PSY254 FINAL

Self-recognition: Rouge Test Babies younger than __ months fail to recognize that they are the person in the mirror Apes, dolphins, elephants pass this test

18

interactive media __ passive media viewing co-interaction with people = __

> better

What's Special about Peer Relationships? We spent __ time with friends and romantic partners as life goes on.

more

Bowlby's Stages of Attachment: 4. Reciprocal Relationships age __ onwards children as relationship __ - By the point, the child has a script/schema for relationships in their lives

2 partners

Environmental differences predict later academic outcomes and verbal abilities When kids are in kindergarten, kids in low SES v high are already __ years apart in developmental age - By 8, gap is much __ (3-3.5 YEARS of developmental age) - Green gap is about summer experiences: summer is __ growth for higher-SES but __ for lower-SES

2; wider; increased; flattened

Emotional Understanding: Implications for Mental Health Approximately __% of Americans meet criteria for a mental disorder in their lifetime __ disorders tend to develop earlier than __ disorders The average age of onset for various mental health disorders is around __

50 anxiety; mood 20

Family Structure: Changes in Family Structure in the US - Family Structures are More Fluid A commonly repeated statistic is that __% of marriages end in divorce - This statistic is accurate over a span of 20 years: Specifically, a couple in a first marriage has a 69% chance of staying together for 10 years and a 54% chance of staying together for 20 years-rates that have remained relatively unchanged since the 1970s - This high rate of divorce means that a substantial proportion of children experience some, and sometimes repeated, __ in family structure through the entrance or exit of a parent or parent's cohabitating partner -- Nearly ⅕ of all children experience a change in family __ as a result of separation, divorce, remarriage, cohabitation, or parental health of a 3-year period - The more family structure transitions a child undergoes, the more __ the child experiences, which can lead to the development of __ problems

50; changes; structure; instability; behavior

Bowlby's Stages of Attachment: 2. Attachment-in-the-making __-__ months __ and __ caregivers __ relationships, people are no longer __, different relationships being formed

6; 8 recognize; prefer personal; interchangeable

Most bullying occurs within grades Not many __/positive effects of anti-bullying interventions on adolescents

consistent

What Influences Peer Acceptance physical features - by age 5, unattractive kids are __ liked by peers - elementary school kids prefer smaller __ cognitive skills - ESL are __ liked behavioral considerations - kids who are rejected/neglected have an impaired ability to __ social situations

less; silhouettes less read

Sibling Relationships Another factor that can affect the quality of siblings' interactions is the nature of the __ relationship Rivalry and conflict between siblings tend to be __ in divorced families and in remarried families than in non-divorced families, even between biological siblings - Although some siblings turn to one another for support when their parents divorce or remarry, they may also compete for parental affection and attention, which often are scarce in those situations - In general, the more a child in a blended family perceives a parent's treatment of a sibling to be __, the worse the child's relationship is with that sibling The quality of sibling relationships differs across families depending on the ways that parents interact with each child and with each other and children's perceptions of their treatment by other family members - Such differences highlight the fact that families are complex, dynamic social systems and that all members contribute to one another's functioning

parents' higher; preferential

Box 13.4 Applications: Fostering Children's Peer Acceptance Emotion __ and empathy are key skills children acquire as they develop One example of this approach is the Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS) curriculum, in which children from 4-11 years learn to __ emotional expressions and to think about the causes and consequences of different ways to __ emotions - The program provides children with opportunities to develop conscious strategies for __ through verbal mediation (self-talk) and practicing ways to self-regulate

recognition identify; express; self-control

Factors that Influence Other Attachments Insecure-avoidance - caregivers don't __ to baby's signals - not much __ contact - angry and __ when together Insecure-resistant-ambivalent - unaffectionate and __ Insecure-disorganized - neglect or __ abuse - __ mothers

respond; physical; irritable inconsistent physical; depressed

Putting Words Together: First Sentences Most children begin to combine words into simple sentences by the end of their __ year However, young children __ word combinations much earlier than when they can produce them - In one of the first studies to show early sensitivity to world order, 17-month-olds viewed a pair of videos presented simultaneously-one showing Cookie monster ticking Big Bird, and the other showing Big Bird tickling Cookie Monster: Telegraphic speech: - Many children continue to produce short utterances for some time, whereas others quickly move on to sentences consisting of three or more words - The length of children's utterances increases in part because they begin to systematically incorporate some of the elements that were missing from their __ speech

second understand When they heard a sentence like, "Where is Cookie Monster ticking Big Bird?" they looked at the appropriate scene, suggesting that they could use the order of the words to interpret the meaning of the sentence short utterances that leave out non-essential words telegraphic

Bowlby's Theory of Attachment Observed that children who lost their parents in WWII were not developing well - How do parental behaviors influence offspring behaviors? Attachment as "__ __" - Baby needs to balance __ and __ - Good at involving parents: good at making eye contact, being cute, etc - __ parents into being a secure base

secure base; security; exploration; coerce

Fixed v Growth Mindset: Additional Interesting Findings In a study with 170,000 10th graders in Chile, mindsets predicted academic achievement just as strongly as family __! - Low SES with growth mindset = high ses with fixed mindset Children who are told they have a reputation for being smart are more likely to __. Growth-minded individuals showed superior __ after making mistakes. - An ERP study probed the neural mechanisms underlying different reactions to mistakes. The growth mindset was associated with enhancement of an area of the brain that allocates attention to __. In order to be implemented successfully, students' growth mindsets must be supported by their teachers' growth mindsets

ses cheat accuracy; mistakes

Word Learning After producing their first words, children typically plod ahead __, reaching a productive vocabulary of 50 or so words by about 18 months - At this point, the rate of learning appears to accelerate, leading to what appears to be a "__ __" - Although scholars disagree about whether __ actually speeds up for all or even most children, is it clear that children's __ abilities are growing rapidly

slowly; vocabulary spurt; learning; communicative

Child Development and Parenting - Economic Contexts The US Department of Agriculture estimates that an average American family will spend about $12,980 per child per year, totaling $233,610 per child by the time the child reaches 18 - Yet there is considerable __ around that average: parents in the lowest one-third of incomes spend about $10,000 per child per year, while parents in the highest one-third spend $25,000 or more per child per year-2.5x as much In addition to influencing what families can buy, income influences the amount and quality of __ parents spend with their children - Low-income parents may need to work multiple jobs or jobs with irregular or night hours; such jobs make it difficult for parents to spend time "investing" in their children Many children live in poor and low-income families, both in the US and elsewhere - Nearly ⅕ children in the US lives in poverty, which is the second highest among the world's 35 richest nations - Children in the US are nearly __x as likely as adults to be living in poverty - Around the world, children make up ⅓ of the world's population but constitute half of the people living in extreme poverty, defined as living on less than $1.25 per day Because living in poverty can mean living without food, medical care, adequate shelter, or safe schools and neighborhoods, poor children suffer in their development across a range of domains - Children in poverty have __ academic achievement, more mental health problems, __ behavioral problems, and more health problems than their higher-income peers - Poor families are also at risk of becoming homeless, a crisis state that exacerbates all the stressors the parents and children experience Low-income parents are twice as likely as high-income parents to be afraid their child will get shot or will get in trouble with the law - These fears likely stem from the __ of the neighborhoods in which they live; low-income parents are 3x more likely as high-income parents to view their neighborhoods as not being good places to raise their children Clearly, having a higher income makes parenting and raising children easier - However, if parents have to spend long hours out of the home and away from their children in order to earn that income, or if high-achieving parents put extra pressure on their children, the psychological costs may __ the material benefits - A growing body of research has shown that children living in high-income families, and thus not traditionally considered at risk for behavior problems and delinquency, actually manifest comparable or higher rates of drug use, delinquent behavior, and mental health problems compared with their low-income peers Consistent with Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model, economic and educational factors at the __ level also seem to be related to the degree to which mothers engage in various caregiving activities - In a study of mothers in 28 developing countries who had children younger than 5, mothers in countries that had higher average levels of educational attainment and a higher gross national produce were more likely to engage in caregiving activities that are cognitively stimulating and were less likely to leave their children alone or in the care of a child younger than 10; it's likely that __ differences in the importance placed on literacy and cognitive growth account for these differences in mothers' caregiving activities

variation time 2 lower; more quality diminish country; cultural

Throw Out the Flash Cards The cognitive and social processes requires for imaginative play are more __ than looking at flash cards.

demanding

Sex and Gender Sex: Gender: Gender-fluid: Gender typing: Gender-typed: Cross-gender-typed:

distinction between genetic females (XX) and genetic males (XY) as well as other genetic sex compositions (XO, XXY, XYY) social assignment or self-categorization as "a girl" or "a boy" (or possibly both, neither, or a different category) individuals who self-identify with different gender categories depending on the context the process of gender socialization behaviors stereotypes or expected for a given person's assigned gender behaviors stereotypes or expected for the danger other than that of a given person

Densely sampled naturalistic data show that infants almost always experience naming events at two __: 1. tons of moments with extremely __ reference 2. tons of moments with extremely __ reference

extremes clear; ambiguous

Historical Perspective on Morality: Haidt "moral dumbfounding": intuitionist theory: - moral judgment is caused by quick moral intuitions, often based on emotions - moral emotions depend on encapsulated, evolved systems; we may experience them without understanding their causes - moral judgments is followed by slow ex post facto moral reasoning 5 moral foundations: - care/harm - fairness/cheating - loyalty/betrayal - authority/subversion - sanctity/degradation Which foundations are valued by liberals: Which foundations are valued by conservatives:

having a hard time articulating WHY we make the judgements we do - can't use explicit responses we experience moral judgments in our gut rather than through reasoning care/harm, fairness/cheating all of them

Play supports explanation and hypothesis-testing (Bonawitz et al) Not about whether we get to play, but what we're doing, who with, and why 4-year-olds presented with new toy that had 4 different functions Instruction condition: kids were shown to use one part of this - "Watch this!" Baseline condition: kids told neutral stuff Accidental condition: experimenter brought out the toy, "accidentally" made the toy squeak, and said "Woah, did you see that?" Results:

The instruction group kept doing the same stuff they were shown - Performed fewer different kinds of actions - Played less The baseline and accidental group became little scientists and kept exploring the toy Conclusion: Direct instruction limits spontaneous exploration and discovery

Patterns of Gender Development: Cognitive Abilities and Academic Achievement - Verbal Skills Girls have tended to be slightly __ in early language development, including fluency and clarity of articulation and vocabulary development - On standardized tests of children's overall verbal ability, there has been a __ average gender difference favoring girls - Larger average differences were seen when __ verbal skills were examined (reading and writing, speech-related)

advanced; negligible; specific

Theme 4: Mechanisms of Developmental Change With Piaget's theory, change occurs through the interaction of __ and __ - Through assimilation, children interpret new experiences in terms of their __ mental structures; through accommodation, they __ their existing mental structures in accordance with the new experiences

assimilation; accommodation; existing; revise

Kids who receive a reward for helping are __ likely to help. Toddlers needs to have __ skills and __ skills in order to help

less motor; turn-taking

Favoring the Ingroup in Childhood Children share more with... - __ than with strangers - __ than with strongers

parents; friends

Culture and Family Environment Impact on Emotion: Breakdowns in Family Environment How does deprivation affect emotion recognition and understanding - two groups of children: (1) children who had been institutionalized, (2) children living with their biological families - emotion identification: - emotion understanding: Does extensive exposure to a particular emotion affect emotion perception - two groups of children: (1) children living in abusive homes, (2) non-maltreated children - children from abusive homes needed less information to identify __ faces

previously institutionalized children worse than controls for all emotions previously institutionalized children worse than controls for all emotions except anger angry

Developmental Changes in Friendships Children appear to have friends as early as their __ year of life - Children as young as 12-18 months display a __ for some children over others by touching the preferred children, smiling at them, and engaging in positive interactions with them more than they do with other peers - By 24 months, children have begun to develop skills that allow greater __ in their social interactions, including imitating peers' social behaviors, engaging in cooperative problem solving, and trading roles during play By 3 or 4, children can make and __ friendships with peers - Even in these early years, children can identify their "best friends" and characterize their relationships with best friends as more positive than their relationships with other friends - During preschool, children begin to prefer playing with __-gender peers and this preference continues through middle childhood From 5 years on, children who are friends communicate more __ with one another and cooperate and work together more effectively than do nonfriends - Friends also fight with each other more often, but they are more likely to __ their way out of the conflict than are nonfriends - Between 6-8, children define friendship primarily on the basis of actual __ with their peers and tend to define "best" friends as peers with whom they play all the time and share everything - Studies conducted in both Asian and Western countries have shown that, throughout middle childhood, children increasingly define their friendships in terms of characteristics such as __, similarity in attitudes/interests, acceptance, trust, genuineness, mutual admiration, and loyalty - At 9 years, children seem to become more sensitive to the needs of others and to __ in the ways some groups of people are treated compared to other groups - - For children at this age, friends are those peers who take care of one another's physical and material needs, provide general assistance and help with schoolwork, reduce loneliness, and share feelings During adolescence, friendships become an increasingly important source of intimacy and self-disclosure, as well as a source of honest feedback - Friendships also become more __ in adolescence, as adolescents begin to focus on having just a few close friends - These changes may explain why adolescents perceive the quality of their friendships as __ from middle to late adolescence and why they value them so highly - However, friendships in adolescence can also be less __ that they were in middle childhood; whereas 75% of friendships at age 10 persist for the entire school year, only half endure in adolescence What accounts for the various age-related changes that occur in children's friendships, particularly with regard to their concept of friendship? - Selman suggested that changes in children's __ about friendships are a consequence of age-related qualitative changes in their ability to take others' __ - - In this view, as well as of Piaget and others, young children have limited __ that others may feel or think about things different than they themselves do - - Consequently, their thinking about friendships is limited by the degree to which they consider issues beyond their __ needs - - As children begin to understand others' thoughts and feelings, they realize that friendships involve consideration of both parties' needs so that the relationship is mutually satisfying

second; preference; complexity maintain; same often; negotiate; activities; companionships; inequalities exclusive; improving; stable reasoning; perspectives; awareness; own

Fixed Mindset v Growth Mindset: Person v Process Feedback

Person feedback (I'm disappointed in you) v process feedback (Try that a different way) - Kids who got the person feedback rated themselves as less smart, they were more persistently negative, and they were less interested in doing another task Person praise (You're good at that) v process praise (You must have tried really hard at this) - Kids who got person praise rated themselves as less smart, were more negative mood, and less interested in doing another related task

Hostile attribution bias intervention:

Participants: kids labeled as aggressive by their teachers. Intervention: learned that ambiguous decisions may not be aggressive at all. Test: exposed kids to simulations of peer ambiguous behavior. Results: the intervention worked. - Post-intervention: drop in students' rating other actions as intentional, drop in feelings of anger, drop in own aggressive behavior.

Status and Leadership kid leaders are more __, and are not necessarily good at leading, but rather just __ others they are

narcissistic; convince

Measurement of Attachment Security: Ainsworth's Strange Situation Procedure Through her use of the Strange Situation, Ainsworth (1978) discerned three distinct patterns of infants' behavior that seemed to indicate the quality or security of their attachment bonds and that are associated with distinct patterns of parenting behavior Secure attachment: - In the Strange Situation, a securely attached infant may be __ when the caregiver leaves but may be __ to see the caregiver return, recovering __ from any distress - When children are securely attached, they can use caregivers as a secure base for exploration - - During the initial part of the session, they leave her side to __ the many toys available in the room - - As they play, they occasionally look back to check on their mother or bring a toy to show her - - __ to some degree when she leaves the room, especially when they are left totally alone - - When the mother returns, they make it clear that they are __ to see her - The __ of infants - - __-__% of children in the US whose mothers are not clinically disturbed fall into this category

a pattern of attachment in which infants or young children have a positive and trusting relationship with their attachment figure upset; happy; quickly; explore; distressed; glad; majority; 50; 60

Current Perspectives of Self-Attributions and Achievement Motivation Social cognitive theorists have made many important contributions to the study of social development - One is their emphasis on children as __ seekers of information about the social world - Another is the insight that the effect of children's social experience depends on their __ of those experiences A large amount of research has supported the social cognitive position - Although these theories have provided a very healthy antidote to social theories that left children's cognition out of the picture, they too provide an incomplete account - Most notably, social cognitive theories, like learning theories, have very little to say about __ factors in social development

active; interpretation biological

Word Comprehension: Babbling Provides practice with __ relevant sounds - begin doing it randomly, but slowly narrows in to what the __ language is Babbling actively changes the type of __ that infants receive from caregivers - caregivers are more likely to __ to babbling and adult-like vowels - contingent speed from caregivers is more __ and intimate - by babbling, infants create social interaction that __ their own language learning - Not only rehearsal, but rewarding/action packed because it makes adults do things; adults respond in a more __ way to what the infant is doing Babbling at an object is a single of infants' interest, and may be a good moment to hear __ about it

articulating; native input; respond; sensitive; facilitate; tailored words

Dweck's Theory of Self-Attributions and Achievement Motivation These different motivation patterns are evident as early as preschool - Given the choice of working on a puzzle they have already solved or on one they had previously failed to solve, some 4- and 5-year-old children strongly prefer the one they already know how to do, whereas others want to continue working on the one they had failed to solve Older children's views of themselves involve more __ concepts and reasoning than those of younger children Entity theory: - Over time, this theory comes to include the belief that success or failure in academic situations __ on how smart one is - When evaluating their own performance, children with an entity theory of intelligence focus on __, not on __ or learning from mistakes; thus, when they experience failure, they think they are not smart and that there is nothing they can do about it - This pattern is reinforced by both praise and criticism focused on children's enduring __ Incremental theory: - When evaluating their performance, they focus on what they have __, even when they have failed, and they believe they can do better in the future by trying harder - This pattern is reinforced by focusing on children's __, praising them for a good effort and criticizing them for an inadequate one These different types of internal theories have real-world implications: - The investigators provided an 8-session intervention to a new group of 7th-graders who had an entity theory of intelligence:

complex a theory that a person's level of intelligence is fixed and unchangeable depends; outcomes; effort; traits a theory that a person's intelligence can grow as a function of experience learned; effort 7th-graders with an incremental theory of intelligence showed an upward trajectory in math scores over the next 2 years, while the scores of 7th-graders with an entity theory of intelligence remained flat Students in this group were taught an incremental theory of intelligence based on some of neuroscience concepts like plasticity, synaptogenesis, etc while a control group received training in basic study skills. The children who received the intervention showed a positive change in motivation as well as improvements in grades, while the children in the control group showed a decline in grades.

Milestones in Gender Development: Preschool Years During the preschool years, children quickly learn gender stereotypes - By 3, most children begin to attribute certain toys and play activities to each gender - By 5, they usually stereotype affiliative characteristics (nurturance, warmth) to females and assertive characteristics (directness, aggression) to males - During this period, they lack gender __: they don't understand that gender remains stable across time and is consistent across situations

constancy

The Emergence of Emotions: The Self-Conscious Emotions Self-conscious emotions: - Opposed to emotions that are thought to be __/occur well before children are able to __ with others in that they require that children have a sense of themselves as separate from other people-an ability that is not fully developed until children are 2 The expression of these emotions is an example of __ growth: there is an abrupt, qualitative change in children's abilities to experience self-conscious emotions that is linked to the emergence of a sense of self The difference between guilt and shame: - People may feel guilt associated with a specific __ they have undertaken, but feelings of shame are associated with their __ - Shame and guilt can be distinguished fairly early, as documented by a study in which researchers arranged for 2-year-olds to play with a doll that had been rigged so that one leg would fall off during play while the experimenter was out of the room: - In general, the degree of association of guilt feelings with bad or harmful behavior __ in the second-third year, and the individual differences in children's guilt observed at 22 months remain relatively __ across the early preschool years

emotions such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, and pride that relate to our sense of self and our consciousness of others' reactions to us innate; communicate discontinuous Guilt is associated with empathy for others and involves feelings of remorse and regret about one's behavior, as well as the desire to undo the consequences of that behavior while shame is not related to concern about others; when children feel shame, their focus is on themselves and the acceptance of a personal failure, the feeling that they are exposed and that they feel like hiding behavior; self worth When the "accident" occurred, some toddlers displayed a pattern of behavior that seemed to reflect shame: they avoided the adult when she returned to the room and delayed telling her about the mishap, other children showed a pattern of behavior that seemed to reflect guilt: they repaired the doll quickly, told the adult about the mishap shortly after she returned to the room, and showed relatively little avoidance of her increases; stable

Screen Use Today 50% of kids under 2 watch TV __ day Of children who consume screen media: average of __ hours per day 97% of US kids under 4 use mobile devices, regardless of __ 72% of children under 8 use mobile devices Kids don't learn well from screens TV __ children from the situations where they have the chance to learn more

every 2 income distracts

Learning Theories The empiricist John Locke believed that __ shapes the nature of the human mind - His intellectual descendants also consider __ to be the primary factor in social and personality development - In contrast to Freud's emphasis on the role of internal forces and subjective experience, learning theorists emphasize the role of __ factors in shaping social behavior The primary developmental question on which learning theories take a unanimous stand is whether they demonstrate continuity or discontinuity: they emphasize __ - Because the same principles control learning and behavior throughout life, there are no qualitatively different stages in development - Like information-processing theorists, learning theorists focus on the role of specific __ of change-which, in their view, involve learning principles, such as reinforcement and observational learning

experience; learning; external continuity; mechanisms

The Origins of Aggression and Antisocial Behavior: Family Influences - Poor parental monitoring Another factor that can increase children's antisocial behavior is parents' __ of where their children are, whom they are with, and what they are doing - This notion is supported by data from the US DOJ, which finds that juvenile crimes peak from 3-7pm on weekdays-the potentially __ hours between the end of school and when parents get home from work Once adolescents begin engaging in aggressive and antisocial behaviors, they become even harder to monitor; parents of antisocial or aggressive youth find that monitoring can lead to such high conflict with their children that they are forced to back off

monitoring; unsupervised

Sources of individual differences in racial prejudice 2. Children's cognitive skills? Question: does a child's IQ predict how prejudiced s/he will be as an adult? Answer: yes, but why?

IQ at age 10 and level of racism at 33 were correlated (lower IQ = more racist) - This relationship was mediated by endorsement of right-wing ideology - Lower IQ may cause more conservative ideals (listening to authority, for example)

Social Learning Children learn from observing and interacting with other people: At first, imitation is limited to behaviors that infants sometimes __ produce on their own, such as sticking out the tongue, and even that is inconsistent - By the second half of the first year, infants imitate novel behaviors that they never make spontaneously - This imitation is not just __ imitation Social learning influences __ development as well as knowledge acquisition - When an unfamiliar person enters the room, 12 month olds look to their mother for guidance Social learning also shapes children's standards and values - From the second year, toddlers __ their parents' values and standards and use them to guide and evaluate their own conduct Later in development, peers, teachers, and other adults also influence children's standards and values Peers play a steadily increasing role Social scaffolding allows a beginner to do more than they could without help - As they master the basics of the task, the more expert person transfers more responsibility until the learner is doing the entire task

Imitation, social referencing, language, and guided participation spontaneously; blind socioemotional internalize

The most extensive example of language creation by children comes from the invention of Nicaraguan Sign Language, a completely new language that has been evolving over the past 40 years:

In 1979, a large-scale education program for the deaf began in Nicaragua The program brought hundreds of deaf children together in two schools. For most of the children, it was their first exposure to other deaf people. The reachers in the schools knew no formal sign language nor did the children, who had only the simple homesigns they had used to communicate with their families. The children quickly began to build on one another's existing informal signs, constructive a relatively crude, limited sign language. As younger students entered the schools, they rapidly mastered the rudimentary system used by the older students and then gradually transformed it into a complex, fully consistent language with its own grammar. Children's and adolescents are the most fluent signers in the NSL community, both because NSL has evolved into a real language and because they acquired it at an earlier age than the adults in the community.

Seeing Gender: Do infants have gender preferences in natural interaction?

In natural interaction, as kids age, they spend more time with members of their same gender. Even if you match physical appearance, this still happens.

Play supports explanation and hypothesis-testing (Shulz & Bonawitz) Hand a kid a box covered in felt with two levers 4 year olds played and got to control a handle and an experimenter controlled the other The levers made one of the animals pop out of the box Confounded condition: both did it at the same time, so the child couldn't tell which lever did what Unconfounded condition: the child and experimenter did each one separately, so the child knew which level did what When given the choice to keep playing with that toy or play with a different toy...

In the confounded condition, kids plays more, because they wanted to solve the mystery In the unconfounded condition, kids played less Conclusion: Children are motivated to explore stimuli whose causal structure is ambiguous

Change Mechanisms Work Together For instance, effortful attention:

The development reflects a combination of biological and environmental factors - Biologically, genes influence the production of neurotransmitters that affect children's ability to focus and ignore distractions - Also relies on the development of connections between the anterior cingulate, which is active in attention to goals, and the limbic area, which is active in emotional reactions - Environmentally, the development is influenced by the quality of parenting a child receives-though this is true primarily for children with a particular genotype - Specific experiences can also be influential; for example, playing specially designed computer games increases the activity of the anterior cingulate and thus may aid the ability to sustain attention of both experimental tasks and intelligence tests

Morality and Relevance to Budding Political Views Are kids who use 'intrinstic' explanations (e.g., about why some people are in poverty) more likely to be conservative?

Told about 2 groups of people from an alien society and about the status differences (one had more money than the other) and were asked why this money different existed. Some kids focused on intrinsic differences (poor because not smart). Some focus on extrinsic differences (one group happened to find gold). Kids and adults who offer intrinsic explanations are more likely to hold conservative values.

