning -classical conditioning -social learning theory

the cognitive model? theories?

-the self medication model -expectancy theories -rational choice theory

models of addiction prevention- theory of planned behaviour?

AZJEN- a person's attitude to an activity can be a reliable indication of their actual behavior: -personal beliefs about the behaviour- derived from the person's expectations on the outcomes of the activity -the subjective norm- the person's perception on how other people would judge them -perceived behavioral control- extent to which the person believes the behavior is attainable

personal vulnerability- attributions theory, study?

DAVIES- people make different attributions for the same event in different contexts -e.g. heroin users reported different attributions for their own drug use to another heroin user to those who reported to someone whose drug use was unknown to them. because- attributions we make serve to protect self-esteem and our self-image

Behavioural learning theory evaluation of classical conditioning (x3 pos +study, neg)

Evidence support ROBINS- Studies of returning Vietnam veterans who became addicted to heroin while in Vietnam Findings- individuals who returned to a different environment back home were less likely to relapse then citizens that returned back to the same environment -(pos) Learned association lead to many people to relapse when experiencing queues -helps explain individual differences -(neg) cannot stand on its own other factors affect peoples motivation

models of addiction prevention- TPB evaluation -study (2xpos +neg) ?

GODIN- cigarette smoking and intentions in adults info on smoking behavior collected with an interview followed by a questionnaire -findings- the most important predictors of smoking intention were perceived behavioral control, attitudes and social norms -the predictors of actual smoking were perceived behavioral control and habit - there is a difference in theory and real life -(pos)- TPB explains better than TRA because considers why people who feel like they have little power over their situation and why they take up an addiction -(neg)- both TPB&TRA are limited to conscious and deliberate behaviors

personal vulnerability- low self esteem study?

JESSOR- low self-esteem as predictive of problematic behavior such as addiction

Personal vulnerability characteristic- study?

MC MURRAN- longitudinal study found- adolescents who are 'rebellious' with antisocial traits, are more likely to abuse drugs

biological model- specific genes for addiction? (study +support study

NOBLE- linked the D2 dopamine receptor gene to severe alcoholism found- variant of gene present in more than 2/3 of deceased alcoholics, only 1/5 of deceased non-alcoholics had the variant +NOBLE- individuals with variant had signif lower dopamine receptors in pleasure centres of the brain (people with less dop receptors more likely to be addicts to compensate for the deficiency) -support- BLUM- found increased prevalence of variant of gene in children of alcoholics- sugg increased intra-family risk

personal vulnerability- attribution theory- evaluation, study?

PREYDE &ADAMS -relates to how people explain the behaviours of others and themselves- addiction as a label can promote irresponsibility and learned helplessness -lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy

models of prevention- stages of change model?

PROCHASKA- identifies the person's willingness to change and gets them to become highly motivated to change -change is a spiral with most people being unsuccessful on their first attempt, making 3/4 attempts before reaching the maintenance stage -skills taught such as: behavioral self-training and stress managing

addiction in media- study?

ROBERTS- looked at drug use in music videos, when drugs did rarely appear in pop music they were depicted as neutral, everyday occurrences

cognitive model- evaluation of expectancy theory? (pos study

TATE- showed in smokers that expectations can be manipulated to prevent relapse -told smokers they should experience no neg experiences during period of abstinence findings- led to fewer reported somatic effects (shaking) and psy effects (mood swings) than a control group +those tld to expect somatic effects but not psy experienced more numerous and severe somatic effects than control group

psychology interventions- classical conditioning method?

addictions are learned maladaptive behaviour and so can be 'unlearned' -therapies focus on cue exposure and relapse triggers (e.g. environmental and emotional factors) -by repeated exposure to cues in the absence of the addiction, the addict learns to stay addiction free in high-risk situations

biological preventions- treatments?

addicts given another drug to help overcome their addiction- some may give unpleasant effects when used in combination with the drug of dependence (aversive agent treatment -replacing pos symptoms with neg symptoms) -agonist maintenance treatment- e.g. methodone given to heroin addicts to reduce neg withdrawal symptoms and cravings- addicts can then more readily engage in counseling

psychological interventions?

classical conditioning, operant conditioning therapies, CBT

evaluation of genetic theory? (neg)

genes may give general predisposition to antisocial behaviours not necessarily alcohol/drug abuse

biological models?

genetics, neurochemical factor, the disease model

psychological interventions- operant conditioning? study?

giving people rewards for not taking the substance -HIGGINS- voucher therapy (vouchers increased after each clear test of cocaine) -found- lower drop out rate than usual treatment programmes and helped develop coping techniques

behavioural (learning) theory- operant conditioning? (study

initiation- (role of pos reinforcement) any behaviour that is rewarding is likely to be repeated -GRIFFITHS- gamblers become addicted to slot machines due to the physiological rewards (adrenaline rush), psychological rewards (near misses), social rewards (peer praise) and financial rewards if they win Maintenance &relapse- (role of neg reinforcement) after repeated exposure to drugs withdrawl symptoms appear if drug is abstained - neg reinforcement (Explains why many addicts continue to relapse)

biological model -the disease theory? (study lasting effects?

initiation- research shows that addictive behavior stimulates reward circuits in the brain- release of dopamine -ROBINSON- repeated exposure to drug- increasing sensitivity of the brain to their desirability- can persist even in the absence of continued exposure to the drug -maintenance- chronic exposure to drug decreases the activity of the reward circuit- generates chronic stress- neg state drives drug craving (pos reinforcement turns into neg reinforcement) -relapse- desire for drug to remove neg state -brain still craves imminent rewards -changes make permanent recovery difficult- drug induced changes have occurred to the brain with lasting memories of the effects of the drug (frontal cortex less able to make decisions)

psychological interventions- self-help therapies? study?

most popular one- MINNESOTA MODEL 12 step programme -uses a group therapy technique and only ex-addicts as helpers -addicts become involved in accepting personal responsibility, they must come on their own accord and really want to abstain -focus demands on the next meeting and gain social rewards

cognitive model- rational choice theory? (study

people weigh up the costs vs the benefits of taking a drug -initiation- BECKER &MURPHY- proposed economic model- measures relative satisfaction resulting from consumption maintenance &relapse- exception to rationality GRIFFITHS- see whether regular gamblers thought the same way as n-r gamblers (compared verbalization) found- rg believed they were more skillful than they actually were -tended to treat machine as a person explained away losses as 'near losses/near wins'

advertising effect -study?

research by DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH- suggested a relationship between advertising tobacco and sales -in 4 countries that banned advertising a sharp decrease in tobacco sales was seen

psychological interventions- operant conditioning evaluation?

voucher therapy- (neg) although study by HIGGINS showed that behaviour could be modified using operant conditioning, many would argue that in real-life addicts would unlikely be affected by financial rewards -(neg)- only carried out on white males in USA -reduced external validity