Culture and Family Environment Impact on Emotion Study by Tsai asking kids how they want to feel: - Where preference might come from: Cole study on display rules:

When asking children if they'd rather feel excited or calm, the responses differed along racial/ethnic lines. American kids wanted to feel excited, while Taiwanese kids wanted to feel calm. might come from children's books: in American books, more excitement, in Taiwanese books, more calmness 2 communities in Nepal, found that in one community, anger was preferred while in the other, anger was not; how parents responded when kids expressed anger/shame differed, where in one community, they tended to be nurtured, and the opposite in the other

How Temperament Fits with Environment Some children's temperaments make them highly reactive to both positive and negative family environments - Differential susceptibility: - For example, children with impulsive temperaments have been found to exhibit )) levels of behavior problems in adolescence if they are raised in harsh family environments; but if raised in positive family environments, they exhibit __ levels of behavior problems - Although evidence for differential susceptibility has been found in several longitudinal studies, it is also the case that all children __ from positive parenting environments, regardless of whether their genetic and temperamental characteristics make them likely to be reaction to their environments

a circumstance in which the same temperament characteristic that puts some children at high risk for negative outcomes when exposed to a harsh home environment also causes them to blossom when their home environment is positive high; low; benefit

Self-Regulation Early self-regulation skills are related to long-term developmental outcomes - Boys who exhibit strong self-regulation abilities in the preschool and early elementary school periods are less likely as adults to use coke and other drugs - Over the course of childhood and adolescence, children increasingly regulate their development through their choice of __

activities

The Origins of Aggression and Antisocial Behavior: Family Influences - Parental punitiveness Harsh or abusive punishment is also consistently associated with the development of __ tendencies - Very harsh physical discipline appears to lead to the kinds of social __ that are associated with aggression Parents who use abusive punishment provide salient __ of aggressive behavior for their children to imitate Children who are high in antisocial behavior, who exhibit psychopathic traits, or who are low in self-regulation tend to __ harsh parenting; in turn, harsh parenting increases the children's problem behavior - Some research research suggests that harsh physical punishment has a __ effect on children's behavior problems than vice versa - In this pattern, the aggression of children who are out of control may be unintentionally __ by parents who, once their efforts to coerce compliance have failed, give in to their children's fits of temper and demands Relation between punitive parenting and children's aggression can have a __ component - Parents whose genes predispose them to aggressive or punitive parenting will pass those genes to their children - Both factors appear to be at play; twin studies indicate that the relation between punitive parenting and children's antisocial behavior is not entirely due to hereditary factors - Among monozygotic twins, the twin who receives harsher parenting and less parental warmth also develops high levels of aggression

antisocial; cognitions models elicit; stronger; reinforced genetic

Same-Sex Parents Many researchers have examined whether same-sex parents are any different from different-sex parents and whether the children of same-sex parents experience different outcomes from the children of different-sex parents - A growing body of research in the US and in Europe have consistently shown that children with same-sex parents __ different from children of different-sex parents in terms of mental health, behavior, and academic achievement - In addition, these children are __ to their peers of different-sex parents in their sexual orientation, in the gender identity, and in the degree to which their behavior is gender typed, as well as in their romantic involvements and sexual behavior as adolescents - As in families with heterosexual parents, the adjustment of children with lesbian and gay parents seems to depend on family __, including the closeness of the parent-child relationship, how well the parents get along, parental supportiveness, regualted discipline, and the degree of stress parents experience in their parenting - The American Academy of Pediatrics has confirms that there is no evidence of a __ link between parents' sexual orientation and children's development across a range of domains

aren't; similar; dynamics; causal

the battle of emotions theory:

basic emotions theory v theory of constructed emotion

Theories of Language Chomsky/Universal Grammar: - Language __ be learned through reinforcement/punishment - the general structure of the world's languages are similar because we are __ with them - we can produce sentences we've never heard before because we're __ with it - this theory is __ Learning theories: - the complexities of language are learnable via various __ and computationally feasible processes - the general structures of the world's languages are similar because __ things stuck around and less __ things went away - many infant learning mechanisms have __ natural languages

cannot; born; born; wrong domain-general; learnable; learnable; shaped

Box 8.1 Applications A Highly Successful Early Intervention: The Carolina Abecedarian Project Carolina Abecedarian Project: Children were selected to participate in the program on the basis of low family __, the __ of a father in the home, low maternal __, and other factors that put the children at risk for developmental problems - The program was based on seven principles: Encourage exploration, Mentor basic skills, Celebrate developmental advances, Rehearse and generalize new skills, Protect children from inappropriate disapproval, teasing, and punishment, Communicate richly and responsively, Guide and limit behavior - Children in the program began attending a special day-care center by the time they were 6-month-olds and continued to do so through the age of 5 - They were at the center for the entire working day, 5 days per week, 50 weeks per year, for 5 years - The teacher:child ratio was optimal: 1:3 for children 3 and younger and 1:6 for 4- and 5-year-olds - The program for the children 3 and younger emphasized __ social, cognitive, and motor development; for 4- and 5-year-olds, the program also provided __ instruction in math, science, reading, and music - At all ages, the program emphasized language development and extensive verbal communication between teachers and children - Program personnel also worked with the children's mothers outside the day-care center to improve their understanding of child development - Families of children in both the experimental and control groups were provided with nutritional supplements and access to high-quality health care, but children in the control group did not participate in the other program activities - This program proved to have lasting effects on the IQ scores and achievement levels of children in the experimental group: What lessons can be drawn from the project? The benefit of starting interventions __ and continuing them for __ periods - A version of the program that ended at age 3 did not produce __ effects on intelligence, nor did a version that provided educational support from kindergarten-2nd grade The need for caregivers to interact with infants in positive, __ ways It is possible to design interventions that have substantial, lasting, positive effects on poor children's intellectual development

comprehensive and successful enrichment program for children from low-income families income; absence; education general; systematic At the age of 21, 15 years after the program had ended, these children had mean IQ scores 5 points higher than the children in the control group: 90 versus 85. Participants' achievement test scores in math and reading were also higher. As with less encompassing intervention programs, fewer participants were ever held back in school or placed in special-education classes. At 30, a higher percentage of children in the experimental group than in the control group had graduated from college: 23% versus 6%. early; substantial; long-term responsive

Attachment "Styles" Secure attachment (60-65%) - __ when mom leaves, __ to have her back - __ kids Insecure-avoidant (20%) - Baby is __ when parent leaves, __ when she gets back Insecure-resistant (10%) - __ when caregiver leaves, baby is __/__ Insecure-disorganized (5-15%) - Could be that being __ is the best strategy Attachment is a developmental process that ends in one of these categories (__-stable)

distressed; glad; most distressed; ignores distressed; angry; rejects anxious semi

Individual differences in vocabulary Large __ vocabulary sets up for academic success/success in public schools Bottom 10% have vocabularies that aren't really thriving - Can be developmental disorders, personal things, etc - "Late talker" know __ or fewer words at 2 years old - What happens from there? - Predicted by __ differences and __-related differences

early 50 Enormous variability; neurological; SES

Learning Theories: Current Perspectives In contrast to psychoanalytic theories, learning theories are based on principles derived from __ - The primary weakness of the learning approach is that because it is focused on behavior, not brains or minds, it lacks attention to __ influences and largely __ the impact of perceptual, motor, cognitive, and language development Kismet's designers took learning theories seriously by giving the robot the crucial capacity to learn from humans - Kismet can acquire new behaviors by __ what it "sees" and "hears" humans do - Kismet's ability to learn from people is a crucial aspect of what makes it seem sociable

experiments; biological; minimizes modeling

The Emergence of Emotions Most researchers agree that there are six basic emotions that are universal in all human cultures - Each of these basic emotions serves important survival and communication functions - These basic emotions appear very early in life, lending support to the idea that emotions may be partly __ and, thus, a result of nature

happiness, fear, anger, sadness, surprise, and disgust innate

Peer Influences Kids with friends have __ self esteem, are bullied __, show __ prosocial behavior, etc Chronic difficulties with peer relationships (rejection, harassment) predict dropping out of school, having psychological challenges, risk-taking activities, etc Peer influence happens via our __ of who seems to be liked/disliked

higher; less; more sensitivity

Why Is Play Valuable? 1. Play support exploration and __-testing. 2. Play is cognitively __. 3. Play is fun, and __ emotions help kids learn. 4. Play promotes meaningful, socially __ learning. 5. Play enable exchange of __ language. Good for critical thinking, executive function, predicts performance in __, support social __, collaboration, language/literacy/communication

hypothesis demanding positive interactive high-quality STEM; regulation

The Emergence of Emotions: Fear Although there is little firm evidence of distinct fear reactions in __ during the first months of life, by 7 months, initial signs of fear begin to appear, as does the ability to recognize fear in the faces of other people One form of fear that infants show early on is fear of __ - Because babies often do not have the ability to escape from potentially dangerous situations on their own, they must rely on their parents to protect them, and expressions of fear and __ are powerful tools for bringing help and support when they are needed - - Individual differences in the decline in this kind of fear seem to be related to the quality of children's relationships with their __ and how effectively their mothers deal with their children's expressions of fear To determine when this fear of strangers develops in infants, one team repeated the same procedure with infants every 4 months from age 4 months to 16 months - An experimenter, a stranger to the infant, slowly approached the infant while the mother say close by; the stranger talked to the infant and picked them up - Observers rated the infants' facial expressions of fear using the AFFEX code; they also rated the amount of distress in the infant's __ - Infants displayed no fear of the approaching stranger at 4 months but experience a steep __ in expressions of fear such that the fear of strangers was clearly in place by 8 months - There was __ change in how much fear was expressed between 8-16 months, suggesting that after 8 months infants have more experience with novel situations and thus maintain some wariness but do not become increasingly distressed in fear-inducing-situations Separation anxiety: - When infants experience separation anxiety, they typically whine, cry, or otherwise express fear and upset - Separation anxiety tends to appear around 8 months and then begins to __ around 15 months; this pattern occurs __ many cultures - Some amount of separation anxiety is both normal and adaptive, as it encourages infants to stay in close __ to adults who can protect them and provide for their needs In the preschool years, as their cognitive ability to represent imaginary phenomena develops, children are prone to magical thinking and often fear imaginary creatures such as ghosts or monsters - As they approach school age (5 or 6), children learn to differentiate between real and imaginary fears and tend to be afraid of __ and __ - School-age children's anxieties and fears tend to be related to __ issues, such as challenges at school (tests and grades, being called on in class, and pleasing teachers), health (their parents' and their own), and personal harm (being attacked)

infants strangers; distress; mothers vocalizations; increase; little feelings of distress that children, especially infants and toddlers, experience when they are separated, or expect to be separated, from individuals to whom they are emotionally attached decline; across; proximity animals; darkness; real-life

Our Language Predictions Are Often Wrong Prediction errors give an opportunity to __ something new - error __ attention and helps learn by giving moment for __ representation

learn; heightens; updating

Preparation for Language Production Newborns' repertoire of sounds is extremely __ - At about 6-8 weeks, infants begin to coo - They click, smack, etc Through this practice, infants gain __ control over their vocalizations While their sound repertoire is expanding, infants become increasingly aware that their vocalizations elicit responses from others, and they begin to engage in __ of reciprocal cooing with their caregivers - Infants with more __ caregivers are more likely to use more mature vocalization patterns

limited motor dialogues; responsive

Self-Awareness Over Time Me v __ __ Theory of mind __ v __ Mindset Self-esteem and __

not me fixed; growth resilience

The Self: Self-Concept in Childhood Susan Harter, a leading researcher on children's emerging sense of self, argues that sense of self is largely a social construction based on the __ and __ of others, particularly of caregivers - These evaluations can be both direct and indirect - For instance, if a teacher tells a child that they are doing very well on their math tests, the child will internalize that she is a person who is a good at math; the teacher has directly influenced the child's sense of __ - Indirect influences come from how children are treated by __ - A child who is nurtured, loved, and supported develops an internal working model of themself as a lovable, worthy person - A child who is treated in a punitive and rejecting manner can develop an internal working model that she is incompetent and unworthy of love

observations; evaluations; self; others

Efficiency in processing simple sentences at age 2 __ later language development - vocabulary size at age 2 is correlated with language and cognitive skills at age 8, but speed of language __ doubles the predictive power

predicts; processing

Listeners Process Speech Incrementally Word learning isn't just able labeling, but about quickly __ everything Developmental gains in speed of spoken word recognition over 2nd year: Even at 6-9 months, infants kind of know the meanings of a few __ nouns - their ability to link labels to words is related to how __ they hear the word Predicting what words come next: - Same-gender trials v different-gender trials - How quickly a kid can look at the ball says something about processing power/understanding/learning

processing using a visual preference task, babies start to move their eyes to the correct image, as in "Find the baby" quicker and quicker common; often Can use the first word to predict the rest of the sentence - "Drink the..." led children to look to the drinkable item before the last word was even said - Different-gender trials allows the kid to choose the right object faster than same-gender because the article gives them information about which object it is (based on statistics of experience)

Child-directed speech drives gains in __ efficiency that promote further vocabulary learning - This provides a possible __ mechanism underlying SES disparities in children's language skills Children who experience more conversational turns with adults exhibit __ left inferior frontal (Broca's area) activation, which predicts greater __ composite score - This provides a possible __ mechanism underlying variation in children's language skills

processing; behavioral greater; language; neural

Biological Change Mechanisms The brain includes a number of areas that are __ for specific functions - This specialization makes possible rapid and universal development of these functions and thus enhances learning of the relevant type of information - All areas are involved in __ types of processing, and all types of processes involve __ brain areas, but each area is especially active in processing the __ of information associated with it - Thus, biological mechanisms underlie both specific and broad changes

specialized; numerous; numerous; type

Language Development By 5, most children have mastered the basic __ of their native language(s) - Although their __ and powers of expression are less sophisticated, their sentences tend to be as grammatically correct as those of adults Language comprehension: Language production: Infants and young children understand much __ than they can say

structure; vocabulary understanding what others say (or sign or write) the process of speaking (or signing or writing) more

How Temperament Fits with Environment Children with different temperaments will have different reactions to the same situation, and thus some situations are better __ for certain temperaments - Goodness of fit: The family provides arguably the most important context for issues related to goodness of fit - Research indicates that children who are impulsive or low in emotion regulation seem to have more problems and are less sympathetic to others if exposed to hostile, intrusive, and/or negative parenting rather than __ parenting - Similarly, children prone to emotions such as __ are more likely to have behavioral problems such as aggression if exposed to hostile parenting or low levels of positive parenting - A study in Canada found that children whose parents rated them as high in shyness had fewer problems with peers and fewer emotional problems if their mothers were high in __

suited the degree to which an individual's temperament is compatible with the demands and expectations of their social environment supportive; anger; warmth

The Process of Language Acquisition: Categorical Perception of Speech Sounds Categorical perception: - In research, listeners hear a sound that gradually changes from one phoneme, such as /b/, into a related one, such as /p/: - Voice onset time (VOT): - This perception of a continuum is useful because it focuses listeners on sound differences that are linguistically __ while ignoring meaningless differences Young infants draw the same sharp distinctions between speech sounds - In the original study of this phenomenon, 1- and 4-month-olds sucked on a pacifier hooked up to a computer: - Since this study, researchers have established that infants show categorical perception of numerous speech sounds from languages around the world Infants actually make __ distinctions than adults do - Adults simply do not perceive differences in speech sounds that are not important in their native language - Infants can distinguish between phonemic contrasts made in all the languages of the world - This research reveals an early-emerging ability that is experience-__: infants can discriminate between speech sounds they have never heard before

the perception of phonemes as belonging to discrete categories These two phonemes are produced in exactly the same way except for the length of time between when air passes through the lips and when the vocal cords start vibrating. To study the perception of VOT, researchers create recordings of speech sounds that vary along the continuum, so that each successive sound is slightly different from the one before, with /ba/ gradually changing into /pa/. Adults don't perceive the continuous change in this series of sounds; instead, all the sounds that have a VOT less than 25 ms are perceived as /b/ and all those that have a VOT greater than 25 ms are perceived as /p/. Thus, adults automatically divide the continuous signal into two categories. the length of time between when air passes through the lips and when the vocal cords start vibrating meaningful The harder they sucked, the more often they heard repetitions of a single syllable. After hearing the same syllable repeatedly, the babies gradually sucked less enthusiastically. - Then a new syllable was played; if the infants' sucking rate increased, the researchers inferred that the infants discriminated the new syllable from the old syllable. - The crucial factor was the relation between the new and old sounds-specifically, whether they were from the same of different phonemic categories. - For one group of infants, the new sound was from a different category; thus, after habituation to a series of sounds that adults perceive as /ba/, sucking now produced a sound that adults identify as /pa/. For the second group, the new sound was within the same category as the old one. - For both groups, the new and old sounds different equally in terms of VOT. - After habituating to /b/, the infants increased their rate of sucking when the new sound came from a different phonemic category. - Habituation continued, however, when the new sound was within the same category as the original one. more; independent

Understanding Emotions: Identifying the Emotions of Others Social referencing: - In lab studies, infants are typically exposed to novel people or toys while their mother, at the experimenter's direction, shows a happy, fearful, or neutral __ expression - In studies of this type, 12-month-olds tend to stay near their mother when she shows __, to move toward the novel person/object if she expresses __ emotions, and to move partway toward the person/object if she shows __ emotion - By 14 months, the emotion-related information obtained through social referencing has an effect on children's __ of the object even an hour later - Children seem to be better at social referencing if they receive both vocal and facial cues of emotion from the adult, and the use of __ cues seems to be more effective than just the use of __ cues alone By 3, children demonstrate a rudimentary ability to label a fairly __ range of emotional expressions displayed in pictures or on puppets' faces - Young children-even 2-are skilled at labeling __ (usually by pointing to pictures of faces that reflect happiness) - The ability to label anger, fear, and sadness emerges and increases in the next 1-2 years, and the ability to label surprise and disgust gradually appears in the late preschool and early school years - Most children cannot label the __ emotions pride, shame, and guilt until early to middle elementary school, but the scope and accuracy of their emotion __ improve thereafter into adolescence Children's facility for reading others' emotions can also be determined by their __ - Children who grow up in environments with violence or without adults they can trust may develop __ awareness to emotional cues of conflict - A study of homeless orphaned children found that they were much more likely than children living in homes with families to detect __ in facial expressions and less likely to detect __ - Children's ability to recognize the facial expression of disgust in others develops over time; very few children of preschool age recognize disgust, but ⅓ of 12-14s do, and ¾ of 15-17s do - There are cultural differences as well: cross-cultural comparisons have found that school-age French children are more likely to correctly match a disgusting face to a story about a disgusting event than are American children, who in turn do so more than Palestinian children; it may be affected by the languages spoken in each culture and whether terms like "disgust" have literal __ across them Children's inability to recognize emotions in others has been lined with the development of mental health problems: one study found that 1st-grade children who were low in emotion recognition ability had high levels of __, perhaps because they misinterpreted others' emotional cues and thus had difficulties in relationships

the use of a parent's or another adult's facial expression or vocal cues to decide how to deal with novel, ambiguous, or possibly threatening situations facial; fear; positive; no; touching; vocal; visual narrow; happiness; self-conscious; labeling environment; heightened; anger; sadness; translations loneliness

Measurement of Attachment Security Attachment encompasses how a child __ and __ about a caregiver

thinks; feels

Box 10.3 Applications: Toxic Stress and Adverse Childhood Experiences Children who experience chronic high levels of stress and who lack supportive adults to help mitigate the effects are said to experience __ stress - When a child's stress response system is overworked by toxic stress, regions of the brain that regulate fear (e.g., amygdala, hippocampus) become overloaded and suffer __ of neuron dendrites and shrinkage - - Some changes are permanent and may lead to long-term changes both in responses to stress and in stress-related chronic disease in adulthood A study known as the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study has linked potential sources of toxic stress in childhood-including physical or emotional abuse, neglect, poverty and material deprivation, parental divorce, exposure to substance abuse, exposure to violence, and death of a parent-to later mental and physical health in adulthood - In this study, more than 17,000 adult participants indicated their exposure to various adverse childhood experiences (or ACEs), which were summed to give each participant an ACE score - Nearly 64% of the participants had at least one ACE, and 12.5% had an ACE of 4+ - __ abuse was the most common ACE (28%), followed by having a household member with a __ abuse problem (27%) and having parents who were separated or divorced (23%) - Other ACE categories in this study include sexual abuse (21%), household member with mental illness (19%), exposure to violence against the mother (13%), emotional abuse (11%), and household member who was incarcerated (5%) - An important finding of the study was that the more ACEs the participants had experienced, the __ their risk of having high levels of stress, depression, anxiety, severe obesity, smoking, and alcoholism - The relationship between ACEs and problems in adulthood followed a clear and consistent pattern: as the number of ACEs increased, the likelihood of experiencing a mental or physical health problem __ - This pattern is __ regardless of the participant's gender, race, or level of education - The fact that ACEs are linked with increased high stress in adulthood suggests that experiences of toxic stress in childhood may prime children to experience high levels of stress in adulthood as well, which in turn lead to physical health problems such as severe obesity There is some evidence that exposure to non-stressful environments and treatment can __ some of the harmful effects of toxic stress - For example, children who had been maltreated by their families but were removed to foster-care homes that provided consistent discipline and positive reinforcement showed __ of levels of the stress hormone cortisol and reduction in behavior problems - Trauma-focused mental health interventions such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, play therapy, multisystemic therapy, and parent-child interaction therapy are also effective in helping victims of maltreatment Public health research is also focused on preventing the events or circumstances that trigger toxic stress in the first place - The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) has called for public policies and community-based programs aimed at reducing toxic stress exposure in children's lives - Maltreatment ACEs in particular could be prevented through individual and community-wide parenting education and alternatives to harsh parenting - The AAP's Early Brain and Child Development initiative seeks to focus the attention of pediatricians and other public health workers on understanding, recognizing, and preventing toxic stress

toxic; atrophying physical; substance; greater; increased; consistent reverse; normalization

Box 15.1 A Closer Look: Challenges to the Gender Binary Hyde point out ways that scientific evidence from the field of neuroscience challenges the gender binary - If sex is dimorphic, then all parts of the system must be typical of either females or males; however, neuroscience research suggests that even though there are some average sex differences in brain structure, scientists do not find brain structures __ to only one sex A second challenge comes from the field of behavioral endocrinology, which studies the influence of hormones on brain functioning - Both sets of hormones (male and female) are present in __ humans, though there are some average sex differences in the levels of some hormones - - Moreover, hormone levels __ depending on the situation A third challenge is based on extensive research in the psychology of gender - The authors cite one study finding that less than 1% of college students exhibited __ that were typical only of their self-identified gender - Meta-analyses reveal a great deal of overlap between males and females in most attitudes, abilities, and behaviors A fourth challenge in research with transgender and nonbinary individuals - Persons with transgender or nonbinary identities are found in cultures around the world, both currently and throughout history - 0.6% of the US identifies as trans Fifth, psychology research documents how cultural practices establish sex/gender as a binary category - This process commonly occurs through __ norms of appearance, verbal labeling, and the use of gender categories to organize activities

unique all; vary behaviors cultural

How Do Infants Learn Language Statistical learning has been seen in infants and adults in a whole range of tasks including:

visual patterns, auditory patterns, tactile patterns

Sources of Individual Differences in Attachment Styles: Parenting and Attachment Styles After developing the Strange Situation procedure, Ainsworth and her colleagues checked the validity of their measure by observing whether mothers' behavior in the home was linked with their children's attachment classifications - They found that it __, and several subsequent studies have found similar relationships across the three original classifications as well as the disorganized/disoriented classification One key aspect of parenting that has been consistently linked with attachment styles is parental sensitivity - Parental sensitivity: - The mothers of securely attached 1-year-olds tend to read their babies' signals __, responding __ to the needs of a crying baby, and __ back at a beaming one - - Positive exchanges between mother and child, such as mutual smiling and laughing, making sounds at each other, or engaging in coordinated play, are a characteristic of sensitivity parenting that may be particularly important in promoting secure attachment - - An association between fathers' sensitivity and the security of their children's attachment has also been found, though it is somewhat __ than that for mothers - - Particularly striking is the finding that infants whose mothers are __ show only a 38% rate of secure attachment, which is considerably less than the typical 50-60%

was caregiving behavior that involves the expression of warmth and contingent responsiveness to children, such as when they require assistance or are in distress accurately; quickly; smiling; weaker; insensitive

4 types of play varied on two dimensions: free play: guided play: - adult provides infrastructure co-opted play: - adults calls the shots direct instruction:

who initiates, and who directs initiated by child, directed by child initiated by adult, directed by child initiated by child, directed by adult initiated by adult, directed by adult

Warneken & Tomasello (2006) - helping Hypothesis: Participants: IV: DV: Results:

young children, and to some extent chimps, help others achieve their goals 24 18 month olds, 3 chimps condition (indication of problem or not); task (cabinet, books, etc) percentage of target helping behaviors children helped more in the experimental condition than the control condition for most tasks; chimps did so only in the out-of-reach task

Gavagai problem

- idea that a child innately has a bias around a new word to associate it with the whole object and not something more specific (the ears of the bunny, the hopping of the bunny, etc.) Does "gavagai" mean rabbit? Ears? Look? - idea that work learning is not as simply as just mapping a label to an object, there are infinite possible meanings for new labels

A full-time minimum-wage worker can afford a one-bedroom rental in only __% of all US counties. (i.e., 218 counties out of more than 3,000 nationwide)

7

Children and the Media: The Good, the Bad, and the Awful Media are situated in the exosystem, but they are subject to influences from the chronosystem (which determines which consumer technologies and media are available to households over time); from the macrosystem (including cultural values and government policies); from other elements in the exosystem (such as economic pressures); and from the microsystem (such as parental monitoring) An economic study demonstrated how the introduction of educational television, in the form of Sesame Street, had positive long-term effects on those children who had access to it: As screens have become more pervasive, concerns have mounted - In a 2016 policy statement, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommended no screen time other than video chat for infants under 18 months, and no more than 1 hour a day for children 2-5 - Children under 8 spent an average of over 2 hours a day with screen media in 2017; 8-12 average 6 hours daily; 13-18 averaged 9 hours - One study in the UK suggests that __ use doesn't increase risks to mental health, though high use does - Many adolescents express concern that spending time online is a problem; 60% of American teens reported that spending too much time online is a major problem for people their age, and more than half believed that they spend too much time on their cell phones - ⅔ of parents expressed concerns about their teens' amount of screen time - Both teens and their parents note that their parents/children are frequently distracted by their phones during conversations Very young children are increasingly active participants in media immersion - In a 2015 student of children under 4 in a low-income area of Philly, almost all the participants had used mobile devices for media content delivery (97%), and ¾ had their own mobile device - In a national study, parents of 2-10 year olds reported that they participate in their children's media usage about ⅓ of the time, and that nearly 50% of their children's time is spent on show and apps that they consider to be __ - ¾ of the parents reported that they used the mobile device to keep their child calm in public or to distract their child so they could complete chores, and ¼ used the device to help their child fall __

. When introduced in 1969, its content was designed to enhance school readiness, and roughly ⅓ of American children 2-5 watched it regularly. Because the show was aired on broadcast TV, there were disparities in the quality of the signal that families' TV antennae received. Researchers used differences in the chronosystem (cohorts of children before and after it began airing) and the macrosystem (whether or not the households were located in counties with good reception) to investigate the long-term effects of Sesame Street viewing using census data. The researchers found that quality of TV reception didn't affect educational outcomes before Sesame Street started broadcasting, but after it began airing, children living in counties with better reception were 14% more likely to not fall behind appropriate grade level moderate educational; asleep

Box 11.4 A Closer Look: Is Too Much Praise Bad for Self-Esteem? Researchers have become concerned with one particular kind of praise known as inflated praise, which involves __ language - Adults have been observed using inflated praise twice as often with children who have low self-esteem than with children who have high self-esteem, suggesting that adults think such language will be especially effective with children are not feeling good about themselves To test how inflated praise affects children's behavior, researchers in the Netherlands did an experiment with 240 children ages 8-12 who were visiting a science museum: Why does inflated praise undermine the effort of children with low self-esteem? - The researchers surmised that inflated praise sets high standards, which it turn leads these children to avoid activities where they might fail, as a form of self-protection

. exaggerated The children were first asked to draw a copy of a famous painting and were told that a professional painter working in another room would judge their painting. For one group of children, the experimenter brought back a note from the "painter" that said, "You made an incredibly beautiful drawing!" For another group, the message said, "You made a beautiful drawing!" The last group did not receive any communication from the painter. In the second half of the experiment, each child was given the option of two pictures to copy: one easy and one difficult. The data revealed that inflated praise in the first part of the experiment decreased children's challenge-seeking behavior in the second part, but only among children who rated themselves as having low self-esteem before the experiment started. Yet when children with low self-esteem were given non-inflated praise, they sought out the more challenging drawing task. In other words, inflated praise was backfiring-it was most harmful to the children whom adults think most need it. Only children who started the experiment with high self-esteem were more likely to accept the challenge of the difficult drawings if they were given inflated praise for their initial drawing.

Bowlby's Stages of Attachment: 1. Preattachment Phase __-__ months Based on __ signals and parental __

0; 2; innate; responsiveness

Differences in Mothers' and Fathers' Interaction with Their Children Although in most Western cultures today, spouses share childcare responsibilities to some degree, in the majority of families, mothers-including those who work outside the home-still spend an average of __ hours more with their children each day than fathers do There is also a difference in what types of child-rearing behaviors mothers and fathers engage in - Mothers are more likely to provide __ care and __ support than are fathers; for instance, in a sample of families in the Netherlands, mothers were warmer and more responsive to their children than were fathers; in contrast, fathers in modern industrialized cultures spend a greater proportion of their available time __ with their children, both in infancy and childhood, than do mothers, and they engage in more __ and rough-and-tumble play than do mothers - In the US, mothers are more likely than fathers to say that they are overprotective and that they praise their children too much, whereas fathers are more likely than mothers to have coached their children's sports teams The degree of maternal and paternal involvement in parenting and the nature of parents' interactions with children vary somewhat as a function of __ practices and factors such as the amount of time parents work away from home and the amount of time children spend at home Despite these distinctions in amount and type, however, the effects of mothers' and fathers' parenting on child __ are the same - A meta-analysis of studies from 22 countries found that both mothers' and fathers' acceptance of and warmth toward their children were linked with children's positive psychological adjustment; in other words, parenting from mothers and parenting from fathers were equally important for children's mental health, and this has been found to be true across a range of countries

1.5 physical; emotional; playing; physical cultural development

Box 12.4 A Closer Look at Homelessness Families with children constitute __ of the homeless population in the US - More than 1.3 million homeless children and adolescents were enrolled in public schools in the 2015-2016 school year-that is, 3% of all public school students Homelessness is an ACE that puts children at risk in a variety of ways - At the most basic level, homeless children lack a regular __ and often lack adequate food and medical care - They may move frequently, which results in chronic __ from school, if they attend school at all - They also frequently change schools, which has been shown to __ academic achievement As a result of these risks, homeless children endure a range of negative outcomes - For example, they score __ on math and reading tests than their peers - In addition, compared with poor children who are not homeless, homeless children experience more __ problems, such as depression, social withdrawal, and low self-esteem, and they suffer more from both health and behavioral problems One particularly at risk group are homeless youth living on their own, either because they have been kicked out of or have run away from their homes - Each year, approximately 400,000 youth remain away from home for a __ or more and are thus considered homeless - Runaway youth report a range of ACEs that __ their being without a home - Among a sample of homeless youth in LA, 59% had suffered emotional abuse, 51% had been physically abused, 40% had been removed from the homes by CPA because of such maltreatment - In addition, 27% had been in juvie, 83% were racial or ethnic minorities, and 42% had minority sexual orientations - While homeless, 37% had been victims of physical assault, and 13% had been victims of sexual assault Worldwide, there are 10-15 million homeless children, sometimes referred to as "__ children" - In some underdeveloped countries, homeless children often have been orphaned because of AIDS or military conflicts; have been abandoned because their families could not feed or care for them; or have fled to escape abuse at home - In some cases, children living on the streets do so in order to earn money for their poor families and reside at least part of the time with a parent or another relative - Street children are at risk of being coerced into prostitution or sexual slavery or into organized crime - However, many street children form family-like groups to substitute for the traditional families they lack Various intervention strategies have been attempted to help homeless and street children - Given that these children are at immediate physical risk and often already sugar from mental health and drug problems, deciding which problem to tackle first is a serious challenge - An organization known as the Canadian Homelessness Research Network has compiled several examples of successful strategies, including providing __ health care, providing __ abuse treatment, providing __ training, and reconnecting them with family members

1/3 routine; absences; undermine lower; internalizing week; preceded street; mental; substance; job

LENA recorders Records __ hours of conversation Automated __ of words and conversational __ Shows that variation occurs __ low-income families - Some kids get TONS of language, some get few - Doesn't matter how much talk is happening around them, but how much is happening __ them in an engaging way; overheard speech might not be quite as __

16 counts; turns within; toward; important

Bowlby's Stages of Attachment: 3. Clear-cut Attachment up to __ years __ seeking, separation __

2 active; distress

Play Is Under Siege __% of elementary teachers have no time for play. __% of elementary teachers do test prep every day.

25 79

Race-based social preferences: Do infants prefer to interact with same-race people? Do 2-year-olds prefer to give things to same-race people? Do 5-year-olds prefer to associate with same-race people?

3 tasks catered to age groups of participants. Infants: taking toys from in-group or out-group. No difference. 3 year olds: giving things to in-group or out-group. No difference. 5: saw two people and indicated which they liked. Big difference. No evidence of racism in babies or young infants, but race-based preferences in 5 year olds.

Seeing race: Do infants notice race in infants?

3-month-olds from 3 groups (white babies in Israel, black babies in Ethiopia, and black babies in Israel). White look longer as white faces, black babies look longer at black faces, black israeli look longer at white. Want to look at what's more familiar to you. 3-day-olds don't have a preference. Seems to be learned in the first three months. Exposure to own versus other race faces. Tests 3, 6, 9 months (all white babies) (perceptual narrowing). Looked at faces of different groups. 3 month olds had no problem discriminating. 6 could discriminate white and chinese. 9 months olds could only discriminate white faces.

Kids in the U.S. today... Nearly 1 in __ live in poverty 1 in __ are forced to rely on food stamps Nearly 1 out of __ children live in families near the poverty line ...plus, income inequality has gotten dramatically __ since the 1970s The 2020 stimulus bill was a huge philosophical pivot: The US decided that there's an amount of __ every child needs to survive - Increased __ available to support families/children - Would reduce child poverty by __ We have a huge humanitarian and pragmatic problem and need more progress. Developmental science (both neural and behavioral approaches) can provide valuable clues to target and refine new and effective __ for disadvantaged youth.

4 3 2 worse resources; money; half intervention

SES & Social Preference: Whether kids detect differences in SES and if there's an automatic preference:

4-5 year olds were shown picture books. One depicting people wearing great (high wealth) and orange (low wealth). Then showed them one of each person and asked who they liked more. Kids showed a preference for wealthy group. Preschoolers were assigned to be in a rich/poor group. Lot of research that we favor our ingroups. For children, only true if you're rich.

Media Violence Concerns about media violence initially focused on TV viewing - A study reported that __% of TV programs between 1994-1997 contained episodes of violence - More recent estimates suggest that __% of movies include depictions of violence, as do 68% of video games, 60% of TV shows, and 15% of music videos - Portrayals of gun violence in the top grossing PG-13 movies since 2012 has exceeded portrayals in R-rated movies, and this form of violence in PG-13 movies typically occurs without visible __, such as blood Researchers have concluded that media violence __ aggression and violence and is therefore a risk factor for positive youth development - Exposure to media violence may have an impact in four different ways 1. First, seeing actors engage in aggression __ aggressive behaviors and inspires imitation of them 2. Second, viewing aggression __ the viewer's own aggressive thoughts, feelings, and tendencies - This heightened aggressive mindset makes it more likely that the individual will __ new interactions and events as involving aggression and will __ aggressively - When aggression-related thoughts are frequently activated, they may become part of the individual's __ internal state, which may lead to a hostile attributional bias 3. Third, media violence is exciting and arousing for most youth, and their heightened physiological __ makes them more likely to react violently to provocations right after watching violent films 4. Fourth, frequent long-term exposure to media violence gradually leads to emotional __ - Because this arousal normally helps __ violent behavior, emotional desensitization can render violent thoughts and behaviors more likely These factors taken together can help to explain disturbing findings like those from a longitudinal study in New Zealand: individuals who watched more TV during childhood were more likely to engage in antisocial behaviors later in their lives, including criminal convictions, and receive diagnoses of antisocial personality disorders

61; 90; consequences increases; teaches; activates; interpret; respond; normal; arousal; desensitization; inhibit

Emotions are a nearly constant part of our lives...__% experiencing one or more emotions

90

Overimitation Preschooler sees adult demonstrate a series of totally irrelevant actions in order to get a toy out of the box - The adult explains the actions are unnecessary - Child is asks to retrieve the toy - How many actions are imitated? Asked kid to get stuff out of the box really fast - Set up as a competition - Results: If all social cues go away - one condition: experimenter makes behaviors look intentional - second condition: experimenter makes behaviors look unintentional (by accident) - results: Findings - children are highly likely to copy an adult's __ actions - children imitated even when told to watch out for irrelevant actions, and even when speed was emphasized - unintentional actions are not __ Why? - children are __ imitators more than __-imitators

A lot, even when the experimenter isn't present The child STILL imitates Kids almost never imitated in unintentional condition - Shows that kids don't blindly imitate, they take advantage of adult signals to learn irrelevant; reproduced optima; over

Patterns of Gender Development: Aggressive Behavior - Explanations for Gender Differences in Aggression Peer influences - Gender differences in aggression are consistent with the gender-typed social norms of girls' and boys' same-gender peer groups: - Another peer influenced may be boys' regular participation in aggressive contact sports, which sanction the use of physical force and may contribute to higher rates of direct aggression among boys Media influences - Boys are more likely to devote time to watching __ TV shows and movies and playing __ video games - Whereas boys are more likely to favor TV shows with violent content, adolescent girls were more likely to prefer shows depicting __ aggression Other cultural influences - Fry studies rural communities in the Mexican mountains and found that the levels of childhood aggression that were considered normal __ widely between areas - - Boys in each community showed more aggression, but girls in the high-aggression communities were more aggressive than boys in the low-aggression communities - The community context is also considered in relation to the emergence of differential rates of aggression among US youth

A study conducted in China of 82 junior high school classrooms found that average gender differences in rates of aggression varied across classrooms, depending on whether there were gender differences in classroom norms for accepting aggression. Children who are high in aggression and low in prosocial behavior are typically rejected in both male and female peer groups. violent; violent; indirect varied

Asymmetries in Racial Attitudes But race preferences don't always show themselves as simple preferences for the ingroup Showed white and black kids white and black dolls Why asymmetries? - Could be media/socialization - Perceptions of SES that they've learned are race-based - Family preference; Intergenerational communication about race/status entanglement

Asked things like "which doll do you like/think is prettier/etc" White kids picked the white doll, but black kids showed no significant preference for the black dolls and often picked the white dolls

Internal Working Models Belsky et al (1996) Looking at the effect of attachment security on memory

Assessed attachment security at 12 months and then brought them in for a memory task at age 3 Kids heard about puppets who experienced positive or negative events. At memory task looking at which events had/hadn't occurred during the puppet show. Results: Securely attached shows more memory for positive events. Insecurely attached shows more memory for negative events

Parenting Styles - Relationship between parenting styles and child outcomes

Authoritative - Preschool: energetic, friendly, socially competent - Childhood: high cognitive and social competence - Adolescence: high self-esteem and academic competence Authoritarian - Preschool: conflicted, irritable, fearful, moody - Childhood: average cognitive and social competence - Adolescence: average academics Permissive - Preschool: impulsive, aggressive - Childhood: low cognitive and social competence - Adolescence: poor self-control, more drug use Uninvolved - Preschool: aggressive, noncompliant, moody - Childhood: disruptive, poor classroom performance - Adolescence: hostile, selfish, rebellious

harm/care in infancy: do babies use others' harmful or helpful actions to guide own preferences for individuals

Babies less than 1 watched helper/hinderer events. Let the baby reach for which character they reached for. At both 6 and 10 months, the babies reached for the helper over the hindered. Showed babies the same videos, but measured what the babies expected the character to do (who's the red one going to hang out with?). Babies are more surprised when the circle chooses the mean guy.

Exploring Links Between Processing Efficiency and Vocabulary Learning "There's a BLUE teddy on the deebo. There's a RED teddy over there.":

Children who are faster to respond to the familiar adjective/noun phrase were more successful in learning the new word at the end of the sentence - If you can quickly resolve "blue teddy", you can learn the next word

How can we design digital media to support early learning?

Coded 2000 scenes from children's media Ostensive cues predicted overall attention to scenes - Defining, repeating, showing targets of words Attention-directive cues were effective too

Morality and Relevance to Budding Political Views Does parental political ideology shape how children punish people?

Conservatism is related to increased punishment overall. Heard about a kid who ripped another kid's drawing and then they hear that this mean kid will be coming to the lab later and that they'll have access to the slide. The participant is given the choice to close off the slide or leave access to it. Results: parental conservatism was associated with children's punishment of outgroup members, but parental liberalism was associated with children's punishment of ingroup members. Maybe linked to liberal increased value on fairness, where ingroup punishment might help solidify the norms.

Minimal group effects 5 year olds randomly assigned to blue or red group with corresponding t-shirt.

DV: attitudes toward two groups (own v other) Looked at how kids would allocate resources to the two groups and their social preferences Results: kids prefer their t-shirt group immediately in every way - Almost becomes emotionally charged affiliation

Media Effects on Children's Word Learning: Is media viewing associated with language development in children under 2?

Each average hour per hay of viewing baby media is associated with a 17-word decrement in vocabulary by 16 months. - Maybe having poor language development causes greater screen time because companies advertise baby media as good for language development

Tuning perception to the native language experiment:

English-speaking babies were exposed to Salish and Hindi - They were able to discriminate between Salish and Hindi sounds that adults couldn't Conclusion: Newborns distinguish phoneme categories for sounds they've never even heard - Over the course of the first year, we lose the ability to distinguish sounds in other languages, except in languages they are continuing to learn

Word Learning: Children's Contributions Young children also use the linguistic context in which a novel word occurs to infer its meaning - In one of the first experiments on language acquisition, Brown established that the grammatical form of a novel word influences how children interpret its meaning: Object shape is another useful tool in word learning, possibly because shape is a good cue to category membership - Children readily extend a novel noun to novel objects of the same shape, even when those objects different dramatically in size, color, and texture - This attention to shared shape is evidence in __ tasks before infants have acquired many productive words - Attention to shape is also evident in toddlers' recognition of __ words - When confronted with known objects with the wrong colors, like a pink cow faired with a black-and-white patched pig, toddlers still look at the cow when they hear "cow," though they are slower to do so than for correctly colored objects Cross-situational word learning: - Any single scene is ambiguous; if the child hears "dax" in the presence of multiple novel objects, the child has no way of knowing which object is the dax, but across experiences, the child might observe that whenever "dax" is said, one of those objects is always present, and thus that object is probably the dax Syntactic bootstrapping: - An early demonstration of this phenomenon involved showing 2-year-olds a video of a duck using its left hand to push a rabbit down into a squatting position while both animals waved their right arms in circles:

He showed preschool children a picture of a pair of hands kneading a mass of material in a container. The picture was described to one group of children as "sibbing," to another as "a sib," and to a this as "some sib". The children subsequently interpreted sib as referring to the action, the container, or the material, depending on which form of the word they had heard. Even infants and toddlers can draw on some of these links to interpret the meaning of novel words. categorization; familiar determining word meanings by tracking the correlations between labels and meanings across scenes and contexts the strategy of using grammatical structure to infer the meaning of a new word As they watched, some children heard "The duck is kradding the rabbit"; others heard "The rabbit and the duck are kradding". The children then saw two videos side by side, one showing the duck pushing on the rabbit and the other showing both animals waving their arms in circles. Instructed to "Find kradding," the two groups looked at the event that matched the syntax they had heard while watching the initial video. Those who had heard the first sentence took "kradding" to mean what the duck had been doing to the rabbit, whereas those who had heard the second sentence thought it meant what both animals had been doing. Thus, the children had arrived at different interpretations for a novel verb based on the structure of the sentence in which it occurred.

Language Processing as a Window into Atypical Development How is language learned with electric hearing? "Late talkers" are a mystery - Why does vocab "bloom" for some late talkers but drag along for others?

Hearing-impaired 2-year-olds with cochlear implants are slower to process simple sentences real-time language processing - Kids who show inefficiency in language processing lag, while kids who efficiently process catch up

How do infants learn language: Saffran et. al. Hypothesis: Participants: IV: DV: Results: Conclusion:

Infants use statistical information to identify words within longer strings of speech What does statistic information mean? - Pretty baby -> Pre + ty versus ty + ba English-speaking infants Word type (infant heard in task, infant had not heard in task) Listened longer to unfamiliar words (meaning they had habituated to the 2 minutes of audio they had) Hypothesis is correct

Growth v Fixed Mindset Interventions on Aggressiveness:

Is aggressive behavior changeable? Trained growth mindset about behavior. Learned new strategies for thinking positively after setbacks. Learned new ways to solve their conflicts productively. DV: played a video game and another player (a mean one), excluded the participant. . Each participant then had the opportunity to retaliate against the player who excluded them by forcing them to eat hot sauce on their food. Allocated how much hot sauce. Measured how many grams of hot sauce they chose to put. Results: after receiving intervention, they allocated fewer grams of hot sauce and wrote more prosocial notes

Sources of individual differences in racial prejudice 1. Intergroup contact Question: does intergroup contact affect racial prejudice? The case of Singapore...

Kids in London with South Asians. Measured explicit and implicit associations with South Asians. Results: having friendships with the outgroup reduced outgroup bias. Effects are mediated by self-disclosure about their friendships with South Asian. No direct link between intergroup contact and prejudice, but intergroup contact increases self-disclosure, which reduces bias. Singapore has ethnic quotas in apartment buildings to reflect Singapore's ethnic makeup. This promotes positive feelings about outgroups. Recent neuro study shows that mechanisms that underlie preference are related to infant's neighborhood racial makeup.

Self-awareness in children: Halloween study:

Kids who see themselves in a mirror are more likely to follow the rules and take just 1 piece of candy, but only if they're known by the adult

Fixed Mindset v Growth Mindset Subtle linguistic cues affect children's motivations - generic phrase: You're a good drawer. - nongeneric phrase: You did a good job drawing.

Kids who were told they were good drawers (trait) were more likely to denigrate their skill, feel sad, and avoid drawing - Couldn't generate strategies to fix their artistic mistakes Kids who received nongeneric were more likely to continue drawing/fixing their mistakes

Why is Gender so Important to Kids: Does functional use of gender in a classroom increase gender stereotyping?

Measured elementary school kids gender stereotyping in a pre-test first. Basically asked about what kinds of stereotypes they know about men versus women. Randomly assign kids to classrooms where teachers either did or did not separate kids a lot based on gender (all the girls put your hand in the air). Results: kids showed equivalent gender stereotyping in the pre-test across the two groups, but kids in the experimental condition showed increased stereotyping after 4 weeks. Conclusion: adults play a role in the presence of gender based stereotypes

The Marshmallow Test: To test his theory, Mischel interviewed the children who participated in his original marshmallow test at regular intervals over the subsequent four decades:

Mischel and his colleagues first used this procedure with a group of preschoolers in the 60s to study their ability to delay immediate gratification in order to obtain larger rewards - The researchers were interested in whether or not the children would wait for the second treat, but they also wanted to observe the children's strategies for coping with the long wait - Videos showed them using a variety of strategies: some distracted themselves by talking, singing, trying to sleep, or making up games to play; others stared at the treats or at the bell; and some just rang the best and ate the single treat right away, preferring one immediate but guaranteed treat to the possibility of more treats later Mischel believed that a child's ability to delay eating one marshmallow for the reward of eating two later was an indicator of that child's self-control or willpower in the face of immediate pleasure or happiness - The ability to exhibit self-control early in life, he reasoned, predicted later success At every 10-year interval, those children who were able to wait the longest were found to be more intelligent, attentive, strategic, and self-reliant than those who displayed less patience - Once they got to high school, they earned higher SAT scores and scored higher on a behavioral measure requiring control of one's attention and behavioral responses on a computer task; and at about age 30, they had achieved a higher educational level, had higher self-esteem, and were reported to be better able to cope with stress - Further, in computer-task assessments 40 years after the original experiment, those who scores low in delay of gratification in Mischel's study continued to exhibit greater difficulty in delaying responses to rewarding stimuli than did those who scored high in delay

Lansford et al. (2005) - physical discipline Hypothesis: Participants: IV: DV: Results:

Mothers' use of physical discipline increases children's aggression and anxiety, but only in a cultural context where physical discipline is not common 336 mother-child dyads Actual and perceived normativeness (i.e., commonness) of physical discipline Child and parents' reports of child behavior ↑ physical discipline leads to ↑ aggression and anxiety, but less so when physical discipline is normal/common

Using social networks to reduce harassment in schools:

Premise: People pay attention to the behavior of those in their community to understand social norms, and they adjust their own behavior in response. Used social networks to determine which individuals at a middle school in New Jersey were most connected to other. If you can figure out who knows people, you can intervene on them to change the norms. Anti-bullying intervention with the "hub" people (the connected people) and then evaluated peer perception of norms. Finding: intervening with hub people worked.

Sources of individual differences in racial prejudice 3. Transmission from parents and trusted adults? Question 1: is there a correlation between parents' and children's racial attitudes? Question 2: do adults' nonverbal behaviors influence children's racial attitudes?

Parents' explicit and implicit attitudes and their preschoolers. Mother's implicit attitudes were highly correlated with their preschooler's attitudes. Watched an adult have a comfortable or uncomfortable interaction with someone from a different racial group. Just watching them have a comfortable reaction reduced the child's biases.

Internal Working Models Johnson, Dweck, Chen (2010): How do internal working models shape children's understanding of social relationships?

Participant: 13 months Testing infants' expectations about events via habituation - What would happen in a cartoon context showing an infant crying, and then watched the video over and over until they habituated. - In some cases, they saw a responsive caregiver, in others, they saw an unresponsive caregiver Hypothesis: If baby's have expectations of relationships based on their own experiences, they should find certain events more surprising Results: Securely attached babies looked longer at the unresponsive caregiver and insecure attached looked at the responsive caregiver Conclusion: Babies are applying their own experiences to guide their expectations about relationships

fairness in childhood Are children averse to inequality? Two conditions: 1. "Disadvantageous inequity" - 1 for decider, 4 for recipient - 1 for decider, 1 for recipient 2. "Advantageous inequity" - 4 for decider, 1 for recipient - 1 for decider, 1 for recipient

Participants were pairs of kids who were pre-k to third grade who didn't know each other. One kid stood on each side of the table with a platform. Candies could go into individual bowls to be eaten immediately or put into the middle bowl where the candies would get thrown away (nobody would eat them). Kids in the disadvantageous condition chooses for nobody to get candy. Kids in the advantageous condition chooses for them to get candy. Kids rarely reject equitable offers. Kids are more likely to reject offers where they get less than the other kid. Kids are less likely to reject inequitable offers where THEY are favored. Around age 8, kids get over this selfishness.

fairness in childhood are children averse to inequality? 4 erasers condition: "Two kids named Ned and Kyle did a great job cleaning up their room and we want to give them erasers as a prize. We have these four erasers. One for Ned and one for Kyle. Uh oh! We have two erasers left over. Should I give one to Kyle and one to Ned or should I throw them away?" 5 erasers condition: "Two kids named Mark and Dan also did a great job cleaning up their room and we want to give them erasers as a prize. We have these five erasers. We have one for Mark, one for Dan, one for Mark, and one for Dan. Uh oh! We have one left over. Should I give it to Dan or should I throw it away?" Question 2: Do children consider others' relative efforts when distributing resources?

Participants were pre-k through 3rd grade - Task was to help researcher decide how to distribute resources to two kids 4 erasers condition: Kids say just give one to each kid and throw the rest 5 erasers: Younger kids were 50/50. Older kids said to throw the eraser away. In hard-worker condition, used same script but said "Dan did more work than Mark." All kids wanted to give the extra eraser to the harder worker. Children are averse in equality, but also take relative effort into account

IDS experiment

Participants: 9- and 18-month-olds Procedure: played with novel toys and heard 4 types of sentences: - positive words, positive tone - positive words, negative tone - negative words, positive tone - negative words, negative tone Results: IDS carries emotional messaging that can be independent of the words

Race based social preferences:

Race-based IAT - No race-based preference until later in development - 3 year olds had no preference (unlike gender)

Learning behaviors from media: Does watching TV encourage aggressive and/or prosocial behavior in preschoolers?

Yes. Watching aggressive shows make kids more aggressive. Watching prosocial shows make kids more prosocial.

Genes, Environment, and the Development of Intelligence: Programs for Helping Poor Children In a comprehensive analysis of 11 of the most prominent early-intervention programs-all of which focused on 2- to 5-year-old African American children from low-income families-researchers found a consistent pattern: Fortunately, other effects of these experimental programs aimed at helping preschoolers from low-income backgrounds are more enduring - Program participants are more likely to later graduate from high school than preschoolers from low-income backgrounds who do not participate, and they are less likely to be assigned to __ __ classes, held back in school, or be arrested by age 18 This combination of findings may seem puzzling: if the intervention programs did not result in lasting increases in IQ or achievement test scores, why would they have led to fewer children being assigned to special-education classes or being held back in school? - A likely reason is that the interventions had long-term effects on children's __ and __

Participation in the programs, most of which lasted a year or two, initially increased children's IQ scores substantially-by 10-15 points. However, over the next 2 or 3 years, the gains decreased, and by the fourth year after the end of the programs, no differences were apparent between the IQ scores of participants and those of nonparticipants from the same neighborhoods and backgrounds. Similar effects have been found subsequently for math and reading achievement-initial gains fade all too quickly. One reason is that children in the programs forget what they learned earlier; a bigger reason is that children who weren't in the programs catch up by learning the skills and concepts that children in the programs learned earlier special education motivation; conduct

Exposed participants to a series of either black or white face and then showed a picture of a blurry gun:

People exposed to black faces were more able to distinguish that it was a gun (more accurate, faster)

Theoretical Approaches to Gender Development: Cognitive and Motivational Influences - Cognitive Developmental Theory Kohlberg's cognitive developmental theory of gender-role development reflects a __ framework - Kohlberg proposed that children __ construct knowledge about gender in the same ways that Piaget theorized children construct knowledge about the physical world There are two distinctive contributions of Kohlberg's theory - First, he posited that children actively seek to understand the __ of gender through observing and interacting with the world around them - Second, he proposed __ developmental changes in children's understanding of gender during early childhood Kohlberg maintained that children's understanding of gender involves a three-stage process that occurs between 2-6 years 1. First, by around 30 months, young children acquire a gender __ - Gender identity: - However, they do not realize that gender is __ 2. Second, which begins at around 3-5 years, is gender __ - Gender stability: - However, they are still not clear that gender is independent of superficial __ and thus believe that a boy who had put on a dress and now looks like a girl has indeed become a girl 3. Third, at around 6 years, is when the basic understanding of gender is completed with the achievement of gender __ - Gender constancy: - Kohlberg noted that this is the same age at which children begin to succeed on Piagetian conservation problems, and he argued that both achievements reflect the same underlying thinking processes - Once gender constancy is achieved, children begin to seek out and attend to same-gender models to learn how to __ Some studies also indicate that acquiring gender constancy might __ the likelihood of some gender-typed behaviors Kohlberg didn't consider the possibility of children with trans or nonbinary gender identities - Recent research studying 5-year-olds found that the gender identities of transgender chilren were equally as strong as those of cisgender children-transgender girls were similar to cisgender girls in their gender identities, while transgender boys were similar to cisgender boys

Piagetian; actively meaning; cognitive identity self-identifying as a boy or a girl (or possibly as both or possibly neither) permanent stability awareness that gender remains the same over time appearance constancy realization that gender is invariant despite superficial changes in a persons' appearance or behavior behave increase

Asymmetries in Racial Additudes South Africa; racial make-up contrasts with the US, but status differences look like the US (more black people, but black people still lower status) Participants: Xhosa 7-year-olds Prediction: if asymmetries are about familiarity, Khosa kids should show a same-race preference but if status guides racial attitudes, Khosa kids should show another-race preference

Results: the Khosa kids didn't have same-race preferences Conclusion: Race preferences aren't about familiarity, but perceptions of social status

Fixed v Growth Mindset (Blackwell et al) Focusing on if middle-school kids have fixed or growth mindsets and then looked at their grades

Results: those who had growth mindsets had higher grades years later When people have fixed mindsets and encounter challenges, they attribute to a lack of ability; when people have growth mindsets and encounter challenges, they persist and grow Intervention study: can mindsets change? - Taught middle school kids that intelligence is malleable (brain is a muscle, babies get smarter with experience, learning changes the brain by forming new connections and students are in charge of that process) - Results: kids did better on math after the intervention - Most effective with kids who started out with fixed mindsets from the start

Gender identity in the lab:

Show 3-year-olds slides with one boy and one girl and ask them to point to which one they want to be friends with. 75% choose their own gender.

Seeing Gender: Do infants notice the difference between male and female faces?

Showed babies 8 male faces in a row, and then a female face and side by side baby's looked longer at the female face. In the opposite direction, didn't find the same effect. Could be spontaneous visual preference for female faces. In another study where babies only had male caregivers, they had preference for male faces. Social preferences for people who are in the same category as primary caregivers. Could be purely perceptual (ease of processing).

fairness in infancy: do infants care about infants?

Showed babies one animal that distributed resources equally. Bear gives one ball to each person. Or showed a lion giving two balls to one and none for the other. Let babies choose who to reach for and play with. They choose the equal distributor.

Factors that Influence Secure Attachment Close contact - babies in Israeli community villages: - Soft v hard carriers: Specific parenting behaviors - __ to babies' needs - __ to baby's mood - __ of baby in difficult times - __ to baby physically and psychologically "Insightful" parenting - parents watch videos of their own interactions with their baby - Q: What do you think was going through your child's head? - more insightful = more __

Spend days in community care center. Some babies slept over night while others went home to their families for their families. Babies who spend the night with their parents developed secure attachments much more. When babies were 13 months, babies in the soft carriers were much more secure than in the hard carriers. Could be that soft carriers provide more opportunities for interactions. sensitivity; adjustment; acceptance; availability accurate

Mindset and Academic: Do Expectations of Brilliance Underlie Gender Distributions in Academic Disciplines? Gave a survey to thousands of academics asking what it takes to succeed in their discipline (intelligence, hard work, etc)

Stronger "brilliance" culture, less representation of women/minorities earning PhDs

Gender stereotypes: Are young children aware of math/gender stereotypes?

Task with elementary school students to see their implicit association. Found that kids did have this stereotype. Even preschool kids seemed to have some proto-stereotypes based on gender. Gender differences in math ability don't tend to emerge until 6 or 7.

Box 9.1 A Closer Look: Bandura and Bobo The investigators began by having preschool children individually watch a short film in which an adult model performed highly aggressive actions on a Bobo doll In one study, three groups of children observed the adult model receive different consequences for these aggressive behaviors - One group saw the model receive rewards and praise - Another group saw the model punished - The third group saw the model experience no consequences The question was whether vicarious reinforcement-observing someone else receive a reward or a punishment-would affect the children's subsequent reproduction of the behavior - After viewing the film, each child was left alone in a playroom with a Bobo doll - Later, whether or not they imitated the model, the children were offered an incentive to reproduce as many of the models' actions as they could remember Results:

The children who had seen the model punished imitated the behavior less than those in the other two groups. However, the children in all conditions had learned from observing the model's behavior and remembered what they had seen; when offered rewards to reproduce the aggressive actions, they did so. Gender differences emerged: boys were more physically aggressive toward the Bobo doll than girls were. However, the girls has learned as much about the modeled behaviors as the boys had, as shown by their increased level of imitation when offered a reward. Presumably, boys and girls inhibit behaviors they believe to be inappropriate for their own gender, even though they learn about a wide range of behavior. The research thus demonstrates that children can quickly acquire new behaviors simply as a result of observing others, that their tendency to reproduce what they have learned depends on whether the person whose actions they observed was rewarded or punished, and that what children learn from watching others isn't necessarily evident in their behavior.

Genes, Environment, and the Development of Intelligence: Risk Factors and Intellectual Development In the popular media, reports on how to help all children reach their intellectual potential often focus on a single factor-the need to eliminate poverty, or the need to eliminate racism, or the need to preserve two-parent families, or the need for high-quality day care, or the need for universal preschool education, and so on - However, no single factor, not even any small group of factors, is the key; many factors contribute to poor intellectual development To capture the impact of these multiple influences, Sameroff developed an environmental risk scale based on a number of features of the environment that put children at risk for low IQ scores with each child's risk score as a simple count of the number of major __ facing the child - They found that the more risks in a child's environment, the lower the child's IQ score tended to be: - The sheer __ of risks in the child's environment was a better predictor of the child's IQ score than the presence of any __ risk - Subsequent studies demonstrated similarly strong relations between number of risk factors and school grades The Sameroff study also provided an interesting perspective on why children's IQ scores are highly stable - It's not just that children's genes remain constant; over time, their __ tends to remain fairly constant as well - The study revealed that there was just as much stability in the number of risk factors in children's environments at ages 4 and 13 as in their __ __ over that period Although Sameroff described their measure as a "risk index," it is as much a measure of the __ of a child's environment as of its potential for harm - High IQ scores are associated with favorable environments __ __ __ low scores are associated with adverse ones - This is true for children from low-income families as well as for children in general - Low-income parents who are __ to their children and provide them with safe play areas and varied learning materials have children with higher IQ scores

The effect was large; the average IQ score of children whose environments did not include any of the risk factors was around 115; the average score of children whose environments included six or more risk s was around 85 number; particular environment; IQ scores quality; as much as; responsive

Self-Esteem Definition: Global v individual areas of self-esteem: Development: - Children under 8 tend to rate themselves very __ in all domains, & later become more __ - Start to __ abilities in different areas What determines self-esteem? Why should we care about self-esteem?

The evaluative component of self that taps how positively or negatively people view themselves in relation to others Scholastic competence, social acceptance, athletic competence, physical appearance, behavioral conduct positively; realistic; differentiate Parenting styles, feedback from peers, teacher/mentor support Correlational studies show a relation between low self-esteem in childhood and later problems and interventions can improve self-esteem and other outcomes

Pollak et al. (2005) - physical abuse Hypothesis: Participants: IV: DV: Results:

The presence of anger leads to more monitoring of the environment in abused children 33 children physically abused or not performance on attention task; heart rate; skin conductance level (sweat) no difference on attention task; abused children had slower heart rate and lower skin conductance than non-abused children

Box 6.3 Applications iBabies: Technology and Language Learning In one of the most rigorous studies to date, experimenters used random assignment to determine whether a best-selling "educational" DVD had an impact on infant language development: While passive viewing does not appear to support learning, infants do seem able to learn when they can actively engage another human, even via screens: Although the number of educational apps intended for young children continues to grow, their effect on children's development remains largely unknown - Caregivers should also be cautious about their own use to technology around their children - Device usage can detract from adults' responsiveness to children's needs and from opportunities to provide learning opportunities - In a study, researchers tested the hypothesis that something as ubiquitous as a parent responding to a phone call could impact toddlers' word learning

The researchers randomly assigned 12- to 18-month-olds into four groups. - Infants in the video-with-interaction group watched the video repeatedly while interacting with a parent. Infants in the video-without-interaction group received the same amount of exposure but without a parent watching along with them. Infants in the parent-teaching group did not watch the video at all; instead, their parents were given a list of 25 words featured on the video and asked to teach the infants those words in whatever way felt most natural to them. Infants in the control group received no intervention - At the beginning and end of the study, the infants were tested on a subset of the words featured on the DVD. The infants in the parent-teaching group showed the greatest vocabulary development. Infants in the DVD-viewing conditions learned no more than the infants in the control group. The performance of infants in the DVD-viewing conditions was unrelated to how much parents thought their infant had learned from the DVD. However, there was a correlation between how much the parents liked the DVD themselves and how much they thought their infant had learned: the more parents liked the DVD, the more likely they were to overestimate its positive effects. When infants are given the opportunity to learn from live video interactions, they do better than when learning from pre-recorded versions of the same interactions. Live video maintains social contingencies between the infant and the teacher in a way that recorded video does not. The most recent screen time recommendations note that live video chat is the only acceptable use of technology for infants younger than 2. Parents were asked to teach two new words to their 2-year-olds. During the learning session for one of the two words, the parent was interrupted by a phone call. The results revealed better learning for the word that was taught without phone interruption-despite the fact that both words were heard the same number of times during the learning phase of the study-suggesting that interruptions in interactions, which are increased by the prevalence of mobile technology, can hinder children's opportunities to learn.

What aspects of children's thinking and behavior contribute to morality?

To act in moral ways on a regular basis, children must have an understanding of right and wrong and the reasons why certain actions are moral or immoral In addition, they must have a conscious-that is, they must be concerned about acting in a moral manner and feel guilty when they do not

Gender Cognition in Transgender Children: Do transgender elementary school kids view themselves in terms fo expressed gender or natal sex?

Trans kids are normal kids who like kid stuff and they have typical mental health (increases post-transition). Tested elementary age prepubescent trans children who were presenting themselves according to their gender identity. Results: trans kids preferred kids/objects associated with their gender identity. Used the IAT. Participants had to categorize two dimensions of pictures (male and female with good and bad). Kids were slower to categorize their natal sex with good objects. Just like non-trans control groups. Another study with personal pronouns. Trans kids were slower to categorize their natal sex with "me," "we," "us". Compelling evidence that trans use are indistinguishable from cis youth in how they cognitively understand their gender.

Authority/Respect in Childhood Do children use other people's social attention to figure out whom they should follow?

Two people in center where all eyes are on the women in the pink shirt and no attention to woman in yellow shirt. Then pink and yellow people demonstrate different things and had different answers. Kids put more trust in the person who received social attention.

US child poverty rate hasn't really changed much in 50-60 years of effort: Top 1% hold __% of total wealth while bottom 50% hold __%

U.S. child poverty in 1964: 23% U.S. child poverty in 2016: 21% 22; 13

Concerns About Children's Exposure to Media Concerns are not limited to affluent __ nations - A survey of parents living in countries with emerging economies found that 79% of adults said that people should be very concerned about children being exposed to harmful or immoral content, and more than half agreed that mobile media and the Internet have had a bad influence on children in their country

Western

Media and Disruptive Effects: How does background TV affect (1) children's behaviors, and (2) parent-child interactions?

When TV is just on in the background, kids played less with toys and had shorter bouts of focused attention and parents interacted with their kids less, and when they were interacting, it was with less engagement

Elephant self-recognition Either put visible or invisible X on head and then see themselves in the mirror:

When the X is visible, the elephant shows self-recognition by trying to reach for the X on its head

Theory of Mind False Belief Task: Smarties

When the kid discovers that the M&M bag is holding pencils, they assume that others would know that it was holding pencils. Child cannot divorce their knowledge from other people. Child takes awhile to understand that people have beliefs based on their own perceptions.

The Emergence of Emotions: Anger Anger: - adaptive because it helps humans marshal __ mechanisms and can motivate humans to work more diligently toward their goals - Research suggests that children are more likely to be angry with a __ than an __ and are more likely to be angry in certain contexts than in others - Infants rarely express anger as a __ emotion; rather, they often express anger __ with sadness, which suggests that infants tend to express a general state of distress and that they are unable to differentiate whether a stimulus is making them sad or angry By their first birthday, however, infants clearly and frequently express anger - In the same experiment in which fear was induced by the actions of a stranger, anger was elicited by having the mother gently __ the infant's arms while an attractive toy was put on the table in front of them, which was a frustrating experience for infants who at 4 months have just developed the ability to reach for objects; infants' expressions were coded using the AFFEX system and they found that infants displayed moderate anger at 4 months, and it steadily increased in __ over the subsequent year Children's tendency to react to a situation with anger appears to __ around 18-24 months, and from 3-6, children show __ negative emotion on structured lab tasks designed to elicit it - This general decline in children's expressions of anger is likely due to their increasing ability to __ themselves with language and to regulate their emotions The causes of anger also change as children develop a better understanding of others' __ and motives - For example, in the early preschool years, a child is likely to feel anger when harmed by a peer, whether or not the harm was intentional, but young school-age children are __ likely to be angered if they believe that harm done to them was unintentional or that the motive for some harmful action was benign rather than malicious - As they grow older, children tend to express more anger at __ with their families, although their anger is typically low in intensity, perhaps in conjunction with their developing identities as individuals __ from their parents

a child's response to a frustrating or threatening situation and is largely an interpersonal experience self-defense; person; object; single; blended constrain; intensity peak; less; express intentions; less; home; separate

The Self: Self-Concept Self-concept: - Can include thoughts about one's own physical being (body, possessions, etc), social characteristics (relationships, personality, social roles), and internal characteristics (thoughts, psychological functioning) - An understanding of how the self __ or __ the same over time, of beliefs about one's own role in shaping these processes, and even of reflections on one's own consciousness of selfhood The development of the self is important because individuals' self-conceptions, including the ways they view and feel about themselves, influence their overall feelings of __ and __ when faced with extreme criticism

a conceptual system made up of one's thoughts and attitudes about oneself changes; remains well-being; confidence

Identity: - Each of us has __ identities that are more salient than others at certain times or in certain __ - Adolescence is the period at which children __ their multiple identities are begin to __ new identities that may be distinct from those of their family and friends The earliest theory of identity formation was proposed by Erik Erison, who argued that all adolescents experience an identity crisis, in part as a means of __ from their parents - In his view, the challenge is as follows: "From among all possible and imaginable relations, the person must make a series of ever-narrowing selections of personal, occupational, sexual, and ideological commitments" - Identity achievement:

a description of the self that is often externally imposed, such as through membership in a group multiple; situations; appreciate; forge separating an integration of various aspects of the self into a coherent whole that is stable over time and across events

Box 14.3 A Closer Look: Oppositional Defiant Disorder and Conduct Disorder Two disorders that involve antisocial behavior are oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD): - Prone to blame others for their own mistakes and misbehavior and are often spiteful or vindictive Conduct disorder (CD): - Other signs include running away from home, staying out all night before age 13, being truant from school - Must exhibit multiple persistent symptoms that are clearly impairing their social relationships and school performance 7.4% of children 3-17 have either one of the disorders - Only 54% of children diagnosed receive treatment Children and adolescents with CD often develop ODD first - In many instances, they are diagnosed with other disorders such as anxiety disorder or ADD ODD and CD differ somewhat in their prediction of later problem behaviors: CH predicts primarily __ problems in early adulthood, whereas ODD shows stronger prediction of __ disorders in early adulthood Several family- and child-level factors have been found to predict, namely high levels of family conflicts, high levels of family stress, parent depression, insecure attachment, and low self-regulation Preschool predictors include high-intensity aggression, destruction of property, deceitfulness, and problems with peers

a disorder characterized by age-inappropriate and persistent displays of angry, defiant, and irritable behaviors Lose their temper easily, argue with adults and actively defy adults' requests or rules a disorder that involves severe antisocial and aggressive behaviors that inflict pain on others or involve destruction of property or denial of the rights of others behavioral; emotional

The Family Family: According to Boronfenbrenner's bioecological model, family is central to a child's __, providing direct support for the child's development - Changes in the makeup of a child's family can affect the __ available to the child, as well as the parents' child-rearing __ and behavior

a group that involves at least one adult who is related to the child by birth, marriage, adoption, or foster status and who is responsible for providing basic necessities as well as love, support, safety, stability, and opportunities for learning microsystem; resources; practices

Mental Health, Stress, and Internalizing Mental Disorders: Depression Depression: - In order to be diagnosed with depression, a child or an adolescent must report feeling, or be observed by their parents to feel, sad or irritable for a period of __ weeks, and the individual must exhibit physical and cognitive symptoms such as difficulties sleeping (either too much or too little), significant changes in weight (either loss or gain), inability to concentrate, or loss of interest in activities - Some children and adolescents with depression also think about or even attempt suicide - A review of research conducted in 27 different countries determined that __% of children and adolescents meet criteria for depression - According to recent figures, in the US specifically, at any given time 2% of child aged 3-17 have depression, and 11% have had a depressive episode in the previous year - Risk of depression __ as children develop into adolescence, and a second uptick in risk occurs when they age into young __ - Girls are 2-3x __ likely as boys to develop depression

a mental disorder that involves a sad or irritable mood along with physical and cognitive changes that interfere with daily life 2; 3; increases; adulthood; more

Family Dynamics: Parenting - Parenting Styles Authoritarian parenting: - Authoritarian parents are __ to their children's needs and tend to enforce their demands through the exercise of parental power and the use of __ and punishment - They are oriented toward __ and authority and expect their children to comply with their demands without question or __ - - Examples include parents interrupting children when they want to express themselves, threatening to withdraw love and attention if they do not behave as expected, exploiting children's sense of guilt, belittling their worth, and discounting or misinterpreting their feelings - - Such behaviors on behalf of authoritarian parents engender __ in children and a __ to accept parents' attempts at socialization - Children of authoritarian parents tend to be relatively low in social and academic __, unhappy and unfriendly, and low in self-confidence, with boys being more negatively affected than girls in early childhood - - Authoritarian parenting has also been linked with children's inability to cope with everyday __ and with high levels of depression, aggression, delinquency, and alcohol problems

a parenting style that is high in demandingness and low in responsiveness nonresponsive; threats; obedience; explanation; hostility; refusal; competence; stressors

Family Structure: Changes in Family Structure in the US - Families are Smaller Families are smaller now than in the past, which can be attributed to women __ pregnancies because they have careers, as well as to increased __ to birth control The percentage of women who had three or more children dropped from 65% in 1976 to 38% in 2016, while the percentage of women who had one or two children rose from 35% to 62% over that same period - This change, of course, means that fewer children have multiple, if any, siblings

delaying; access

Family Dynamics: Parenting - Parenting Styles A pioneering research study on parenting style was conducted by Diana Baumrine (1973), who differentiated among four styles of parenting related to the dimensions of support and control Authoritative parenting: - Authoritative parents set clear __ and limits for their children and are firm about __ them; at the same time, they allow their children considerable __ within those limits, are attentive and __ to their children's concerns and needs, and respect and consider their children's perspective - They are measured and __, rather than harsh or arbitrary, in disciplining them - Usually want their children to be socially responsible, assertive, and self-controlled - Children of authoritative parents tend to be competent, self-assured, and __ with peers - - Seem to accept their parents' socialization efforts; for example, in one study children with authoritative parents were more likely to share and take turns with an unfamiliar peer than were children of authoritarian parents - - As adolescents, they tend to be relatively high in social and academic competence, self-reliance, and coping skills and relatively low in drug use and other problem behavior

a parenting style that is high in demandingness and supportiveness standards; enforcing; autonomy; responsive; consistent; popular

Family Dynamics: Parenting - Parenting Styles Permissive parenting: - Permissive parents are __ to their children's needs and do not require their children to regulate __ or act in appropriate or mature ways - The children of permissive parents tend to be __, __ in self-regulation, high in __ problems, and low in school achievement - As adolescents, they engage in more school __ and drug of alcohol use than do peers with authoritative parents

a parenting style that is high unresponsiveness but low in demandingness responsive; themselves; impulsive; low; externalizing; misconduct

Family Dynamics: Parenting - Parenting Styles Uninvolved parenting: - They do not set __ for children or __ their behavior and are not __ of them - Sometimes they are __ or neglectful of their children altogether - These parents are focused on their __ needs rather than their children's - Children who have uninvolved parents tend to have __ attachment relationships when they are infants or toddlers and to have problems with peer relationships as older children - In adolescence, they tend to exhibit a wide range of problems, from __ behavior and low academic __ to internalizing problems (e.g., depression, social withdrawal), substance abuse, and risky or promiscuous sexual behavior - The negative effects of this type of parenting appear to continue to __ and worsen over the course of adolescence - Although parenting style appears to have an effect on children's adjustment, it is important to keep in mind that children's behavior sometimes shapes parents' typical parenting style as well:

a parenting style that is low in both demandingness and responsiveness to their children; in other words, this style describes parents who are generally disengaged limits; monitor; supportive; rejecting; own; disturbed; antisocial; competence; accumulate In a recent study, adolescents' reports of relatively high levels of externalizing problems (delinquency, loitering, intoxication) and internalizing problems (low self-esteem, depressive symptoms) predicted a decline in parents' authoritative parenting styles (as reported by the youths) 2 years later, whereas an increase or decline in authoritative parenting over the same 2 years did not predict a change in the adolescents' adjustment

Emotion Regulation: - Develops __ over the course of childhood and paves the way for success in __ interactions as well as in __ settings

a set of both conscious and unconscious processes used to both monitor and modulate emotional experiences and expressions gradually; social; academic

Friendships: Children's Choice of Friends In most industrialized countries, similarity in __ is a major factor in friendship, with most children tending to make friends with age-mates - This may be due to the fact that in most industrialized societies, children are __ by age in school: in societies where children do not attend school or aren't segregated by age, they are more likely to develop friendships with children of different ages Another powerful factor in friend selection is a child's __: girls with girls and boys with boys - Cross-gender friendships, though not uncommon, tend to be more __ - The preference for same-gender friends emerges in __ and continues through childhood while the liking of other-gender peers __ over the course of childhood and into early adolescence - Time in groups with only same-sex peers peaks around age 13, whereas time in groups that include opposite-sex peers increases steadily from age 10 on, although this increase is much __ for girls than for boys To a lesser degree, children tend to be friends with peers of their own racial/ethnic group, although this tendency varies across groups and contexts - In general, efforts to establish friendships outside one's own racial/ethnic group are less likely to be reciprocated than are efforts within the group; and when they are reciprocated, they often aren't as long lasting - A study of children in Germany and Turkey found that, for majority-group children, having cross-ethnic friendships is associated with __ attitudes toward people in other groups in the future - However, cross-race friendships can have costs; middle-school African American and Asian American youths whose best friends are all of a different race from their own tend to be lower in emotional well-being than those with best friends only from the same racial group, perhaps because their friends of different races are not __ to the same forms of racial discrimination and are less able to provide __ when they are faced with it

age; segregated gender; fragile; preschool; increases; steeper positive; subject; support

Mental Health, Stress, and Internalizing Mental Disorders: Anxiety Disorders Anxiety disorders: - Unlike the temporary fear or anxiety that an individual may feel in response to a threat in the environment, anxiety disorders manifest as __ fear or anxiety that last days or even months and __ the individual's ability to interact with others or to concentrate on tasks - Anxiety disorder are believed to involve __ of areas of the brain associated with reaction to threat, including the amygdala and hippocampus brain structures, as well as the sympathetic nervous system In young children, the most common anxiety disorder is __ anxiety disorder, which involves persistent fear about being separated from a caregiver or about a caregiver being in danger - Some separation anxiety is normative in young children and is often seen in the __ development of secure attachment with caregivers; however, if the separation anxiety becomes severe and persistent and __ with behavior, then it is considered a disorder - Children with anxiety disorder may be described by adults as __ and demanding of constant attention Children and adolescents with anxiety disorder may also suffer from panic attacks, which are sudden and intense surges of fear and discomfort, or from phobias about certain animals or certain social situations Around the world, __% of children and adolescents meet criteria for anxiety disorder - In the US, the prevalence is slightly lower, at __% of children aged 3-17, with girls being twice as likely to be diagnosed with anxiety as boys Over the course of development from children to adolescence and into young adulthood, there is an increase in several types of anxiety disorder, namely panic disorder and agoraphobia, but a __ in separation anxiety disorder and in other phobias Anxiety disorder typically develops in childhood and can persist into adulthood if not treated Like depression, both genetic (nature) and environmental (nurture) factors contribute to the onset of anxiety disorder - About __ of the variance in anxiety is thought to be heritable, with some of that heritability come from temperament: children who have fearful or inhibited temperaments are more likely than those without such temperaments to experience problems with anxiety - The environment also plays an important role - - Children can come to associate certain people or events with fear and anxiety, even when fear and anxiety are not warranted; such association may come about either through conditions, through observations, or through instruction - - Parent behavior has been implicated as a precursor of children's anxiety disorders; parents' overprotective, overinvolved, and controlling behaviors have been linked to increased anxiety in children

a set of mental disorders that involve the inability to regulate fear and worry intense; impairs; overactivation separation; positive; interferes; intrusive 7; 3 decrease 1/3

Mental Health, Stress, and Internalizing Mental Disorders: Internalizing Mental Disorders Mental disorder: - Psychologists have identified several categories of mental disorders, including psychotic disorders, eating disorders, personality disorders, and behavior disorders - Because they involve internal emotional states, internalizing mental health disorders are often __ to identify and diagnose compared with behavior disorders, which manifest in disruptive or aggressive actions - Equifinality: - Multifinality:

a state of having problems with emotional reactions to the environment and with social relationships in ways that affect daily life difficult the concept that various causes can lead to the same mental disorder the concept that certain risk factors do not always lead to a mental disorder

The Components of Language Generative: - All languages share overarching __: words become sentences, and sentences become stories and conversations - We can __ sentences we've never heard or read before

a system in which a finite set of words can be combined to generate an infinite number of sentences similarities; understand

Sources of Variation in Parenting Styles Parents in good marriages are more likely to be in "__" category Depressed parents are more likely to be __ Styles are passed through generations Studies have shown that pairs of identical twin mothers are __ similar in their displays of warmth than fraternal twins - Some __ input

authoritative uninvolved more; genetic

Measurement of Attachment Security: Ainsworth's Strange Situation Procedure insecure/resistant attachment: - In the Strange Situation, tend to become very __ when the caregiver leaves them alone in the room - When their caregiver returns, they are not __ comforted and both seek comfort and resist efforts by the caregiver to comfort them - Often __ from the beginning of the Strange Situation - About __% of children in the US fall into this category insecure/avoidant attachment: - If the infant gets upset when left alone, they are as __ comforted by a stranger as by a parent - __% of children fall into this category Subsequent to Ainsworth's original research, attachment investigators found that the reactions of a small percentage of children in the Strange Situation did not fit well into any of the three categories - These children seem to have no __ way of coping with the stress of the Strange Situation - Their behavior is often confused or even contradictory - They also frequently appear dazed or disoriented and may __ in their behavior and remain still for a substantial period of time disorganized/disoriented attachment: - They seem to have an unsolvable problem: they want to approach their caregiver, but they also seem to regard her as a source of fear from which they want to withdraw - About __% of infants in the US fall into this category - However, this percentage may be considerably higher among __ infants, among infants whose parents are having serious difficulties with their own working models of attachment, and among preschoolers from lower SES

a type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children are clingy and stay close to their caregiver rather than exploring their environment upset; easily; clingy; 9 a type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children seem somewhat indifferent toward their caregiver and may even avoid the caregiver easily; 15 consistent; freeze a type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children have no consistent way of coping with the stress of the Strange Situation 15; maltreated

Patterns of Gender Development: Cognitive Abilities and Academic Achievement - Explanations for Gender Differences in Cognitive Abilities and Achievement Peer influences - Because children are usually concerned with gaining __ from their peers and their interests are often shaped by the activities and values they associate with their classmates and friends, peers can shape children's academic achievement - This influence begins with the kinds of __ activities children practice with their peers - Girls and boys may be more likely to strive in particular school subjects when they are viewed as __ with peer norms - Some US research suggests that gender-role flexibility may be related to stronger interest in nontraditional majors among male undergraduates Cultural influences - The bioecological model maintains that socialization practices prepare children for their __ roles in society - Therefore, where there are cultural variation in girls' and boys' academic achievement, there should be corresponding differences in socialization - A meta-analysis pointed to cultural influences on gender-related variations in math achievement: - The countries that were less gender-egalitarian also tended to have poorer economic conditions; additional analyses suggested that women in these countries tended to pursue STEM occupation for their economic value while women in more egalitarian and wealthier countries may find they have more career options for attaining an adequate income and thus may be more likely to leave STEM majors when they experience sexism

acceptance; play; compatible adult To assess possible cultural influences, the researchers considered the representation of women in higher education in the country. They found that average gender differences in several math-related outcomes were less likely in nations with higher percentages of women in higher levels of education.

Theories of Social Cognition: How do children come to understand their own and other people's thoughts, feelings, motives, and behaviors? Like adults, children are __ processors of social information - They pay attention to what other people do and say, and they are constantly drawing inferences, forming interpretations, constructing explanations, or making attributions regarding what they observe - They process information about their __ behavior and experiences in the same way - The complexity of children's thinking and reasoning about the social world is related to, and limited by, the complexity of their thought __ in general Social cognitive theories provide a sharp contrast to the emphasis that psychoanalytic and learning theories place on external forces as the primary source of development; instead, social cognitive theories emphasize the process of __ - Self-socialization: - According to this view, children's knowledge and beliefs about themselves and other people lead them to adopt particular goals and standards to guide their own __

active; own; processes self-socialization the idea that children play a very active role in their own socialization through their activity preferences, friendship choices, and so on behavior

Self-Initiated Activity Even in the womb, normal development depends on the fetus's benign __ - Make breathing movements that strengthen their lungs, swallow amniotic fluid that prepared their digestive system, work out various muscles by tugging on their umbilical cord, sucking their thumb, kicking, and turning somersaults - From the day they're born, display __ preferences that guide their attention to the most informative aspects of the environment that their processing abilities can handle - Like looking at objects rather than blank fields Infants' ability to interact with the environment expands greatly during the first year - At 3 months, most become able to follow moving objects with their __, which improves their ability to learn about the actions occurring around them - 6-7 months, most are able to crawl on their bellies - 8-9 months, most can hold up their heads, which allows them to react for objects even when they're not being supported - 13-14 months, most begin to walk independently As development proceeds, children's self-initiated activity extends to additional domains such as language - Practice __ in their cribs, even when nobody is present to hear them - In later childhood and adolescence, children's choices of friends and peer groups become important influences on their own behavior, in that children tend to increasingly act like their friends and others in their social group

activity; looking eyes talking

Cross-Cultural Similarities + Differences in Factors Related to Peer Status Found in many countries that socially rejected children tend to be __ and disruptive while popular children tend to be __ and to have leadership skills Rejected children, especially those who are aggressive, are more likely to have __ difficulties Students' classroom participation is lower during periods in which they are __ by peers than during periods when they are not, and the tendency of rejected children to de relatively poorly in school __ over time - 25-30% of rejected children drop out, compared with 8% of other children Withdrawal becomes linked with peer rejection in preschool or elementary school Research has demonstrated that there are certain differences in the characteristics associated with children's sociometric status - Chinese children who were shy, sensitive, and cautious in their behavior were-unlike their inhibited or shy Western counterparts-viewed by teachers as socially competent and as __, and they were liked by their peers - However, since the 90s, shy, reserved behavior in Chinese elementary school children has become increasingly associated with __ levels of peer acceptance, at least for urban children - The economic and political changes in China over the past several decades have been accompanied by an increased valuing of assertive, less inhibited behavior - For children from rural areas who have had only limited exposure to the grammatical cultural changes in China in recent years, shyness is associated with high levels of both peer liking and disliking; thus, for groups somewhat less exposed to cultural changes, shyness is viewed with some ambivalence by peers

aggressive; prosocial academic rejected; worsens leaders; lower

Cross-situational Word Learning You learn words in a highly __ learning context - cluttered scene, but over time, the same label appears with same word 12- and 14-month-old infants too can track object-label __ over time Toddlers also have shorter arms, which __ clutter in the visual scene - short arms and curiosity are stable organizing principles for toddler expereince - babies systematically create situations where one object is visual large, which reduces clutter in the world

ambiguous links reduces

The Emergence of Emotions: Surprise Surprise: - It is more than just the physical reaction to being startled by something like a loud noise, which infant display from birth, but rather involves a __ understanding that something is not as it usually is Most infants begin to express surprise by __ months - Expressions of surprise tend to be __, and they usually __ into another emotional expression, such as happiness The experience of surprise indicates to children when the world is working __ to expectations, and thus surprise in thought to be important to early __ The extent to which infants express surprise to novel events is influenced by the __ environment provided by their parents - In one study conducted in Scotland, infants whose mothers had symptoms of depression expressed __ surprise in reaction to a jack-in-the-box than did infants of mothers without depressive symptoms - This same study also found that mothers with depressive symptoms themselves expressed __ intensity of surprise in reaction to the jack-in-the-box, which suggests that how infants express emotions is influenced by how strongly their caregivers express emotions

an emotional reaction to a sudden, unexpected event cognitive 6; brief; transform contrary; learning emotional; less; lower

Self-esteem: - Doesn't emerge until 8 or so - To measure children's self-esteem, researchers ask children, verbally or by questionnaire, about their perceptions of such things as their own physical attractiveness, athletic competence, social acceptance, scholastic ability, and the appropriateness of their behavior Individuals with high self-esteem tend to feel good about themselves and hopeful in general, whereas individuals with low self-esteem tend to feel worthless and hopeless - In particular, low self-esteem in childhood and adolescence is associated with problems such as anxiety, depression, and bullying, both as perpetrator and victim - High self-esteem, especially if not based on positive self-attributes, may have costs for children and adolescents

an individual's overall subjective evaluation of their worth and the feelings they have about that evaluation

The Development of Conscience Conscience: - Restrains antisocial behavior or destructive __ and promotes a child's compliance with adults' rules and standards, even when no one is monitoring the child's behavior - Can also promote prosocial behavior by causing the child to feel __ when engaging in uncaring behavior or failing to live up to internalized values about helping others Because conscious is tied to cultural standards about right or wrong, psychologists long thought that morality was completely __ and not at all __ - However, recent evidence from studies with infants suggests that humans may have an __ drive to prefer actions that help others over ones that hinder them - - In a study with 10-month-olds, a puppet in the shape of a red circle was shown on its own trying, but failing, to "climb" a hill: Children develop a conscience slowly over time - By 2, toddlers start to recognize moral standards and rules and exhibit signs of __ when they do something wrong - Individual differences in these two components of conscience-the desire to comply with rules and feelings of guilt when failing to do so-are quite __ in early development from 22-45 months - Children's growing __ of others' emotions and goals, and their increasing capacity for __ concern, are likely contributors to the development of conscience

an internal regulatory mechanism that increases an individual's ability to conform to standards of conduct accepted in their culture impulses; guilty learned; innate; innate In one condition, a yellow triangle puppet (the "helper") appears and pushes the red circle up the hill. In a second condition, a blue square (the "hinderer") appears and pushes the red circle back down the hill. When later shown the red circle approaching either the helper or hinderer, the 10-month-olds showed more surprise when the red circle approached the hinderer, indicating that they expected the red circle to prefer the puppet that helped the circle rather than the one that hindered it. This research team produced similar findings with even younger babies: when shown scenarios with puppets who helped another puppet in trouble or puppets who hindered another puppet needing help, infants as young as 4.5 months preferred the helper puppet. These findings indicate that infants have the beginnings of a moral sense long before they can be taught one by their parents, which suggests some innate component to prosocial behavior. These innate preferences for prosocial behavior may provide the building blocks on which morality, learned from family and culture, is built. guilt; stable; understanding; empathic

Early Word Production Overextension: Underextension: Both overextension and underextension represent efforts to communicate given the child's __ vocabulary - They may also reflect incorrect __ between words and meanings that will have to be revised as language learning continues

an overly broad interpretation of the meaning of a word - Ex: using "dog" for any 4-legged animal an overly narrow interpretation of the meaning of a word - Ex: only using "dog" for their particular dog limited; mappings

Diversity in Family Life: Divorce Parents - custodial mothers are slightly more likely to be __, and less __ to child's needs - noncustodial fathers are more likely to be __ and __ Children - in general, tough on kids of all ages - in long term, most kids do okay - stable 1 parent home > unstable 2 parent home

impatient; sensitive

Patterns of Gender Development: Physical Growth: Prenatal Development Through Adolescence - Prenatal Development A key prenatal factor in sexual development is the presence or absence of __ - Research suggests that prenatal exposure to androgens may influence the organization of the __ system, and these effects may be partly related to some average gender differences in behavior seen at later ages - During prenatal development, a gene on the Y chromosome of genetic males normally triggers the increased production of androgen hormones around 6-8 weeks after conception Intersex conditions: - Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH): - Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS): - Cases of children with CAH and AIS offer evidence to support the premise that prenatal androgens may partly contribute to boys' and girls' gender identities and to gender-typed play __ - This kind of evidence is sometimes used to support __ accounts of gender development

androgens; nervous rare conditions in which an individual of one genetic sex can develop genitalia associated with the other genetic sex, both genetic sexes, or undergo only partial development of genitalia associated with their genetic sex condition during prenatal development in which the adrenal glands produce high levels of androgens; sometimes associated with masculinization of external genitalia in genetic females and sometimes associated with higher rates of masculine-stereotyped play in genetic females condition during prenatal development in which androgen receptors malfunction in genetic males, impeding the formation of male external genitalia; in these cases, the child may be born with female external genitalia preferences; evolutionary

The Emergence of Emotions: Sadness Infants often exhibit sadness in the same types of situations in which they show __, such as after a painful event and when they cannot control outcomes in their environment - By the time children reach the preschool years, their displays of sadness appear to be somewhat __ frequent than displays of anger - Young children also exhibit intense and prolonged displays of sadness when they are __ from their parents for extended periods and are not given sensitive care during this period Like fear, sadness is clearly an adaptive emotion because it can draw in the __ and __ from a caregiver who can help the child regulate their emotion with a calming touch and soft words

anger; less; separated attention; support

Prosocial Behavior: The Origins of Individual Differences in Prosocial Behavior- Biological Factors Many biologists and psychologists have proposed that humans are biologically predisposed to be prosocial According to this view, people who help others are more likely than less helpful people to be __ when they themselves are in need and, thus, are more likely to survive and reproduce - In support of the view that humans have evolved to be prosocial, researchers at UBC have shown that 2-year-olds are __ when giving treats to others than when taking treats for themselves - Moreover, this tendency holds true across __: both adults and 2-year-olds living in a rural, isolated village in Vanuatu, a small island nation in the Pacific, were happier giving than receiving gifts - Evolutionary explanations for prosocial behavior, however, pertain to the human species as a whole and do not explain individual __ in empathy, sympathy, and prosocial behaviors - Genetic factors do contribute to individual differences in these characteristics - In studies with adults, twins' reports of their own empathy and prosocial behavior are considerably more __ for identical twins than for fraternal twins - - In one of the twin studies of children's prosocial behaviors, researchers observed young twins' reactions to adults' simulations of distress in the home and in the lab and had the twins' mothers report of their everyday prosocial behavior: - Recently, researchers have identified specific genes that might contribute to individual differences in prosocial tendencies - One path through which genetic factors might affect empathy, sympathy, and prosocial behavior is through differences in __ - - For instance, differences in children's ability to regulate emotion are related to their empathy and sympathy - - Children who tend to experience emotion without getting __ by it are especially likely to experience sympathy and to act prosocially - Moreover, children who are not responsive to others' emotions or who are too inhibited to help others may be relatively unlikely to act prosocially - Regulation is also related to children's theory of mind, and theory of mind predicts children's prosocial behavior

assisted; happier; cultures; differences; similar On the basis of heritability estimates derived from this study, it appears that the role of genetic factors in the children's prosocial concerns for others and in their prosocial behavior increases with age temperament; overwhelmed

Three variables are crucial in determining the importance of any dimension of individual differences 1. Children's status on the most important dimensions is __ with their status at that tone on other important dimensions 2. A second characteristic is __ over time 3. A third characteristic is that a child's status on a dimension __ outcomes on other important characteristics in the future Ex: gender - Gender differences are related to a wide variety of other differences - Gender identity is generally stable over time - Being male or female predicts future individual differences

associated stability predicts

Many domains of growth are fragile Poor fetal growth and stunting at age 2 predict many bad outcomes Early __ relationships set the course for later social outcomes Lack of language richness has detrimental, long-term effects on __ development

attachment cognitive

Sources of Individual Differences in Attachment Styles: Parenting and Attachment Styles Evidence that parental sensitivity does in fact have a causal effect on infants' attachment has been provided by short-term experimental interventions designed to enhance the sensitivity of mothers' caregiving - These interventions have been found to increase not only mothers' sensitivity with their infants but also the security of their infants' __ - Moreover, in twin studies of infants' attachment, nearly all the variation in attachments was due to __ __ Although secure attachments are more likely when parents display sensitivity, children can still develop secure attachments to their parents even when they are not __ sensitive - In a study of preschoolers, half of whom were involved in CPS because their mothers had maltreated them, the maltreated preschoolers were indeed __ likely to be insecure or disorganized than the non-maltreated children - - However, 23% of the maltreated children had secure attachments to the mothers who had maltreated them, which likely derives from the fact that abusive parents can also be loving and sensitive at times, factors that promote children's attachment - - The findings also demonstrates that the __ drive to be securely attached to a caregiver is powerful enough to overcome frightening and painful parental behavior

attachment; environmental factors consistently; more; biological

Moral Judgment: Piaget's Theory of Moral Judgment At around 11-12, children enter Piaget's second stage of __ morality - Piaget believed that children at this stage no longer accept blind obedience to authority as the __ of moral decisions - They consider __ and __ among people as important factors to consider when constructing rules - They believe that punishments should "fit the crime" and that adults are not always __ in how they deliver punishment - They consider individuals' __ and intentions when evaluating their behavior According to Piaget, children typically progress from the heteronomous morality of constraint to autonomous moral reasoning - Individuals differences in the rates of children's progress are due to numerous factors, including differences in cognitive maturity, in opportunities for interactions with peers and for reciprocal role-taking, and in how authoritarian and punitive parents are with them

autonomous; basis; fairness; equality; fair; motives

The Emergence of Emotions: The Self-Conscious Emotions In everyday life, the same situation often elicits shame in some individuals and guilt in others Which emotion children experience partly depends on parental practices - Studies of North American children have found that they are more likely to experience guilt and shame if, when they have done something wrong, their parents emphasize the "__" of the behavior rather than of the child - Children are more likely to feel guilt rather than shame if their parents help them understand the consequences their actions have for __, teach them the need to __ the harm they've done, avoid publicly humiliating them, and communicate respect and love for their children even when disciplining them The __ likely to induce self-conscious emotions in children vary across cultures, as does the __ with which specific self-conscious emotions are likely to be experienced - For example, the Japanese culture frowns upon bestowing praise on the individual because to do so would encourage a focus on the self rather than on the needs of the larger social group; Japanese children are thus __ likely to report experiences of pride as a consequence of personal success than are American children - In many Asian or Southeast Asian cultures that emphasize the welfare of the group rather than the individual, not living up to social or familial obligations is likely to evoke shame or guilt, and children in these cultures report experiencing guilt and shame __ than do children in the US; in such cultures, parents' efforts to elicit shame from their young children are often direct and disparaging, but this kind of explicit belittling appears to have a more __ effect on children in these Asian cultures than it does on children in Western cultures:

badness; others; repair situations; frequency; less; more; positive A longitudinal study in the US found that children who were more prone to feelings of guilt when they were 5th-graders were less likely to engage in risky behaviors, such as using illegal drugs and have many sexual partners, once they turned 18, whereas those who experienced more shame as 5th-graders engaged in more risky behaviors later in life

Cognitive Change Mechanisms: General Information-Processing Mechanisms Four types of information-processing mechanisms are especially general and pervasive: Basic processes are the simplest, most broadly applicable, and earliest-developing general information-processing mechanisms - Overlap with __ learning processes and include __ events with each others, recognizing objects as familiar, recalling facts and procedures, encoding key features of events, and generalizing from one instance to another - Changes with age occur in the speed and __ of these basic processes, but all of them are present from early infancy onward Strategies contribute to many types of development - Toddlers form strategies for achieving __ such as obtaining a toy that is out of reach or descending a steep ramp; preschoolers form strategies for counting and solving arithmetic problems; school-age children form strategies for playing games and getting along with others; and so on - Often, children acquire multiple strategies for solving a single kind of problem, which allows them to adapt to the demands of different problems and situations Metacognition is a type of cognitive process that contributes to development in large ways - Increasing use of memory strategies stems in large part from children's increasing __ that they are unlikely to remember large amounts of material verbatim without such strategies Content knowledge is a contributor to cognitive change - The more children know about any topic, the __ they are able to learn and remember new information about it - Knowledge facilitates learning unfamiliar content by allowing children to draw __ between the new content and previously acquired information

basic processes, strategies, metacognition, and content knowledge behavioral; associating; efficiency goals realization better; analogies

The Caregiver-Child Attachment Relationship Proponents of __ argued that food, such as breast milk, is the basis for the bond - Infants link food to mothers through the process of __ __, in which food is the unconditioned stimulus that causes the infant to experience pleasure and mothers are the conditioned stimulus linked with the food - From a behaviorist perspective, mothers evoke __ in the infant only because of this association Psychologist Harlow proposed another idea, based on his work with rhesus monkeys - Both groups of infants spent __ time on the cloth monkeys, though initially the group fed by the cloth mother spent more time with it than did the monkeys fed by the wire mother - The monkeys fed by the wire mothers increased the amount of time spent on the cloth mothers as they got older, such that eventually they spent as much time on the cloth mothers as did the monkeys who were fed by the cloth mother

behaviorism; classical conditioning; pleasure more

Theories of Social Cognition: Selman's Stage Theory of Role Taking Role taking: - He proposed that adopting the perspective of another person is essential to understanding others' thoughts, feelings, and motives According to Selman, young children's social cognition is limited by their __ to engage in role-taking behavior - Selman, like Piaget, suggested that before the age of 6, children are virtually unaware that there is any perspective other than their own - Selman proposed that children go through four increasingly complex and abstract stages in their thinking about other people 1. In stage 1 (6-8), children learn that someone else can have a perspective __ from their own, but they assume that the different perspective is merely due to that person's not possessing the __ information they do 2. In stage 2 (8-10), children not only realize that someone else can have a different view, but they also are able to __ about the other person's point of view 3. In stage 3 (10-12), children can systematically __ their own point of view with another person's 4. In stage 4 (12+), adolescents attempt to understand another's perspective by comparing it with that of a "__ other," assessing whether the person's view is the same as that of most people in their social group In Selman's stages of role taking, as children become less egocentric, they become increasingly capable of considering multiple perspectives simultaneously (their own, another person's, and "most people's") - This growth in social cognition mirrors the changes identified by Piaget

being aware of the perspective of another person inability different; same think compare generalized

Measuring Temperament Researchers studying temperament no longer group children into categories such as easy, difficult, or slow to warm up, which reflects what is known as a __ approach to understanding development - Rather, researchers now characterize every child along the same set of dimensions of temperament-a __ approach to understanding development - - According to this newer approach, every child has some levels of each __ of temperament Not all researchers agree on exactly how __ dimensions of temperament there are; however, one of the leading experimenters in this area has identified five key dimensions of temperament: fear, distress/anger/frustration, attention span, activity level, and smiling and laughing - She has created measures of temperament in both infants (the Infant Behavior Questionnaire) and early childhood (the Child Behavior Questionnaire) that ask parents, teachers, or observers to rate each child along several dimensions of temperament - Ratings of temperament tend to be fairly __ over time and tend to __ later development in areas such as behavioral problems, anxiety disorders, and social competence

between-person; within-person; dimension many; stable; predict

Sources of Individual Differences in Attachment Styles: Cultural Variations in Attachment Styles Because human infants are believed to be __ predisposed to form attachments with their caregivers, one might expect attachment behaviors to be __ in different cultures - In fact, in large measure, infants' behaviors in the Strange Situation are __ across numerous cultures, including those of Africa, East Asia, Latin America, and Europe - In all these cultures, there are securely attached, insecure/resistant, and insecure/avoidant infants, with the average __ approximating those established in the US - One study that compared mothers and their young children across nine countries found that, in all countries, children used their mothers as a secure base when __ new surroundings - This finding supports the notion that __ __ is a universal phenomenon - However, this study also revealed some __ differences: children in Colombia and Peru were least likely to remain in close physical proximity to their mothers, whereas children in Italy and Portugal were much more likely than children in other countries to maintain physical contact

biologically; similar; similar; percentages; exploring; attachment security; behavioral

Box 6.4 A Closer Look "I Just Can't Talk Without My Hands": What Gestures Tell Us About Language The naturalness of gesturing is revealed by the fact that __ people gesture as they speak just as much as sighted individuals Infants often produce recognizable, meaningful gestures __ they speak recognizable words - According to researchers, many "baby signs" are invented by __ - One infant in their research signed "alligator" by putting her hands together and opening and closing them to imitate snapping jaws; another signaled "flower" by sniffing - Infants gain earlier motor control of their hands than of their vocal apparatus, facilitating the use of signs during the first year - There is a relationship between infants' use of gestures and later vocabulary size: infants who gesture more have larger vocabularies when measured months or even years later - Differences in the __ of gesturing by high- and low-SES families are one factor that influences the SES effects Especially dramatic evidence of intimate connections between gesture and language comes from research on children who have created their own __-based languages - Researchers studies congenitally deaf children whose hearing parents had little or no proficiency in any formal sign language: These reports of language invention provide evidence for the child's contribution to language learning - Children have been taking improved gestural systems that are simple and inconsistent and transforming them into structure much closer to those observed in established languages

blind before; infants; amount gesture These children and their parents created "homesigns" in order to communicate with one another, and the children's gesture vocabulary quickly outstripped that of their parents. The children in the study spontaneously imposed a structure-a rudimentary grammar-on their gestures. Both groups of children used a grammatical structure that occurs in some languages but not those of their parents. As a result, the sign systems of the children were more similar to one another than to those of their parents. The children's signs were also more complex than those of their parents.

Status in the Peer Group: Controversial Children Controversial (peer status): Tend to have characteristics of both __ and __ children -Tend to be aggressive, disruptive, and prone to anger, but also to be cooperative, sociable, good at sports, and funny Very socially active and tend to be group __ Aggressive children sometimes develop a network of aggressive friends and are __ in their peer group, and some elementary school children who start fights are viewed as "cool" in their peer group Tend to be viewed by peers as __ and snobbish, which could explain why they are disliked by some even if they have __ status in the peer group

children or adolescents who are liked by quite a few peers and are disliked by quite a few peers popular; rejected leaders accepted arrogant; high

Theories on the Nature and Emergence of Emotion Determining whether emotions are innate or learned requires knowing whether humans are __ with the ability to experience key emotions - Consequently, research on emotional development tends to focus on __ Discrete emotions theory: - Based on careful observation of facial, verbal, and gestural expressions, Darwin argued that the expressions for certain basic emotional states are __ to the species and therefore are __ across all peoples, including young babies - According to this theory, emotional responses are largely __ and not based on __ - Adherents to this theory point to several aspects of emotional development to support the proposition that emotions are innate and evolved over the course of human evolution - - Infants express a set of recognizable, discrete emotions well before they can be actively __ about them - - Also, __ emotional facial expressions have been observed around the world, including in rome tribes, although cultures vary in how they label these expressions - - Vocalizations of basic emotions such as anger, joy, and sadness are recognizable across very __ cultural groups Functionalist perspective: - Emotions are partly responses to how individuals appraise the __ and whether factors in the environment are promoting or hindering their well-being - Emotions and emotional expressions are thus __ driven: when children want something to stop, they cry, whereas when they want something to continue, they smile and laugh - These appraisal processes most often occur at the __ level in both children and adults; the exceptions occur when children realize that people can fake emotions and that faking emotions can be another way to reach their goals

born; infants a theory in which emotions are viewed as innate, and each emotion has a specific and distinctive set of bodily and facial reactions innate; similar; automatic; cognition; taught; similar; different a theory which argues that the basic function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal; emotions are not discrete from one another and vary somewhat based on the social environment environment; goal; subconscious

Patterns of Gender Development: Cognitive Abilities and Academic Achievement - Spatial Skills __ have tended to perform somewhat better than __ is some aspects of visual-spatial processing - This difference has typically emerged between 3-4 and becomes more substantial during adolescence and adulthood - Gender differences are more pronounced on tasks that involve mental __ of a complex geometric figure in order to decide whether it matches another figure presented in a different orientation; boys have tended to perform somewhat better than girls in that area

boys; girls; rotation

Theory of constructed emotion: - Emotions are made as __ on the spot - Same mechanisms that make emotions also make __ and __ - Brain's way of making sense of __ changes happening in your body - Not reaction to the world, but the construction of the __ of the world

brain's interpretation of how we are feeling, based on its past experience and knowledge needed; thoughts; perceptions; sensory; meaning

Box 11.1 A Closer Look: Does Childcare Interfere with Attachment? Started in 1991, the Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (SECCYD) studied the development of 1364 children from birth to adolescence and kept careful track of their various childcare arrangements in their early years - The study measured (1) __ of children's families and their childcare settings, (2) children's attachment to their __ using the Strange Situation procedure, (3) the __ of their mothers' interactions with them, and (4) their social behavior, cognitive development, and health status - The first important finding was that 15-month-olds in childcare were __ likely to be securely attached to their mothers as were children not in childcare - The same pattern was found with children at 36 months: the number of hours in childcare, the type of childcare, the number of childcare arrangements, the age the child entered childcare, and the quality of childcare __ predict children's security of attachment - Second, the SECCYD found that maternal __ was a very strong predictor of children's attachment security, even when aspects of the children's childcare arrangements and other aspects of the family (income, mother education, mother depressive symptoms) were accounted for - Aspects of childcare were related to attachment security when children experienced risks in __ the childcare and home contexts, namely poor-quality care in the childcare setting and insensitive or unresponsive parenting in the home setting - Additionally, the study found evidence that high-quality childcare can serve a __ function - Specifically, children who had insensitive and unresponsive mothers were more likely to be securely attached to those mothers if they experience __-quality childcare than if they experienced __-quality childcare A study in Chile found that children who attended childcare __ more likely to have insecure attachments or to experience less sensitive parenting that children who did not attend childcare - Similarly, a study comparing links between maternal and nonmaternal care and children's development found __ evidence that children in childcare are less securely attached than other children or that they display less positive behavior in interactions with their mothers - As with the SECCYD findings, the only time that childcare appears to interfere with attachment is when the care is of __ quality

characteristics; mothers; quality; as; didn't; sensitivity; both; compensatory; high; low weren't; no; low

DeLoache et al. (2010) - screen time Hypothesis: Participants: IV: DV: Results:

children learn words better by watching videos designed for infant word-learning 72 12-18 month-olds word-learning condition (parent teaching; video + interaction; video + no interaction; control) percent of target words correctly identified infants learned words best in the parent teaching condition

Status in the Peer Group: Rejected Children Rejected (peer status): Differ in their social motives and in the way they process information related to social situations - More likely than better-liked peers to be motivated by goals such as: Have more trouble finding __ solutions to difficult social situations Tend to be anxious and depressed and to be rated lowest by teachers in their __ competence compared to the other sociometric groups Maybe one reason they're more likely to select inappropriate strategies is that their theory of mind is less __ than that of their better-liked peers; they may therefore have greater difficulty understanding others' feelings and behaviors - A longitudinal study of 5 year olds in Italy found that children with lower theory of mind abilities had lower prosocial behavior one year later and then higher rejection by their peers two years later A majority of rejected children fall into one of two categories: 1. Aggressive-rejected (peer status): - 40-50% of rejected children tend to be aggressive - At risk for becoming __ aggressive over time, and for engaging in delinquent behavior to exhibit symptoms of hyperactivity and attention-deficit disorder, conduct disorder, and substance abuse - Question of whether peer rejected causes problems at school and in adjustment or whether children's maladaptive behavior leads to both peer rejection and problems in adjustment 2. Withdrawn-rejected (peer status): - Make up 10-25% of the rejected category - Frequently __ by peers, and many feel isolated, lonely, and depressed - By middle-to-late elementary school years, children who are highly withdrawn stand out, tend to be disliked, and appear to become increasingly __ from the group over time - As with aggression, social withdrawal may be part of a negative feedback loop: withdrawn children are rejected by their peers, which leads them to withdraw further, and so on

children or adolescents who are liked by few peers and disliked by many peers "getting even" with others or "showing them up" constructive behavioral developed those who are overly aggressive and those who are withdrawn children who are viewed by their peers as especially prone to physical aggression, disruptive behavior, delinquency, and negative behavior such as hostility and threatening others more; rejected children who are socially withdrawn, wary, and often timid victimized; alienated

Status in the Peer Group: Popular Children Popular (peer status): Tend to be skilled at __ interaction with peers and at __ positive relationships with others Perceived by others as cooperative, friendly, sociable, helpful, and sensitive to others Able to __ their own emotions and behaviors and tend to have a relatively high number of __-conflict reciprocated friendships More emotional and behavioral strengths Not necessarily the most likable; rather, have other attributes, such as prestige, athletic ability, physical attractiveness, etc, that give them __ over their peers __ average in aggression and use their aggressiveness to obtain their goals

children or adolescents who are viewed positively by many peers and are viewed negatively by few peers initiating; maintaining regulate; low power above

Mental Health, Stress, and Internalizing Mental Disorders Mental health: - Mental health is a continuum, and children can be at the higher end one day but at the low end another - An individual's mental health becomes a source of concern if one spends many days on the low end of the continuum Mental health is promoted when children have safe and healthy environments as well as supportive and nurturing caregivers - The absence of one or both of these factors increases the risk of the development of stress and related mental health disorders, as do certain genetic predispositions

children's sense of well-being both internally, such as in their emotions and stress levels, and externally, such as in their relationships with family members and peers

Age as a Social Distinction Babies smile more at unfamiliar __ than unfamiliar __ Babies prefer to look at faces of __-age babies Babies at 8-12 months prefer to look at point-light movies of __ who move like they do

children; adults same babies

Box 14.2 Application: School-Based Interventions for Promoting Prosocial Behavior One popular approach is Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports - aims to change the overall school __ and thereby reduce negative behaviors and increase positive behaviors among staff and students - It's based on principles from learning theories, namely, that positive student behavior can be increased by __ it when it does occur and by having staff __ such behavior so that students will in turn imitate it - To achieve these goals, some PBIS schools __ children who are "caught" behaving well; for example, children who are observed spontaneously picking up litter outside school or helping a teacher carry materials are given a voucher for a small prize Research on prevention programs and intervention programs divides the programs into three levels: (1) primary prevention (targeting all children in a setting); (2) secondary prevention (targeting individuals at risk for developing a program; and (3) tertiary intervention (targeting individuals who already exhibit a problem) - Primary prevention is universal and thus aimed at __ children and staff in a school - - Posters that clearly state behavioral expectations are displayed around the school and are aimed directly at the students - - School staff are trained to model appropriate behavior and to praise children when they behave appropriately - Secondary prevention is targeted toward children who are deemed __ __ for problem behavior - - These children are given __ attention, who praise them when they engage in appropriate behavior and provide reminders about expected behavior when they don't - - Projected to target about 15% of the student population, with the goal of reducing problem behavior - Tertiary intervention is focused on children who __ engage in inappropriate, aggressive, or antisocial behavior - - School staff creates an individualized plan for each student at this level; the plan may include interactions with school counselors, special education teachers, and other specialists The effectiveness of PBIS has been evaluated systematically and has found that children in PBIS schools had significantly fewer attention or behavior problems and improved prosocial behavior up to 4 years later

climate; praising; model; reward all; at risk; extra; consistently

Patterns of Gender Development: Cognitive Abilities and Academic Achievement - STEM-Related Skills Until recent decades in the US and many other countries, boys tended to perform somewhat better on standardized tests of mathematical ability than girls - However, the gender gap is math has __ dramatically as a result of efforts made by schools and parents to improve girls' performance - US girls and women have been __ their interest in math beyond high school at rates higher than seen in earlier decades - Girls are also underrepresented in the physical sciences and technological fields Girls are attaining gender equality in the biological and __ sciences

closed; maintaining health

Gender Differences in the Functions of Friendships Girls are more likely than boys to desire __ and dependency in friendships and also to worry about __, loneliness, hurting others, peers' evaluations, and loss of relationships if they express anger - By 12, girls compared with boys, feel that their friendships are more intimate and provide more __, caring, help, and guidance - For instance, girls are more likely than boys to report that they rely on their friends for advice or help with homework, that they and their friends share confidences and stick up for one another, and that their friends tell them that they are good at things and make them feel special - Probably as a consequence of this intimacy, girls also report getting more upset than do boys when friends betray them, are unreliable, or do not provide support and help - Girls also report more friendship-related __, such as when a friend breaks off a friendship or reveals their secrets or problems to other friends, and greater stress from dealing emotionally with stressors that their friends experience - Despite these differences in peer relationship stress, girls' relationships with peers are just as __ as are boys' relationships with peers Girls are also more likely than boys to co-ruminate with their close friends - Compared with their male counterparts, girls who are socially anxious or depressed seem more __ to the anxiety or depressed of their friends - Unfortunately, while providing support, a co-ruminating anxious or depressed friend may also __ the other friend's anxiety or depression, especially in young adolescent girls Girls and boys are less likely to differ in the amount of __ they experience in their best friendships - Boys' and girls' friendships also do not differ much in terms of the __ opportunities they provide although they often differ in the time spent together in various activities

closeness; abandonment; validation; stress; stable susceptible; reinforce conflict; recreational

Bowlby's internal working models

cognitive representations of themselves and other people that they use to interpret events and form expectations about relationships - give idea of how relationships work, which might influence how we expect things to work later in life

Prosocial Behavior: The Development In displaying empathy, children in the second year of life also more likely to try to __ someone who is upset than to __ upset themselves, indicating that they know who it is that is suffering - For example, researchers in one study observed an 18-month-old girl who got visibly upset by a crying baby; she responded by bringing offerings of toys and cookies to the baby and by trying to get her own mothers to help soothe the child In the 2-4 years, some types of prosocial behaviors increase, while others decrease - In one study, 2-, 3-, and 4-year-olds were equally likely to help an adult get something that was out of reach: - Cooperation is another form of prosocial behavior, one that may be driven by sympathy but may also be driven by a child's sense of fairness - - In a lab experiment, children as young as 14 months were able to cooperate with another child or an adult to reach a goal that would __ them both, such as getting prizes - - In a display of a different type of cooperation, children also tended to divide prizes __ if they were initially given to the children unevenly - - - In contrast, when researchers repeated this division task with chimps, the chimps' interactions were characterized by competition rather than cooperation As children age through middle childhood and into adolescence, their increasingly higher levels of moral reasoning and of their perspective-taking ability lead to accompanying __ in how often they engage in prosocial behaviors such as helping, sharing, and donating

comfort; become There were no statistically significant age differences for sharing stickers or food with an adult who did not have any. However, 3- and 4-year-olds were much more likely than 2-year-olds to provide assistance or verbal reassurance to adults who were emotionally distressed because they had broken a toy or hurt themselves. This finding suggests that young children may not be able to act on their feelings of sympathy when others are distressed until they are 3, in part because that's the age when they begin to understand social norms. benefit; evenly increases

The Role of Technology in Friendships The potential for communication through technology to enhance friendships has been confirmed by research - A longitudinal study involving 700 Dutch children ages 10-17 found that the more they used instant messaging, the more __ they were introducing themselves to new people and suggesting to new friends that they hang out sometime Given youths' tremendous use of digital technologies for their social interactions, social and behavioral scientists, as well as parents, have expressed concern about the effects that these modes of communication may have on social development-and especially on social relationships; two major perspectives have guided research on this issue 1. One view is the __ hypothesis, which proposed that those youths who already have good social skills benefit from the Internet and related forms of technology when it comes to developing friendships - In support, a study of Palestinian youth found that individuals with __ of friends in their off-line lives tended to have large online social networks as well - Moreover, youths who were better adjusted at 13-14 use social networking __ at ages 20-22 and exhibit a similarity in their online and offline social competence (in peer relationships, friendship quality, adjustment) - By contrast, youth who are shy or withdrawn tend to __ vent anger online, which impairs further interactions with peers - Thus, socially competent people may __ most from the Internet because they are more likely to interact in appropriate and positive ways when engaged in social networking 2. The competing hypothesis, the social-compensation hypothesis, argues that social media may be especially __ for lonely, depressed, and socially anxious adolescents - Specifically, because they can take their time thinking about and __ what they say and reveal in their messages, these youths may be more likely to make personal disclosures online than offline, which eventually fosters the formation of new friendships - Lonely and socially anxious youths seem to __ online communication over face-to-face communication - Evidence also suggests that youths with high levels of depressive symptoms use online communication to make friends and to express their feelings, and that such use is associated with less depression for youths with low-quality best friend relationships

comfortable rich-get-richer; lots; more; inappropriately; benefit; beneficial; revising; prefer

Putting Words Together: Conversational Skills A crucial aspect of becoming a good conversational partner is the pragmatic development that allows children to understand how language is used to __ - Such understanding allows listeners to go beyond the words they are hearing to grasp their actual __-as in instances of rhetorical questioning, sarcasm, irony, etc - Over the course of the preschool years, children learn to take the __ of their conversational partner - Kindergarten-age listeners are able to make use of a conversational partner's perspective to figure out what the partner __, and to provide a pertinent response - For example, by considering what information is relevant to the conversation the partner does or doesn't __ - They also learn to use information other than words to read between the lines in a conversation - For example, older preschoolers can exploit the vocal affect of an ambiguous statement to figure out a speaker's intention: - In a more difficult task, in which children's emotional responses in a game conflicted with adults' emotional responses, 4-year-olds were nevertheless able to make use of the adults' __ to adjust their strategies in the game The development of conversational perspective-taking ability is related to children's level of __ function; as children become more able to control their tendency to assume their own perspective, it becomes easier for them to take the perspective of a conversational partner - Several recent studies suggest that children's own experiences with language influence their ability to take other people's __ in communication settings - In tasks that require participants to take the experimenter's perspective, infants and young children who are monolingual perform __ that those who are bilingual-and also __ than those who, while not bilingual themselves, live in multilingual environments - Bilingual children are also better at __ to the needs of their communication partner than monolingual children - Living in a diverse linguistic environment may attune children to the challenges of communication-and the need to take others' perspective in order to effectively communicate-in a way that monolingual environments do not

communicate; meaning; perspective; means; have When presented with two dolls-one intact, the other broken-and directed to "Look at the doll," 4-year-olds looked at the intact doll when the instruction was given with positive affect, and at the broken doll when the instruction was given with negative affect perspective executive; perspective; worse; worse; adapting

The Role of Technology in Friendships Internet-based communication technologies appear to facilitate __ among existing friends, allowing them to maintain and enhance the closeness of their relationships - In existing friendships, online communication seems to foster self-__, which enhances friendship quality - Many adolescents tend to use social-networking sites to connect with people they know offline and to __ these preexisting relationships - Similarly, the use of instant messaging has been associated with an increase in the __ of adolescents' existing friendships over time In contrast, high levels of Internet use primarily for entertainment (playing games, surfing) or for communication with strangers can __ the quality of friendships and predicts increases in anxiety and depression

communication; disclosure; strengthen; quality harm

Self-esteem: Sources of Self-Esteem One is age: an individual's self-esteem is not __ and varies by __ stage - Self-esteem tends to be high in childhood before __ in adolescence and then __ in adulthood Physical attributes are also linked with self-esteem Gender is another source - Studies in 48 countries have established that boys tend to have __ overall self-esteem than girls, and that this tendency persists across the life span - Although this gender difference has been found for overall self-esteem, it may be that females have higher self-esteem than males in certain __ - A meta-analysis of studies examining domain-specific self-esteem found that males have higher self-esteem than females in the domains of athletics, personal appearance, and self-satisfaction, whereas females were higher in the domains of behavioral conduct and moral-ethical self-esteem - No gender differences were found in self-esteem related to academic performance, which suggests that although girls may have lower self-esteem in some domains, this does not __ them from seeing themselves as able to do well in school Perhaps the most important influence is the approval they receive from __, particularly their parents

constant; developmental; declining; rebounding higher; domains; prevent

The Self: Self-Concept in Childhood Children begin to refine their conceptions of self in elementary school, in part because they increasingly engage in social __ - Social comparison: - At the same time, they increasingly pay attention to __ between their own and others' performance on tasks ("She got an A on the test and I only got a C") By middle to late elementary school, children's conceptions of self are becoming __ and more broadly encompassing - The developmental changes in older children's self-concept reflect cognitive advances in their ability to use higher-order concepts that integrate more specific behavioral features of the self - In addition, older children can coordinate __ self-representations ("smart" and "dumb") that, at a younger age, they would have considered __ __ - This new cognitive capacity to form higher-order conceptions of the self allows older children to construct more __ views of themselves and to evaluate themselves as a person __ - - These abilities result in a more balanced and realistic assessment of the self, although they also can result in feelings of inferiority and helplessness - Schoolchildren's self-concepts are increasingly based on __ evaluations of them, especially those of their peers - - Consequently, their self-descriptions often contain a pronounced __ element and focus on characteristics that may influence their place in their social networks - Because older school-age children's conceptions of self are strongly influenced by the opinions of others, children at this age are vulnerable to low self-esteem if others view them negatively or as less competent than their peers

comparison the process of comparing aspects of one's own psychological, behavioral, physical functioning to that of others in order to evaluate oneself discrepancies integrated; opposing; mutually exclusive; global; overall; others'; social

Sources of Variation in Parenting Styles 1. Children themselves - Parents who are more authoritative have children that are more __/less behavior problems - Mothers of easy babies were asked to take care of conduct-disordered kids, and they developed more __ and __ behaviors with those kids compared to their easy kids 2. SES - Family-distress model: - No money -> economic distress -> bad mood in caregiver -> conflict in home -> less involved parenting/high emotional reactivity -> emotional insecurity -> antisocial/adjustment problems - Nature of parents' jobs: - Extent that there a little resources, you cannot afford safer places to live: 3. Culture - study of Chinese and US parents: - - Greater presence of long-standing values about obeying - some parenting styles are adaptive

compliant; negative; controlling economic disadvantage is stressful and can create challenges for a family Larger percentage are blue-collar workers, where more obedience to authority is required Adaptive to be controlling over child to keep them safe Asian kids do just fine despite "authoritarian parenting"

The Self: Self-Concept in Childhood At 3-4, children understand themselves in terms of __, __ characteristics related to physical attributes ("I have blue eyes"), physical activities and abilities ("I can run real fast"), and psychological traits ("I'm never scared!") - For example, even when the child made a general statement about themself ("I'm really strong"), this statement was closely tied to actual __ (lifting a chair) - Young children also describe themselves in terms of their __ ("yummy spaghetti") and __ ("I have...a kitty...and a television") - Another characteristic typical of children's self-concept during the preschool years: their self-appraisals are unrealistically __ - - These overly positive views of themselves are not attempts to lie or brag but rather are a result of __ limitations; rather, young children seem to think that they are really like what they want to be

concrete; observable; behavior; preferences; possessions; confident; cognitive

Child Development and Parenting - Parents' Work Contexts The fact that many more mothers work now than in past generations means that many more families may be susceptible to work-family __ - In 1955, only __% of mothers with children younger than 6 were employed outside the home; in 2018, 58% of mothers with infants younger than 1 year, 65% of mothers with children younger than 6, and 76% of mothers with children aged 6-17 worked outside the home - These changes in the rates of maternal employment reflect a variety of factors, including greater acceptance of mothers working outside the home, more workplace opportunities for women, and an increase in women who obtain college and graduate degrees, most of whom work The dramatic rise in the number of mothers working outside the home raised a variety of concerns - Some experts predicted that maternal employment, especially an infant's first year, would seriously diminish the __ of maternal caregiving and that the mother-child relationship would suffer accordingly - Others worried that "__" children who were left to their own devices after school would get into serious trouble, academically and socially Taken as a whole, the research (does/does not) support the idea that maternal employment has negative effects on children's development - Even in the area of greatest debate-the effects of maternal employment on infants in their first year of life-when negative relations between maternal work and children's cognitive or social behavior have been found, the results have not been __ across studies, ethnic groups, or the type of analyses applied to the data - For example, some research suggests that early maternal employment is associated with better adjustment at age 7 for children in low-income African American families, whereas no such effect was found for those in a study of low-income Latino American families - Studies of maternal employment extending beyond infancy also reveal __ variation in the effects that maternal employment can have on children's development - For instance, a study of 3- to 5-year-olds found that those whose mother worked a night shift tended to exhibit __ aggressive behavior, anxiety, and depressive symptoms than did the children whose mothers worked a typical daytime schedule

conflict; 18 quality; latchkey does not; consistent; contextual; more

Identity In the course of adolescence and early childhood, individuals generally progress slowly toward identity achievement - They most typical sequences of change appear to be from diffusion to foreclosure to achievement OR from diffusion to moratorium to foreclosure to achievement - There's little evidence that many adolescents have the kind of sustained identity __ that Erikson maintained could lead to severe psychological disturbance Researchers generally have found that, at least in modern Western societies, the identity status of adolescents and young adults is related to their adjustment, social behavior, and personality, with identity achievement being most closely associated with mental health and positive __ outcome - Those who have made a commitment, whether through foreclosure or identity achievement, tend to be low in depression and anxiety, and high in personality characteristics of extraversion and agreeableness - sYoung adults who explore possible commitments more in depth than in breadth tend to be extroverted, agreeable, and conscientious, whereas those who explore more in breadth tend to be prone to __ emotionality but open to experiences A number of factors influence adolescents' identity formation - One key factor is the approach parents take with their offspring - - Adolescents who experience warmth and __ from parents tend to have a more mature identity and less identity confusion - - Parents tend to reach with support when young college students explore in depth and make identity commitments, and this support may reinforce their children's choices - - Youths who are subject to parental psychological control tend to explore in __ and are lower in making __ to an identity - Identity formation is also influenced by both the larger social context and the historical context - - Until a few decades ago, for instance, most adolescent girls focused their search for identity on the goal of marriage and family

confusion social; negative support; breadth; commitment

Word Learning: Children's Contributions When confronted with new words, children exploit the __ in which the word was used in order to infer its meaning Theorists have proposed that children are guided by a number of assumptions about the possible meanings of a new word For example, children expect that a given entity will have only one __ (mutual exclusivity) - Early evidence for this assumption came from a study in which 3-year-olds saw pairs of objects-a familiar object for which the children had a name and an unfamiliar one for which they had no name: - Bilingual and trilingual infants, who are accustomed to hearing more than one name for a given object, are __ likely to follow the mutual exclusivity assumption in word learning and, unlike monolingual infants, are unsurprised when an object has more than one name Another useful constraint on word learning is the whole-object assumption: Pragmatic cues: - For example, children uses an adult's focus of attention as a cue to word meaning - In a study, an experimenter showed 18-month-olds two novel objects and then concealed them in separate containers: - Infants can use an adult's emotional response to infer the name of a novel object that they cannot see: - If an adult's labeling of an object conflicts with a child's knowledge of that object, they will nevertheless accept the label if the adult clearly used it intentionally:

context name When the experimenter said, "Show me the blicket," the children mapped the novel label to the novel object, the one for which they had no name. less children expect a novel word to refer to a whole object rather than to a part, property, action, or other aspect of the object aspects of the social context used for word learning Next, the experimenter peeked into one of the containers and commented, "There's a modi in here." The adult then removed and gave both objects to the child. When asked for the "modi," the children picked the object that the experimenter has been looking at when saying the label. In a study, an adult announced her intention to "find the gazeer". She then picked up one of two objects and showed obvious disappointment with it. When she gleefully seized the second object, the infants inferred that it was a gazzer. When an experimenter simply used the label "dog" in referring to a picture of a catlike animal, preschool children were reluctant to extend the label to other catlike stimuli, or to learn a new word from this "untrustworthy" adult. However, they were much more willing to do so when the experimenter made it clear that he really intended his use of the unexpected label by saying, "You're not going to believe this, but this is actually a dog.".

Continuity/Discontinuity of Individual Differences Basic question is whether children who initially are higher or lower than most peers in some quality __ to be higher or lower in that quality years later - Many individual differences in psychological properties are moderately __ over the course of development, but the stability is always far from 100% -Ex: development of intelligence - Some stability is present from infancy onward - The faster that infants habituate to repeated presentation of the same display, the higher their IQ scores tend to be 10 or more years later Infants' patterns of electrical brain activity are related to their speed of processing and attention regulation 10 years later The amount of stability __ with age - When the same children take IQ tests at 8 and 17, the two scores differ on average by 9 points Individual differences in social and __ characteristics also show some continuity over time - The continuity also carries over into situations quite different from any that the children faces at the earlier time; - Although there is some continuity, the degree is generally __ than in intellectual development Aspects of __ such as fearfulness and shyness often change considerably over the course of early and middle childhood - Regardless of the focus, the stability of individual differences is influenced by the stability of the __ - An infant's attachment to their mother correlates positively with their long-term security, but the correlation is higher if the home environment is consistent than if serious disruptions occur

continue; stable increases personality; lower temperament; environment

Theme 3: Development is Both Continuous and Discontinuous Social-learning theorists thinking that development is __ Stage theorists think it is __ Two particularly important issues in the debate involve the (dis)continuity of __ differences and the (dis)continuity of the __ course of development with age

continuous discontinuous individual; standard

The Self: Self-Concept in Adolescence In their middle teens, adolescents often begin to agonize over the __ in their behavior and characteristics - They tend to become introspective and concerned with the question "Who am I?" - Although adolescents in their middle teens can identify contradictions in themselves, such as being different with friends than with parents, and often feel conflicted about these inconsistencies, most still do not have the cognitive skills needed to __ their recognition of these contradictions into a coherent self-concept In late adolescence and early adulthood, the individual's conception of self becomes both more integrated and less determined by what __ think Older adolescents' conceptions of self frequently reflect __ personal values, beliefs, and standards - Many of them were instilled by others in the child's life but are not __ and generated by adolescents as their own - Thus, older adolescents place less emphasis on what other people think than they did at younger ages and are more concerned with meeting their __ standards and with their future self-what they are becoming or who they are going to be Older adolescents are also more likely to have the cognitive capacity to integrate opposites or __ in the self that occur in different contexts or at different times - They may explain contradictory characteristics in terms of the need to be __, and they may view variations in their behaviors with different people as "adaptive" because one cannot act the same with everyone - They may integrate changes in emotion under the characteristic "moody" Whether older adolescents are able to successfully integrate contradictions in themselves likely depends not only on their own cognitive capacities but also on the __ they receive from parents, teachers, and others in understanding the complexity of personalities - The support and tutelage of others in this regard allow adolescents to __ values, beliefs, and standards that they feel committed to and to feel comfortable with who they are

contradictions; integrate others internalized; accepted; own contradictions; flexible help; internalize

Comparisons of Girls and Boys Researchers generally recognize four levels of effect sizes: negligible (trivial) if the two distributions overlap more than 85%; small but meaningful if the distributions overlap 67-85%; medium if the distributions overlap 53-66%; and large if the overlap is less than 53% Across different research studies, __ findings are common regarding gender differences or similarities in particular outcomes Because statistically significant gender differences in cognitive abilities and social behaviors are often in the small range of effect size, Hyde has advocated for the gender similarities hypothesis, which argues that when comparing girls and boys, it's important to appreciate that similarities far __ differences on most attributes

contradictory outweigh

The Self: Self-Concept in Infancy There is compelling evidence that infants have a rudimentary self-concept in the first months of life - By 2-4 months, infants have a sense of their ability to __ objects outside themselves - - In one study, infants clearly demonstrated a sense of self in the enthusiasm they displayed when making a mobile move by pulling a string attached to their arm and in the anger displayed when their efforts no longer have an effect Infants also seem to have some understanding of their own bodily __ Self-concept becomes much more distinct at about 8 months - According to attachment theory, this is the age when infants react with separation distress if kept apart from a parent, suggesting that they recognize that they and their mother are __ entities - This, the development of self-concept is the first necessary step in the development of __ to a caregiver Around 1 year, infants begin to show __ __ with respect to objects in the environment - For example, they will visually follow a caregiver's pointing finger to find the object that the caregiver is calling attention to, and then turn back to the caregiver to confirm that they are indeed looking at the intended object - They sometimes will also __ objects to an adult in an apparent effort to engage the adult in their activities - By 15 months, most children are able to distinguish themselves and others by both __ and __

control movements separate; attachment joint attention; give; gender; age

The Growth of Play By elementary school years, play becomes even more complex and social - It begins to include activities such as sports and board games, which have __ rules that participants must follow Pretend play is often thought of as limited to early childhood, but it actually continues far __ that time In addition to being fun, pretend play may expand children's understanding of the __ world - Children who engage in greater amounts of pretend play tend to show greater understanding of other people's __ and __ - The type of pretend play in which children engage also matters: social pretend play is more strongly related to understanding other people's thinking than is nonsocial pretend play - Preschools also learn from watching others' pretend play - Such evidence has led some experts in the area to conclude that high levels of pretend play are __ related to increased social understanding

conventional beyond social; thinking; emotions; causally However, a comprehensive review of studies of pretend play found limited evidence for such a causal relation. Instead, both frequent pretend play and high levels of social understanding may be caused by parents who promote both. Moreover, some children with high social skills simply enjoy engaging in pretend play and thinking about other people (an example of how children shape their own development through their activities).

Bridge Apartment Study, NYC, 1973 Background: Apartment building in NYC built on top of a freeway Finding: Controlling for everything (family income, parental education, etc), they find that what floor you live on is __ with language/cognitive skills - Those who live higher up on the building (controlling for SES!) have __ vocabulary skills Explanation: Could be that __ pollution may constantly reduce access to hearing phonetic details, phonological awareness

correlated; higher noise

Mental Health, Stress, and Internalizing Mental Disorders: Depression Both nature and nurture influence whether a child experiences depression - On the side of nature, children and adolescents with depression tend to have elevated levels of the stress hormone __ and to exhibit differences in brain __ and function, compared with their peers who are not depressed - - Depression also has a __ component: it often runs in families - - The heritability of depression is 40%; that is, an individual's genetic makeup __ 40% of the likelihood that he or she will experience depression - On the nurture side, a variety of __ factors likely also contribute to depression in youth - - In particular, low levels of parental sensitivity, support, or acceptance and high levels of parental __ have been linked with higher levels of depressive symptoms in children - - Depressed parents are more likely than nondepressed parents to be insensitive and disengaged, yielding an environmental pathway through which parent depression __ the likelihood of child depression - - ACEs are also risk factors for depression, as are stressful life events - Depression also has a cognitive component - - Depressed children and adolescents tend to have __ expectations about social relationships and see themselves, rather than external or chance events, as causing negative events - Depressed individuals also tend to __ extensively about negative events in their lives - Research to date has not yet been able to determine whether these cognitive factors precede depression or are consequences of it Depressed children and adolescents tend to have problems in their relationships with their peers, but there is evidence that such problems are both a cause and an outcome of depression - For example, the more children are victimized by their peers, the more likely they are to develop depression, but it is also true that children with depression are more likely to be victimized by their peers

cortisol; structure; genetic; explains; family; negativity; increases unrealistic; ruminate

Box 14.1 A Closer Look: Cultural Contributions to Children's Prosocial Tendencies The amount of prosocial behavior that children display can be influenced by the particular __ of which they are a part - For example, children from traditional communities and subcultures are more likely to __ on lab tasks that are children from urban Westernized groups - Similar patterns have been found in observations of children interacting at home and in their neighborhoods: children in traditional societies in Kenya, Mexico, and the Philippines helped, shared, and offered support to others in their families and communities more than did children in the US, India, and Japan - More recent studies have found that disparities in prosocial behavior are not as __ for children living in collectivist versus individualistic societies - - A study of 5-12 year olds in five countries found that __ was a better predictor of generosity than culture: older children were more generous than younger children across all five countries - - This finding confounds past arguments that children from collectivist cultures should share more than children from individualistic cultures There may be cultural differences in the people toward whom children's caring behavior is directed - In a study of children ranging from 3-11, children in the Philippines were more prosocial toward __ than toward __, whereas children in the US were more prosocial toward nonrelatives than toward relatives - Children in both cultures were more prosocial toward infants and toddlers than toward older children and adults Even in various industrial societies today, there are differences in cultural values regarding prosocial behavior - For instance, Mexican American youths are more prosocial if they espouse the traditional Mexican value of familialism rather than mainstream US norms of individualism In contrast to the US's emphasis on self and competition, Chinese and Japanese cultures traditionally place great emphasis on teaching children to share and to be responsible for the needs of others in the group - However, the traditional emphasis on prosocial behavior in many Asian cultures seems to be eroding, perhaps due to increasing economic modernization and exposure to Western culture and values: Asian children have not been found to be more prosocial than Western children in several relatively recent studies

culture; cooperate; strong; age relatives; nonrelatives

Box 13.3 A Closer Look: Cyberbully Rates of cyberbullying are highest in 9th grade and slowly __ throughout high school LGBTQ students are __ as likely as straight students to be cyberbullied Teens are frequently the perpetrators, with 12% of students in another survey admitting that they have cyberbullied someone Cyberbullies tend to believe aggression is an __ way to solve problems and to be high in moral disengagement - A study of more than 16,000 youth in Finland found that cyberbullying is more common in classrooms where students are accepting of bullying in general Cybervictims tend to be high in social anxiety, psychological distress, and symptoms of depression, as well as to have __ tendencies, poor anger management, and problems at school - However, many cybervictims are also cyberperpetrators, perhaps in retaliation or as self-protection

decline twice acceptable aggressive

Divorced Parents Compared with their peers in intact families, children of divorce are more likely to experience __ and sadness, have __ self-esteem, and be __ socially responsible and competent Children of divorce, especially boys, are prone to __ problem behaviors such as aggression and antisocial behavior, both __ after the divorce and years later Problems such as these may contribute to the drop in __ achievement that children of divorce often exhibit Divorce can also lead to an exacerbation of conflict between parents about __ or __ decisions - Adolescents who feel caught up in their divorced parents' conflict are at __ risk for having mental health problems and behavior problems Most children whose parents divorce do not suffer significant, __ problems as a consequence - Although divorce usually is a very painful experience for children, the differences between children from divorced families and children from intact families in terms of their psychological and social functioning are __ overall - Divorce may also result in positive outcomes, particularly if the parents were engaged in high levels of conflict while married - High levels of warmth from either parent can also __ children from the effects of conflict during the divorce transition

depression; lower; less externalizing; soon academic finances; parenting; increased enduring; small; buffer

Patterns of Gender Development: Physical Growth: Prenatal Development Through Adolescence - Childhood and Adolescence Puberty: - Menarche: - Spermarche: Considerable variability in physical maturation due to both genetic and environmental factors - Genes affect growth and sexual maturation in large part by influencing the production of __, especially growth hormone and thyroxin - The influence of environmental factors is particularly evident in the changes in physical development that have occurred over generations With the changes in body composition that occur in early adolescence, particularly the substantial increase in muscle mass in boys, the gender gap in __ and __ skills greatly increases - Greater gender inequalities have occurred in societies when __ subsistence favored physical strength and disadvantaged nursing and childcare The physical changes experienced during puberty are accompanied by psychological and behavioral changes - Body image: - Another changes is the onset of sexual attraction, which usually begins before the physical process of puberty is complete - - According to a sample of adults in the US, sexual attraction is first experiences at about age 10-regardless of whether the attraction was for individuals of the other sex or the same sex - - The onset of sexual attraction __ with the maturation of the adrenal glands, which are the major source of sex steroids other than the testes and ovaries - Adrenarche:

developmental period marked by the ability to reproduce and other dramatic bodily changes onset of menstruation onset of capacity for ejaculation hormones physical; motor; economic an individual's perception of, and feelings about, their own body correlates period prior to the emergence of visible signs of puberty during which the adrenal glands matures, providing a major source of sex steroid hormones; correlates with the onset of sexual attraction

Measuring Temperament For example, researchers have found that children with different temperaments exhibit __ in the variability of their heart rates - Heart-rate variability-how much an individual's heart rate normally fluctuates-is believed to reflect, in part, the way the central nervous system responds to novel situations and the individual's ability to regulate emotion Another commonly used physiological measure of temperament is EEG recordings of __-lobe activity - Activation of the left frontal lobe of the cortex as measured with an EEG has been associated with approach behavior, positive affect, exploration, and sociability - Activation of the right frontal lobe has been linked to withdrawal, a state of uncertainty, fear, and anxiety - When confronted with novel stimuli, situations, or challenges, infants and children who show greater right frontal activation on the EEG are more likely to react with __ and avoidance, whereas individuals who show left frontal activation are more likely to exhibit a __, often happy mood and an eagerness to engage in new experiences or challenges The key advantage of parents' reports of temperament is that parents have extensive knowledge of their children's behavior in many different __ - One important disadvantage of this method is that parents may not always be __ in their observations, as suggested by the fact that their reports sometimes don't correspond with what it found using lab measures - Another disadvantage is that many parents do not have wide knowledge of other children's behavior to use as a basis for comparison when reporting on their own children; what is irritability to some parents, for example, may be near-placidness to others The key advantage of lab observational data is that such data are less likely to be biased than is an adult's personal view of the child - A key disadvantage is that children's behavior usually in observed in only a limited set of __, and thus lab-based measures of temperament may not have external validity; Consequently, lab observational measures may reflect a child's mood or behavior at a given moment, in a particular context, rather than the totality of the child's temperament Temperament is considered to be relatively __ across time and across situations - Using parents' ratings on the Infant Behavior Questionnaire, only study found that an infant's level on each dimension of temperament is considerably stable across the first year of life but that there is some evidence of change over time as well - Across early childhood, children who are prone to more anger and distress than their peers at age 3 tend to be more angry and distressed than their peers at ages 6 and 8; those prone to display happiness remain relatively happy across the same age range But, temperament can and does change over time - Children aged 3-6 have much __ stable temperaments than do children aged 0-3 - There is now some evidence that some aspects of temperament may not emerge until childhood or adolescence and may change considerably at different ages

differences frontal; anxiety; relaxed situations; objective circumstances consistent more

Mental Health, Stress, and Internalizing Mental Disorders: Treatment of Internalizing Mental Disorders Drug therapy is a common treatment for depression in children and adolescents; however, the drugs typically used to treat children and adolescents (serotonin reuptake inhibitors, or SRIs) are __ from the class of drugs used to treat depression in adults (tricyclic antidepressants) - Significant concerns have been raised about the possibility that antidepressants may __ the risk of suicidal thinking and suicidal behavior among some adolescents A psychotherapeutic approach known as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has been found to be very __ in treating both depression and anxiety in children - In CBT, children learn to __ when they are having maladaptive thoughts and learn ways to actively __ those thoughts and their reactions to them - CBT has been found to be __ effective at reducing anxiety symptoms than other forms of treatment - CBT is as effective in treating depression as drug therapy, and the combination of CBT and drug therapy can be particularly effective in reducing depressive symptoms Although effective therapies exist for both depression and anxiety, unfortunately many children and adolescents with these disorders do not receive treatment - In the US, only __% of adolescents aged 12-17 with depression receive any mental health treatment - Children living in disadvantaged families are also less likely to receive any mental health treatment - There is a general __ of children's mental health care providers in the US - The good news is that children and youth with mental health problems as a result of exposure to ACEs, but who receive services experience __ several domains, including decreases in their behavior problems and internalizing problems, as well as improvements in school attendance and school performance

different; increase effective; recognize; modify; more 39; shortage; improvements

Patterns of Gender Development: Aggressive Behavior - Explanations for Gender Differences in Aggression Brain and hormonal influences - On average, males have higher baseline levels of testosterone than females, but there doesn't appear to be a __ association between aggression and baseline testosterone levels - However, there's an indirect one: the body increased its production of testosterone in response to perceived __ and challenges, and this increase can lead to more aggressive behavior - People who are impulsive and less inhibited are more likely to perceive the behavior of others as __ - Thus, because boys have more difficulty __ emotional arousal, they may be more prone to engage in direct aggression Cognitive and motivational influences - Average gender differences in empathy and prosocial behavior may be related to differences in boys' and girls' rates of aggression - Direct aggression may be more likely among children who are less __ and have fewer __ skills - The gender-typed social norms and goals regarding __ and __ may further contribute to the average gender difference in conflict and aggression Parental and other adult influences - More parents and adults disapprove of physical aggression in both genders - After the preschool years, however, adults tend to be more __ of aggression in boys: - Parenting style may also factor into children's manifestations of aggression - - Children who experience harsh, inconsistent parenting may learn to mistrust others and make __ attributions about other people's intentions - - The association between harsh parenting and later physical aggression is stronger for __

direct; threats; threatening; regulating empathetic; prosocial; assertion; affiliation tolerant In an experience, researchers asked people to watch a short film of two children engaged in rough play and to rate the level of the play's aggressiveness; some viewers were told that both children were boys, others that both were girls, and others than one was of each. Viewers who thought that both children were boys rated their play as much less aggressive than viewers who thought both were girls. hostile; boys

Understanding Real and False Emotions An important component in the development of emotional understanding is the realization that the emotions people express do not necessarily reflect their true feelings - The beginnings of this realization are seen in 3-year-olds' occasional (and usually transparent) attempts to mask their negative emotions when they receive a __ gift or prize By age 5, children's understanding of false emotion has improved considerably - In one study, a group of 3- to 5-year-olds were presented with stories that involved children feeling emotions but wanting to hide them: - Studies with both Japanese and Western children also confirm that between 4-6 years of age, children increasingly understand that people can be __ by others' facial expressions Part of the improvement in understanding false emotion involves a growing understanding of __ rules - Display rules: - Sometimes require that children express an emotion that is not matched with their __ emotion - Two main strategies for engaging in display rules are __ an emotion, typically in order to be nice to someone else (such as pretending to love an aunt's cooking), and __ an emotion as a self-protective measure (such as pretending not to be afraid of an approaching bully) - Displaying __-appropriate emotions and avoiding __ emotions are key to successful social interactions

disappointing After the children were questioned to ensure that they understood each story, they were presented with illustrations of various emotional expressions and given instructions such as "Show me the picture for how Michelle really feels" and "Show me the picture for how Michelle will try to look on her face." Although only half of 3- and 4-year-olds chose the appropriate pictures for four or more of the stories, more than 80% of 5-year-olds chose correctly. These findings suggest that the younger children did not appreciate that someone could express one emotion while feeling another, whereas the older children did. misled display a social group's informal norms about when, where, and how much one should show emotions and when and where displays of emotions should be suppressed or masked by displays of other emotions felt; simulating; masking; context; uncontrolled

Child Development and Parenting - Cultural Contexts Parents' beliefs about what constitutes optimal child development, as well as their decisions about how to behave with and discipline their children, have a strong basis in their culture - Culture reflects the beliefs and practices that are linked with a family's country, religion, ethnic group, race, or similar group or affiliation - In the US, much cross-cultural research on families has been focused on cultural similarities and differences between ethnic and racial groups Research into cultural influences on child development has tended to look at two aspects of parenting: the degree to which parents in different cultures engage in specific __ practices, and the degree to which similar parental behaviors affect child __ across different cultures Some studies have looked at differences across racial and ethnic groups within the US - For example, several studies have found that African American parents spank their children __ often than European American, Latino American, and Asian American parents do, and in some surveys African American parents are __ as likely as European American and Latino American parents to say they spank their children regularly Several studies have investigated whether parents around the world use similar methods of discipline with their children - A study of families in eight countries found that mothers and children in each of the countries reported high levels of __ discipline, such as inductive reasoning, and of parental warmth, which suggests that both positive discipline and warm parenting were __ by parents across cultures - Also found similarity across all eight countries in the extent to which children who were high in prosocial behavior __ more positive discipline and warmth from their parents over time; this study focused on children 9 and 10, and it may be that positive parenting plays its strongest role in promoting prosocial behavior __ that age, such that the parental effect is evident before adolescence, and then the effect of the child's prosocial behavior on positive parenting comes later Another study found both cross-country similarities and differences in how mothers reported using a variety of discipline techniques - Mothers in all six countries reported __ children about good and bad behavior very often, with most averaging between once a week and almost every day; the mothers in this international sample were also similar in the method they used least often-that is, __ __ - For the four types of punishment, there was more variation: mothers in Italy were much more likely to yell or scold than were mothers from other countries; mothers from Kenya were much more likely to threaten punishment and to use physical punishment; and mothers from the Philippines were more likely to say they would talk away privileges

disciplinary; outcomes more; twice positive; favored; elicited; before teaching; love withdrawal

Word Segmentation: - Infants begin this process during the second half of the __ year The first demonstration of infant word segmentation focused on 7-month-old infants: How do infants find words in pause-free speech? - They are good at picking up __ in their native language that help them to find word boundaries One example is stress patterning, an element of prosody - In English, the first syllable in two-syllable words is much more likely to be stressed than the second syllable - By 8 months, English-learning infants expect stressed syllables to begin words and can use this information to pull words out of fluent speech Distributional properties: - Sensitivity to such regularities in the speech stress was demonstrated in a series of statistical learning experiments: The most salient regularity for infants is their own __ - Infants as young as 4.5 months will listen __ to repetitions of their own name than to repetitions of a different name - Just a few weeks later, they can pick their own name out of background conversations - This ability helps them to find new words in the speech stream Over time, infants recognize more and more familiar words, making it easier to pluck new ones out of the speech that they hear Infants are exceptional in their ability to identify __ in the speech surrounding them - They start out with the ability to make crucial distinctions among speech sounds but then narrow their focus to the sounds and sound patterns that make a __ in their native language

discovering where words begin and end in fluent speech first First, the babies listened to passages in which a particular word recurred. They were then tested using a head-turn preferential looking procedure to see whether they recognized the words that had been repeated in the sentences. In this method, flashing lights mounted near two loudspeakers located on either side of an infant are used to draw the infant's attention to one side or the other. When the infant turns to look at the light, sounds are played through the speaker on that side, continuing as long as the infant is looking in that direction. The length of time the infant spends looking at the light-and hence listening to the sound-provides a measure of the degree to which the infant is attracted to that sound. - Infants were tested on repetitions of words that had been presented in the sentences or words that had not - The researchers found that infants listened longer to words that they had heard in passages of fluent speech, as compared with words that never occurred in the passages - This result indicates that the infants were able to pull the words out of the stream of speech regularities in any language, certain sounds are more likely to occur together than are others The infants listened to a 2-minute recording of four different three-syllable "words" repeated in random order with no pauses between the "words". Then, on a series of test trials, the babies were presented with the "words" they had heard or with sequences that were not words. Using the preferential-listening test, the researchers found that infants discriminated between the words and the sequences that were not words. To do so, the babies must have registered that certain syllables often occurred together in the sample of speech they heard. Thus, the infants used predictable sound patterns to fish words out of the passing stream of speech. name; longer patterns; difference

Antisocial behavior: Aggression: Aggression emerges quite early - Instances of aggression over __ objects occur between infants before 12 months-especially behaviors such as trying to tug objects away from each other-but most do not involve bodily contact - Beginning around 18 months, __ aggression-particularly over the possession of objects-is normative in development and increases in frequency until 2-3 years old - With the growth of language skills, physical aggression decreases in frequency, and __ aggression such as insults and taunting increases Among the most frequent causes of aggression in the preschool years are conflicts between peers over possessions and conflict between siblings over almost anything - Instrumental aggression: - Preschool children sometimes use relational aggression, which typically involves __ and has been linked to __ skills - For instance, a longitudinal study of young children in Canada demonstrated that theory of mind skills at age 5 predicted levels of relational aggression 1 year later, but only for children who were rated as low to average on __ behavior The drop in physical aggression in preschool is also likely due to their developing ability to use __ to resolve or pursue conflicts and to control their own emotions and actions

disruptive, hostile, or aggressive behavior that violates social norms and that harms or takes advantage of others behavior aimed at physically or emotionally harming others possessing; physical; verbal aggression motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete goal (ex: conflict over possessions) exclusion; theory of mind; prosocial language

The Development of Emotion Regulation Over the course of the early years, children develop and improve their ability to __ themselves from distress by playing on their own - They also become __ likely to seek comfort from their parents when they are upset - Because of their growing ability to use __, when they are upset by parental demands, they are more likely to discuss and negotiate the situation with a parent than to engage in an emotional outburst Children's ability to regulate their __ improves across the early years - As a result, children are increasingly able to __ to adults' expectations, such as not hurting others when angry and staying seated at school when they would much prefer to get up and talk or play with classmates - In adolescence, the neurological changes that occur in the __ further contribute to self-regulation and other cognitive functioning and are also likely contributing to the decline in __ taking and the improvement in __ that often occur in the transition from adolescence to young adulthood Whereas younger children regulate their emotional distress primarily by using __ strategies, older children are also able to use __ strategies and problem solving to adjust to emotionally difficult situations - Finding themselves caught in unpleasant or threatening circumstances, they may rethink their __ or the __ of events so that they can adapt gracefully to the situation - This ability helps children avoid acting in ways that might be __; for example, when older children are teased by peers they may be able to defuse the situation by downplaying the importance of the teaching rather than reacting to it in a way that would provoke more teasing

distract; less; language attention; conform; cortex; risk; judgment behavioral; cognitive; goals; meaning; counterproductive

Family Structure: Changes in Family Structure in the US - More Children Live with Grandparents In the US, 1/10 children live with a grandparent, either with or without their own parents - Since 1970, the percentage of children who have grandparents as their primary caregivers has __, from 3% to 6%; today, 2.6 million grandparents nationwide are the primary caregivers for their grandchildren Grandparent-headed families tend to be __ than households not headed by grandparents, as grandparents have the added cost of caring for children on what may be fixed retirement incomes It is also difficult for grandparents raising grandchildren to maintain a social __ network, as friends their age are often not struggling with raising a new generation of children, and they are not of the same generation of the parents of their grandchildren's __ Children raised by grandparents are more likely to experience a range of emotional and behavioral __, although it is impossible to know if the difficulties result from grandparenting, poor parenting from their biological parents, or the trauma of separation from their biological parents

doubled poorer support; friends problems

Box 12.1 Individual Differences: Teenagers as Parents The rate of teen pregnancies has __ dramatically in recent years: births to teen girls between 15-17 have declined by 77% over the past two decades, from a rate of 32 births per 1000 teens in 1994 to 9 births per 1000 teens in 2016, the lowest rate on record A number of factors increase the risk that a teen will become a parent - Growing up in a __ home, doing __ in or being suspended from school, having low expectations of __ college, and having sexual intercourse for the first time before age __ are all predictive of both boys and girls becoming parents as teens - Conversely, factors like living with both __ parents and being __ in school activities and religious organizations reduce the risk of teen childbearing Having a child in adolescence is associated with many negative consequences for the teen parent, including a higher risk of living in __, a greater likelihood of being a __ parent, and a reduce likelihood of __ from high school or college - The effects __ even after the teen parent becomes an adult: a study that followed teen mothers and fathers up to age 32 found that teen parents are more likely than their peers to either not attend or drop out of college, to live in poverty, to receive welfare benefits, and to be unemployed

dropped disadvantaged; poorly; attending; 14; biological; involved poverty; single; graduating; persist

Patterns of Gender Development: Cognitive Abilities and Academic Achievement - General Intelligence and Overall Academic Achievement Boys and girls are __ in most aspects of intelligence and cognitive functioning - Proportionally more boys than girls have scores at both the lowest and highest __ Although similar in general intelligence, some average differences in academic achievement were seen from elementary school through college - Girls tend to show higher levels of school __ and achievement than do boys - Small average differences indicating that girls tended to attain higher overall school grades than did boys - The high school dropout rate was higher for boys (7.1%) than for girls (5.9%); boys accounted for 55% of all high school dropouts - 57% of bachelor's degrees were awarded to women

equivalent; extremes adjustment

Box 12.3 Applications Preventing Child Maltreatment The vast majority of the public considers child maltreatment to be a serious public health problem and views finding ways to prevent maltreatment as a public priority The CDC has identified five general strategies to prevent both child abuse and neglect: Strengthen the __ situations of families - Poverty is the root cause of much child neglect - Government efforts to ensure that families can make ends meet and that parents have secure jobs with family-friendly policies can go a long way toward preventing maltreatment Change social norms of promote __ parenting - The CDC notes that the best way to prevent physical abuse is to reduce acceptance of spanking and other forms of __ punishment Provide quality __ education to children - Ensuring that all children have safe, supervised, and enriched environments from an early age can reduce rates of abuse and neglect and can help compensate for negative or inadequate home environments Enhance parenting skills - Research studies have shown that parental education programs, including home visits from childcare professionals, that teach child development basics and healthy parenting behaviors reduce maltreatment Intervene to help children and prevent recurrence of maltreatment - Children who have been maltreated clearly need care and protection - Parent perpetrators of maltreatment also need help to ensure that they don't harm their child again - Individual counseling and group parenting sessions have been successful in reducing __ of maltreatment

economic positive; punishment early recurrence

Infants' Nature Elicits Nurture Nature equips babies with qualities that __ appropriate nurture from parents and other caregivers - One big factor is that they're cute - By looking and smiling at other people, babies __ others to feel warmly toward them and to care for them - Their emotional expressions guide caregivers' efforts to __ out what to do to make them happy and comfortable - Their attentiveness to sights and sounds that they find interesting encourages others to talk to them and to provide the __ necessary for learning - Ex: parents everywhere sing to their infants

elicit; motivate; figure; stimulation

basic emotions theory: - Based on observations from Eckman where they took photos of different cultures and had people see if they could identify emotional expressions from different cultures - Facial expressions don't seemingly require much __/knowledge - Even young babies make __ expressions

emotions are innate, universal, and easily recognizable by stereotyped facial expressions context; similar

Learning Theories: Watson's Behaviorism John B. Watson (1878-1958), the founder of behaviorism, believed that development is determined by the child's __, via learning through __ - He believed that psychologists should study __ behavior, not the "mind" Watson demonstrated the power of classical conditioning in a famous experiment with a 9-month-old known as "little Albert": Believing that he had established the power of learning in development, Watson placed the responsibility for guiding children's development squarely on their __ shoulders - On particular piece of advice that was widely adopted in the US was to put infants on a strict feeding schedule:

environment; conditioning; visible Watson first exposed Little Albert to a perfectly nice white rate in a lab. Initially, Albert reacted positively to the rat. On subsequent exposures, however, the researchers repeatedly paired the presentation of the rat with a loud noise that frightened Albert. After a number of such pairings, Albert became afraid of the rat itself. parents' The idea was that the baby would become conditioned to expect a feeding at regular intervals and therefore would not cry in between. To help implement thus strict regimen, Watson advised parents to achieve distance and objectivity in their relations with their children.

What if Parents Didn't Matter? Over time, you choose your __ (especially in the formative years) Looking at parental genetics as very influential - The family environment isn't the main causal role, but is rather another outcome of parent __ But __ influence is even more important

environment; genetics peer

Learning Theories: Skinner's Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) was just as forceful as Watson in proposing that behavior is under __ control, once claiming that "a person does not act upon the world, the world acts upon him" - A major tenet of Skinner's theory of operant conditioning is that we tend to __ behaviors that lead to favorable outcomes-that is, reinforcement-and __ those that result in unfavorable outcomes-that is, punishment - Skinner believed that everything we do in life is an __ response influenced by the outcomes of past behavior Skinner's research on the nature and function of reinforcement led to many discoveries, including two that are of particular interest to parents and teachers - One is that fact that __ by itself can serve as a powerful reinforcer: children often do things "just to get attention" - - ex: time-out as a behavior-management strategy - A second was the difficulty of extinguishing behavior that has been __ reinforced, that is, that has sometimes been followed by reward and sometimes not - - Intermittent reinforcement: Skinner's work on reinforcement led to a form of therapy known as behavior __ - Behavior modification: - An example of this approach involved a preschool child who frequently chose solitary activities:

environmental; repeat; suppress; operant attention; intermittently inconsistent response to a behavior; for example, sometimes punishing unacceptable behaviors, and other times ignoring it modification a form of therapy based on principles of operant conditioning in which reinforcement contingencies are changed to encourage more adaptive behavior Observers noted that the boy's teachers were unintentionally reinforcing his withdrawn behavior: they comforted him when he was alone but tended to ignore him when he played with other children. The boy's withdrawal was modified by reversing the reinforcement contingencies: the teachers began paying attention to the boy whenever he joined a group but ignored him when he withdrew. Soon the child was spending most of his time playing with his classmates.

Nature Does Not Reveal Itself All at Once Many genetically influenced properties don't become __ until middle childhood, adolescence, or adulthood - One obvious example is the physical changes that occur at puberty - A less obvious example involves nearsightedness - Many children are born with genes that predispose them to become nearsighted, but most don't become so until late childhood or early adolescence Schizophrenia follows a similar path - Highly influenced by genes inherited at __, but most don't become schizophrenia until late adolescence or early adulthood - Children with a schizophrenic biological parents who are raised by nonschizophrenic parents are more likely to become schizophrenic themselves than are the biological children of the nonschizophrenic parents - Children who are raised in troubled homes are more likely to become schizophrenic - The only children with a substantial likelihood are those who grow up in a troubled family AND have a biological parents who is schizophrenic Epigenetics:

evident conception how experience can enhance or silence gene expression

Understanding Real and False Emotions Children as young as 1.5 years can recognize __ and fake emotional displays - Over the preschool and elementary school years, children develop a more refined understanding of when and why __ rules are used - With age, children also better understand that people tend to break eye contact and avert their gaze when lying, and they are increasingly able to use this knowledge to __ their own deception In order to determine how display rules develop, researchers conducting a study of 4-, 6-, and 8-year-olds in Germany devised a scenario to encourage children to fake emotions to win a prize: These age-related advances in children's understanding of real versus false emotion and display rules are linked to increases in children's __ capacities - However, __ factors also seem to affect children's understanding of display rules - For example, 10-year-olds in Iran are more likely to report using display rules around happiness, fear, and sadness than are 10-year-olds in the Netherlands - In many cultures, display rules are somewhat __ for males and females and reflect societal beliefs about how males and females should feel and behave - This is especially true for girls from cultures such as India, where females are expected to be deferential and to express only socially appropriate emotions - Differences are also found in the US, where elementary school girls are more likely than boys to feel that openly expressing emotions such as pain is acceptable

exaggerated; display; conceal The children were shown three boxes with lids. One box had an attractive gift, one had an unattractive gift, and the third had no gift at all. The children were instructed to look in each box and then try to trick the experimenter into thinking one of the boxes without the attractive toy was in fact that box with the attractive toy; if they succeeded, they could keep the attractive toy. The experimenters video recorded the children's facial expressions during the task. They found that the 4-year-olds were not successful in following display rules; they were unable to mask their disappointment, and they were unable to simulate joy to trick the experimenter. Yet, children became increasingly better at these two aspects of emotion display rules with age, such that nearly 60% of 8-year-olds could simulate joy to trick the experimenter and only 28% failed to make their disappointment with the unattractive you. cognitive; social; different;

Patterns of Gender Development: Cognitive Abilities and Academic Achievement - Explanations for Gender Differences in Cognitive Abilities and Achievement Cognitive and motivational influences - The process of self-socialization emphasized in cognitive motivational theories plays a role in children's academic achievement - According to the expectancy-value model of achievement, children are most motivated to achieve in areas in which they __ to succeed and that they value - Gender stereotypes can shape the kinds of subjects that girls and boys tend to value Parental influences - Parents' talking to their children is a strong predictor of children's language learning - A meta-analysis of studies conducted with mostly Western middle-class families found that mothers tended to have average higher rates of verbal interaction with daughters than with sons; one possibility is that young girls learn language at a slightly faster rate than do boys partly because mothers may spend more __ talking with daughters than with sons - Parents' gender __ is also related to children's academic achievement - Observational research suggests that some parents may communicate gender-stereotyped expectations to their children through differential __ - Longitudinal research suggests that parents' expectations can sometimes have a stronger impact on children's later achievement than the children's earlier performance in particular subject areas Teacher influences - Some teachers may hold gender-stereotyped beliefs about girls' and boys' abilities - - When teachers hold gender-typed expectations, they may __ assess, encourage, and pay attention to students according to their gender - In this way, teachers can lay the groundwork for self-fulfilling prophecies that affect children's later academic achievement

expect time; stereotyping; encouragement differentially

Historical Perspective of Morality: Piaget "rationalist" - idea that what people SAY is moral judgement, IS moral judgment; __ reasoning provides the foundations of moral judgment "Which kid is naughtier? How should they be punished?": Stage 1 (before 7-8) - moral realism: - objective responsibility: - punishment for its own sake - immanent justice Transitional stage (7-10) - more __ with peers - start to value __ and equality - more __ in thinking Stage 2 (11-12 years) - rules are __ - intent > objective __ - punishment should __ __ __ Piaget was right for the most part, but kids do become increasingly sensitive to __ - Even younger kids can do this sometimes - 3 year olds hear a story about a kid who is going to throw a ball to a peer:

explicit most kids say whichever child caused the worse CONSEQUENCE is worse, regardless of intention, and they should be punished kids believe that rules are absolute and externally dictates, laid down by powerful figures are are sacred kids judge the badness of an act by the consequences but regardless of intent interactions; fairness; autonomous arbitrary; consequences; fit the crime intent Manipulated whether the kid's motives was bad or good. Manipulated if the outcome was good or bad. When rating morality, the good outcomes were consistently rated higher. Good motives were also consistently rated higher. Even in 3 year olds, if you're a little more straightforward, they're aware that intentions matter.

The Self The self is physical characteristics, personality traits, personal preferences, social and familial relationships, and details of ethnicity, culture, or national origins In contrast, identity involves descriptions or categories that are often __ imposed, such as through membership or participation in a family, religion, race/ethnic group, or school A baby doesn't have a conscious self-concept, but does have an identity because the baby has a name as is part of a family, which is in turn part of a larger community

externally

Why Is Gender So Important to Kids evolution - Gender, unlike race, is a social distinction that has been __ throughout evolutionary history - Maybe kids are biologically predisposed to detect, classify, and prefer based on gender Socialization - Kids who spend more time watching TV have more __ views Language; We as a society tend to __/emphasize gender categories for kids all the time

relevant stereotyped mark

Identity After Erikson's theory, researchers rejected the idea that all individuals must go through an identity crisis and Marcia developed an alternate way of describing adolescents' identity development by considering where an individual falls on the dimensions of identity __ and identity __ - On the basis of an adolescent's responses in a structured interview, that individual is classified into one of four categories of identity status: identity achievement, moratorium, identity foreclosure, and identity diffusion Identity achievement aligns with Erikson's original description: - Represents the __ endpoint of identity development of adolescents and young adults - Other three states represent individuals who have not yet reached identity achievement but __ Moratorium: - Some may explore potential identities with __, trying out a variety of candidate identities before choosing one - Others may make an initial commitment and explore it in __, through continuous monitoring of current commitments in order to make them more conscious Identity foreclosure: - An adolescent who has been told all their life that they will be a doctor, and who therefore commits to the identity of being a doctor without exploring other potential careers and identities Identity diffusion:

exploration; commitment the individual has explored potential identities and has decided on a coherent and consolidated identity ideal; could period in which the individual is exploring various occupations and ideological choices and has not yet make a clear commitment to them breadth; depth period in which the individual has not engaged in any identity experimentation and has established a vocational or ideological identity based on the choices or values of others period in which the individual does not have firm commitments regarding the issues in question and is not making progress toward developing them

Measurement of Attachment Security: Ainsworth's Strange Situation Procedure In research conducted in both Uganda and the US, Ainsworth studies mother-infant interactions during infants' __ and __ from their mother - On the basis of her observations, she came to the conclusion that two key factors provide insight into the quality of the infant's attachment to the caregiver: (1) the extent to which an infant is able to use the primary caregiver as a __ __, and (2) how the infant reacts to __ from, and __ with, the caregiver Strange Situation: - In this test, the child, accompanied by the parent, is placed in a lab playroom equipped with interesting toys; After the experimenter introduces the parent and child to the room, the child is exposed to seven episodes, including two separations from, and reunions with, the parent, as well as two interactions with a stranger-one when the parent is out of the room and one when the parent is present' Throughout these episodes, observers rate the child's behaviors, including attempts to seek closeness and contact with the parents, resistance to or avoidance of the parent, interactions with the stranger, and interactions with the parent from a distance using language or gestures - Particularly important to determining a child's attachment is their reaction to the parent when that parent __ after the separation

explorations; separations; scure base; separations; reunions a procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to assess infants' attachment to their primary caregiver returns

The Origins of Aggression and Antisocial Behavior: Family Influences - Parental conflict Children who are frequently __ to verbal and physical violence between their parents tend to be more antisocial and aggressive - This relation holds true even when genetic factors that might have caused it are taken into account One obvious reason is that embattled parents __ aggressive behavior for their children - Another is that children whose mothers are physically abused tend to believe that violence is an __, even natural, part of family interactions - Compared with spouses who get along well with each other, embattled spouses also tend to be less skilled and __, as well as more hostile and controlling, in their parenting, which, in turn, can increase their children's aggressive tendencies This pattern has also been found in families with an adopted child, so these relations cannot be due solely to genes

exposed model; acceptable; skilled

What are some things we do with emotions experience and __ regular __ and recognize

express understand

The Role of Family in Emotional Development: Parents' Socialization of Children's Emotional Responses - Parents' Reactions to Children's Emotions Parents' reactions to their children's emotions directly influence the children's own tendencies to __ emotions, as well as their social competence and __ - Parents who dismiss or criticize their children's expressions of sadness and anxiety communicate to their children that their feelings are not __ - Parents send similar messages when they react to their children's anger with __, belligerence, or dismissive comments - In turn, their children are likely to be less emotionally and socially competent than are children whose parents are emotionally supportive; for example, they tend to be lower in __ for others, less skilled at coping with stress, and more prone to express __ and to engage in problem behaviors such as aggression Parents who are supportive when their children are upset help their children __ their emotional arousal and find ways to __ their emotions constructively - In the !Kung San hunter-gatherer community of Botswana, mothers keep their infants close by for the first years of their lives and respond very __ (within 10 seconds) to their infants' cries - a clear example of co-regulation of emotions; as a result, even at the peak age for crying (1-12 weeks), !Kung infants cry for the equivalent of 1 minute per hour, with only 6% of all observed crying bouts lasting longer than 30 seconds; compared this tendency with Western newborns who cry for approximately 2 __ per day The more mothers acknowledge and respond contingently to their children's emotions, the more their children feel __ - In turn, these children tend to be better adjusted and more competent with their peers and to perform better in school Supportive parental reactions may be especially helpful in reducing problem behaviors for children who have difficulty regulating their __ responses to challenges - Another example of cultural influences in emotional socialization is provided by the Tamang in rural Nepal: - When children from Western backgrounds experience shame or sadness, their mothers seem to be most concerned with helping them feel better about __; in contrast, Chinese mothers more often than Western mothers use such situations as opportunities to teach proper __ and help their child understand how to __ to social expectations and norms-for example, asking "Isn't it wrong for you to get mad at Papa?" - When teaching about emotion, Chinese immigrant parents living in the US are more likely to focus on __ that can cause, or resolve, emotional states, whereas European American parents are more likely to talk about internal __ states

express; adjustment; valid; threats; sympathy; anger regulate; express; quickly; hours validated physiological The Tamang are Buddhists who place great value on keeping one's sem (mind-heart) calm and clear of emotion, and they believe that people should not express anger because it has disruptive effects on interpersonal relationships. Consequently, although Tamang parents are responsive to the distress of infants, they often ignore or scold children older than 2 to when those children express anger, and they seldom offer explanations or support to reduce children's anger. Such parental reactions are not typical of all Nepali groups, however; for instance, parents of Brahman Nepali children respond to children's anger with reasoning and yielding. Of particular interest is the fact that although nonsupportive parental behavior comparable to that of the Tamang has been associated with low social competence in US children, it does not seem to have a negative effect on the social competence of Tamang children. Because of the value placed on controlling the expression of emotion in Tamang culture, parental behaviors that would seem dismissive and punitive to US parents likely take on a different meaning for Tamang parents and children and probably have different consequences. themselves; conduct; conform; behaviors; emotional

Box 13.2 Individual Differences: Culture and Children's Peer Experience One study of cross-cultural differences in peer relationships compared children from six countries - They found that in some communities, children were free to wander in the streets and public areas of town and had __ contact with peers - By contrast, children in some regions were confined primarily to the family yard and therefore had relatively little contact with peers other than siblings A recent study of adolescents in 11 countries found that the greater the importance of traditional family values-defined as high feelings of family obligation, acceptance of children's duty to obedient, and an orientation toward the family instead of a focus on autonomy and individualism-the less peer acceptance was __ to adolescents' life satisfaction Cultural differences have also been found in how children interact with their peers - A major study across nine countries asked children how often in the previous month they had engaged in physical aggression or in relational aggression: Other studies have also identified cross-cultural similarities in some aspects of peer relationships - For example, one study followed children from ages 7-15 in four different countries - Children were interviewed at four different ages about what makes someone a friend and why friends are important:

extensive related Children in some countries reported engaging in more relational than physical aggression, whereas children in others reported the opposite, and children in the still other countries reported equal amounts of aggression. There were cultural similarities in one aspect of aggression: boys were more likely than girls to engage in physical aggression across all nine countries, but there were no consistent gender differences for relational aggression across the nine countries. These findings suggest that not only are there different cultural norms about what type of aggression is more acceptable, but also that there is a shared norm that it's more acceptable for boys to be physically aggressive than girls. Despite the differences in these cultures, the children followed a remarkably similar pattern of development in the complexity of their friendship descriptions across childhood, providing evidence that some universal aspects of the development of peer and friend relationships exist across childhood and adolescence

The Role of Family in Emotional Development: Parents' Expression of Emotion Parents' __ to express emotion can also influence children's emotional development In the 70s, Tronick and his colleagues developed an experimental procedure known as the Still-Face paradigm: - What is remarkable about the findings from this research is how __ the infants become distressed when their mothers do not express emotion or react to the infants' emotional expressions - Infants show a steep __ in the time spent looking at their mothers during the still-face episodes, which is a clear example of infants using the self-__ method - - The infants' emotional distress __ during the still-face episodes, and a __ intense distress reaction occurs in the second still-face episode - Even at a few months, infants are attuned to their mother's emotional expressions and behaviors and experience distress when their mothers do not react as they have come to expect

failures For this procedure, mothers and their infants, usually around 4 months, are brought into the lab; the infants are strapped into highchairs, and each mother is seated 1.5 feet away from her infants, where she can easily interact with the infant - Mothers in the control group are instructed by the experimenters to play with their children for 10 minutes - Mothers in the experimental group are instructed to play normally for 2 minutes with their babies; then, they are told to sit back in their chairs, maintain a neutral expression, and not talk to, touch, or otherwise react to their babies-in other words, to keep a "still face"; After 2 minutes, they again alternate another play episode with a still-face episode, before concluding with a final play episode quickly; decrease; distraction; increases; more

Box 10.4 Individual Differences: Gender Difference in Adolescent Depression Although the chance of depression at some point in their lifetime increases across adolescence for both boys and girls in the US, the increase is twice as __ for girls One reason for these gender differences is that girls tend to express more __ emotions, such as sadness and anxiety, than do boys Another reason is that the biological changes brought on by puberty tend to be more difficult for girls and may contribute to girls' vulnerability Girls are more affected by chronic __ from social interactions with peers (e.g., lack of friendships or conflict with friends), which in turn predicts depressive symptoms Adolescent girls in the US also tend to report greater dissatisfaction with their __ than boys report with theirs - This dissatisfaction, dueled by a cultural obsession with an "ideal" body type attainable by only a few, seems to contribute substantially to low self-esteem and depression in adolescent girls Girls, more than their male peers, are prone to repeatedly focus on causes, consequences, and symptoms of their sadness or frustration ("I'm so fat" or "I'm so tired") and on the meaning of their distress ("What's wrong with my life?") without engaging in efforts to __ their situation - The more adolescents engage in such rumination, the more likely they are to be depression; girls are more likely to engage in rumination in response to stress than boys __-that is, extensively and almost exclusively discussing and self-disclosing emotional problems with a peer-is more common for girls and accounts for much of the gender difference in depression

fast internalizing stress bodies remedy co-rumination

Only a __ cognitive abilities and social behaviors actually show consistent gender differences, and most of those average differences tend to be fairly __ Even when researchers find an average gender difference in a behavior, there is substantial __ between the genders when individuals are considered Thus, to understand gender development, it's important to keep in mind three points: - First, girls and boys generally are not opposites; similarities are more __ than differences - Second, not all girls are alike, and not all boys are alike - Third, gender is more than simply the dichotomy of being raised as a girl or boy Why do many children have different gender-related preferences? - Some researchers argue that certain differences in females' and males' behavior reflect underlying physiological differences that emerged over the course of human evolution - Some psychologists place more emphasis on social and cognitive influences - In general, developmental psychologists agree that gender development is a __ of nature and nurture

few; small overlap common combination

Milestones in Gender Development: Middle Childhood By 6, cisgender children have usually attained gender constancy and their ideas about gender are more consolidated - Most children continue to be highly gender-stereotyped in their views - However, because they understand that gender is not necessarily tied to a person's physical appearance, children at this age often show a bit more __ in their gender stereotypes and attitudes than they did in their younger years - - One study found that transgender children between 6-8 were __ likely to endorse gender stereotypes than their cisgender peers and that the cisgender __ of the transgender children were less likely to endorse gender stereotypes At 9-10, children start to show an even clearer understanding that gender is a social category - They typically recognize that gender roles are __ conventions as opposed to biological imperatives - As children come to appreciate the social basis of gender roles, they may recognize that some girls and boys may not want to do things that are typical for their gender Another development is an awareness of when gender discrimination occurs, as well as the realization that it's unfair - Killen and Stangor (2001) demonstrated this when they told children stories about a child who was excluded from a group because of the child's gender: - Brown and Bigler (2005) identified various factors that affect whether children recognize gender discrimination - - First among them are cognitive prerequisites, such as an understanding of cultural __, the ability to make social __, and a moral understanding of __ and equity - - People's awareness of sexism can also be influenced by individual factors such as their own self-concepts or beliefs - - The situation can affect children's likelihood of noticing discrimination

flexibility; less; siblings social The researchers observed that 8 and 10-year-olds usually judged it unfair for a child to be excluded from a group solely because of gender. Despite their capacity to see this as wrong, children commonly exclude other children from activities based on their gender. stereotypes; comparisons; fairness

Pornography In a 2014 sample, porn was the most __ concern that participants voices about their online activities __% of visitors to porn sites are less than 10 years, despite the fact that website users are required to confirm that they are over 18 Exposure to porn can make children and teens more tolerant of __ toward women, as well as more accepting of premarital and extramartial sex The most effective weapons against the various negative effects of media on children operate at the __ level, with parents exercising __ over their children's access to undesirable media - As children get older, parents become less vigilant; while 68% of parents of 13-14 year olds check their child's Web-browsing history, this number groups to 56% for 15-17 year olds There are also impacts at the macrosystem level, with legal controls and government programs designed to minimize the negative features of the media with which children interact

frequent 10 aggression microsystem; control

Early Word Recognition Infants begin to understand highly __ words surprisingly early on - When 6-month-olds hear either "Mommy" or "Daddy," they look toward an image of the appropriate person - Experimenters showed infants pairs of pictures of common foods and body parts and tracked the infants' eye gaze when one of the pictures was names: With linguistic experience, infants become skilled at rapid word comprehension: Older children can also use context to help them recognize words - For example, toddlers who are learning a language that had a grammatical gender system can use the gender of the article preceding the noun to speed their recognition of the noun itself

frequent Even 6-month-olds looked to the correct picture significantly more often than would be expected by chance. Strikingly, most of their parents reported that the infants did not know the meanings of these words. So not only do infants understand far more words than they can produce; they also understand far more words than even their caregivers realize. The same phenomenon occurs for autistic toddlers, who tend to have delayed language abilities: parents think that their autistic toddlers understand fewer words than they actually do, as measured by sensitive eye-tracking tasks. In studies where infants were presented a pair of objects and hear one of them labeled, 15-month-olds waited until they had heard the whole word to look at the target object, but 24-month-olds looked at the correct object after hearing only the first part of its label, just as adults do.

Friendships: Children's Choice of Friends Children tend to be friends with peers who are __ and who act __ toward others Another determinant of friendship is __ of interests and behaviors - Children tend to like peers who are similar to themselves in the cognitive maturity of their play and in the levels of their cooperativeness, antisocial behavior, acceptance by peers, and shyness - Friends in both childhood and adolescence are more similar than nonfriends in their academic motivation and self-perceptions of competence - Friends tend to share similar levels of __ emotions such as distress and depression and are similar in their tendencies to attribute __ intentions to others For children, proximity is an obvious key factor - However, young children's access to peers can vary widely across cultures - Although proximity becomes __ important with age, it continues to play a role in individuals' choices of friends into adolescence, in part because of involvement in similar __ at school while promote the development of new friendships - - One study found that when two adolescents participated in the same activity, they were 2.3x more likely to be friends than were adolescents who did not participate in the same activity - The vast majority of adolescents (83%) report that __ is the most common setting where they spend time with their close friends - - Nearly half of the teens surveyed regularly spend time with friends while doing extracurricular activities (45%) or in their neighborhoods (42%), and ⅕ spend time with friends who attended the same religious institution (21%) - Physical proximity is no longer necessary for children who have regular access to the __; 55% of adolescents regularly spend time with their friends online, either through social media or gaming

friendly; prosocially similarity; negative; hostile less; activities; school; internet

Theoretical Issues in Language Development: Ongoing Debates in Language Development Current theories of language development all acknowledge Chomsky's crucial observations, such as the fact that human languages share many characteristics Theories must also explain how language users are able to __ beyond the specific words and sentences that have been exposed to, providing an explanation for findings like the "wug" study The ways in which various accounts handle these facts differ along two key dimensions The first dimension is the degree to which these explanations lie within the __ (nature) versus within the __ (nurture) - Theorists have countered Chomsky's argument about the universality of language structure by pointing out that there are also universals in children's __; Parents all over the world need to communicate about certain things with their children, and these things are likely to be reflected in the language that children learn - Accounts that are focused on social interaction maintain that virtually everything about language development is influenced by its __ function - Children are motivated to interact with others, to communicate their own thoughts and feelings, and to understand what other people are trying to communicate to them - According to this position, children learn by paying close attention to the multitude of cues available in the language they hear, the social context in which language is used, and the intentions of the speaker - Some of these conventions may be learned by the same kinds of reinforcement methods originally proposed by Skinner - For example, experimenters found that both the sounds infants make when babbling and the rate at which they produce them can be influenced by parental __, such as smiling and touching in response to the babbling The second dimension pertains to the child's contributions: Did the cognitive and neural mechanisms underlying language learning evolve solely to support language learning (domain __), or are they used for learned many different kinds of things (domain __) - According to the nativist views, the cognitive abilities that support language development are highly __ to language - An alternative view suggests that learning mechanisms underlying language development are actually quite __: - Although these learning abilities might be __, their evolutionary development was not __ to language learning - For example, the distributional learning mechanisms also help infants track sequences of musical notes, visual shapes, and human actions; the mechanisms that support rapid word learning are also used by toddlers to learn facts about object - Recent theories concerning developmental language disorders invoke aspects of general cognitive function, not just language - Recent theories concerning developmental language disorders invoke aspects of __ cognitive function, not just language Computational modeling has played an important role in the development of modern theoretical perspectives - By using computational models, researchers can manipulate both the __ structure and the __ input and attempt to determine what is crucial when simulating children's language acquisition - Connectionism: - This model learns from __, gradually strengthening certain __ among units in ways that mimic children's developmental progress - Connectionist accounts have achieved impressive success with respect to modeling specific aspects of language development, including children's acquisition of the past tense in English and the development of the shape bias for word learning - Connectionist models are open to criticism regarding the features that were built into the models in the first place and how well the input provided to them matches the input received by real children

generalize; child; environment; environments; communicative; reinforcement specific; general; specific; general; innate; restricted; general innate; environmental a computational modeling approach that emphasizes the simultaneous activity of numerous interconnected processing units experience; connections

How do we know what babies are feeling: Fear What are kids scared of - __ distress is visible from birth - 7 months are beyond, fear is often displayed in response to:

generalized stranger anxiety (peak ~7-9 months), separation anxiety (peak ~15 months), nonsocial fears (like heights)

Everything Influences Everything Self-esteem - __ matter; the closer the biological relation between two people, the more similar their degree of self-esteem is likely to be - - Likely because genes influence a wide range of other characteristics that themselves influence self-esteem (attractiveness, athletic talent, academic success, etc) - __ from one's family and peers contribute - Unrelated adults can have influences of self-esteem - Value of the broader __

genes; support; society

Effects of Friendships on Psychological Functioning and Behavior: Bullying and Victimization Bullying results from a power imbalance - The main sources of power noted by survey respondents were that the bully could influence what other students thought of them (56%), were more popular (50%), were physically stronger (40%), or had more money (32%) - __ are more likely than __ to be bullied (24% > 17%) and rates of bullying __ in middle school and steadily __ to the end of high school (30% > 19% > 12%) - Bullies are often peers: 13% of adolescents admitted to bullying others in the previous year - Bullying isn't confined to one location in schools but rather happens throughout the school building and grounds as well as virtually through cyberbullying - In the moment, children engage in bullying in order to seem __ to their peers and to gain power and __ Yet if we consider why some children are bullies and others aren't a complex picture emerges - Children who are bullies tend to be callous and antisocial, __ to peer pressure, and __ in social status an tend to have harsh and insensitive parents Victims are likely to be rejected by peers, feel depressed, and do __ in school, although some are aggressive as well - Hereditary factors associated with aggression appear to predict peer __, suggesting that temperamental or other personal characteristics may increase the likelihood of children becoming both aggressive and victimized - These same characteristics that elicit bullying may also be the __ of bullying, and research suggests that there is a bidirectional relationship between aggression and victimization, with each leading to more of the other over time A small portion of children (<20%) are both perpetrators and victims of bullying and thus tend to be more __, like bullies, yet are also more __, like victims - Researchers speculate that these children may have developed hostile attributional biases as a result of being __ and that such biases make them more likely to act aggressively toward others in the future whom they suspect may harm them - In one study that followed several hundred children from 10-14 (and thus included the transition into high school), about 6% of children started off as victims but transitioned into bullies themselves; these victims-to-bullies had rates of anxiety and depression that were as high as or higher than children who were just victims - Although some children cope with bullies by ignoring or avoiding them, other children choose to stand up to bullies on behalf of victims; research in Finland found that ¾ of victims report having a classmate who defends them against bullies and that the children who defend others against bullies tend to have __ for the victims and __ that they will be successful -When children stand up against bullies, they help protect the intended target in the immediate situation yet also help reduce bullying behavior in the classroom in the long-term Relational aggression: - Particularly common among __-status children, particularly girls

girls; boys; peak; decreased; powerful; status susceptible; higher poorly; victimization; result aggressive; anxious; victims; empathy; confidence a kind of aggression that involves excluding others from the social group and attempting to do harm to other people's relationships; it includes spreading rumors about peers, withholding friendship to inflict harm, and ignoring peers when angry or frustrated or trying to get one's own way high

Peer Relationships in Adolescence __ are more likely to be apart of cliques - In development, these cliques provide a context for socialization; can acquire __ by hanging out with other people - Provide context for learning social skills, how to engage in intimacy, how to be a leader, how to break off a friendship __ contact with opposite-sex friends crowds: peer influence in adolescence, joining a chat room:

girls; norms increasing large reputation-based or image-based groups high school students joined a chat room. they were randomly assigned to chat with a high or low-status peer. the peer then excludes a third person. does the participant agree to the exclusion? - Participants who were with a high-status peer were more likely to conform/exclude the third person than if they were with a low-status peer - Socially anxious people were equally vulnerable to peer pressure from either status peer

Patterns of Gender Development: Interpersonal Goals and Communication - Explanations for Gender Differences in Interpersonal Goals and Communication Cognitive and motivational influences - To the extent that some cisgender girls and boys differ in their primary __ for social relationships, they're apt to use different language styles to attain those goals - Individual differences in interpersonal goals within any gender group may partly account for corresponding variations in whether particular children exhibit highly gender-typed behaviors Parental influences - One meta-analysis summarized trends comparing mothers and fathers' speech to their children: Peer influences - The social __ and activities traditionally practiced within children's gender-segregated peer groups foster different interpersonal goals in girls and boys - - In their peer interactions, many girls commonly engage in domestic scenarios while boys' play is more likely to involve competitive contexts - The impact of same-gender peer norms was investigation in a meta-analysis, which found that gender differences in communication were more likely to be detected in studies of __-gender interactions than in __-gender interactions Cultural influences - Cross-cultural comparisons generally find a similar pattern of average gender difference in social behavior - Affiliative behavior tends to be more common among girls whereas directive behavior tends to be more common among boys - However, there are cultural variations in the degree to which these behaviors might be seen - There's also cultural variations within nations

goal The results indicated small average effect sizes: first, mothers were more likely to use affiliative speech; in contrast, fathers were more likely to use controlling speech norms; same; mixed

Visualization of friendship and aggression networks Clusters are primarily organized by __ Some grades are segregated by gender and some are not - Lower grades are __ segregated, higher grades are __ Most bullying occurs __ grades

grade more; less within

Social Domain Theory of Moral Development According to this theory, growth in moral reasoning occurs not through stage-like change but through __ change based on the child's __ interactions with peers and adults as well as through direct socialization from their parents - Differences in children's moral judgments are understood to result from differences in the __ in which children live and the experiences they have within those environments - Parents are key in this process: parents transmit values to their children both explicitly (through teaching and discipline) and implicitly (by example); however, this relationship is understood to be bidirectional, such that children's moral judgments and related behaviors also affect their parents' behaviors Emphasizes the role of __ as a strong influence on children's moral development - Peer relationships involve equal power (in contrast to the parent-child relationship), which allows children to have more __ in their behaviors in moral situations - Peer-to-peer interactions involve numerous settings in which children both observe and are forced to __ moral behaviors

gradual; social; environments peers; agency; initiate

Theoretical Approaches to Gender Development: Social Identity Theory Social identity theory addresses the influence of __ membership on people's self-concepts and behavior with others - Gender may be the most central social identity in most children's lives because it is used to organize __ life in every culture - Children's commitment to gender as a social identity is more readily apparent through their primary affiliation with same-gender peers Two influential processes that occur when a person commits to an ingroup are ingroup bias and ingroup assimilation - Ingroup bias: - Ingroup assimilation: A corollary of social identity theory is that the characteristics associated with a high-status group are typically __ more than are those of a low-status group - Related to this pattern is the tendency of gross-gender-typed behavior to be more common among girls than among boys; Masculine-stereotyped behavior in a girl can sometimes enhance her status, whereas feminine-stereotyped behavior in a boy typically tarnishes his status - Social identity theory helps to explain why gender-typing pressures tend to be more rigid for boys than for girls Gender isn't the only social identity that shapes people's lives - Intersectionality: - - For example, in a poor inner-city environment, establishing one's physical and emotional toughness may be more fundamental to boys' gender identity than it would be in the suburbs; correspondingly, concerns with toughness may undermine boys' academic motivation more often in these communities than in higher-income suburbs

group; social tendency to evaluate individuals and characteristics of the group more positively than or as superior to those of the outgroup - For example, children showed same-gender favoritism when rating peers of likeability and favorable traits process whereby individuals are socialized to conform to the group's norms, demonstrating the characteristics that define the ingroup - Peers expect ingroup members to demonstrate the characteristics that define the ingroup - Children anticipate ingroup approval for preferring same-gender peers and same-gender-typed activities, as well as for avoiding other-gender peers and cross-gender-typed activities valued the interconnection of social identities such as gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and class, especially in relation to overlapping experiences of discrimination and disadvantage

There is enormous variability in early language experience across households By 4 years, children from high-SES families hear, on average, __ words than children from low-SES families - Estimates of this difference range from 1-__% - differential access to play, engage, communication with others - "30 million word gap" isn't accurate, but it caught the attention of scientists Maybe language is innate; maybe language learning mechanisms are innate. Regardless, the point is: Learning is __ and __ to the environment.

more; 35 fragile; subject

Social Domain Theory of Moral Development Support for the social domain theory has been __ over the past two decades Children aged 4-9 consistently rate moral transgressions, such as hitting, teasing, or unfairly distributing resources, as __ wrong, even when the transgression is perpetrated against a bully From an early age, children distinguish between moral and societal transgressions - By age 3, children generally believe that violations of moral rules are __ wrong than violations of societal conventions - By age 4, they believe that moral transgressions, but not societal transgressions, are wrong even if an adult does not __ about them or even if adult authorities have not said they are wrong With regard to both moral and societal issues in the family, children believe that parents have authority unless the parent gives commands that __ moral or societal principles With respect to matters of personal judgment, however, even preschoolers tend to believe that they themselves should have control; older children and adolescents strongly believe that they should control choices in the personal domain at home and at school - At the same time, parents usually feel that they should have some authority over their children's personal choices

growing morally more; know violate

The Origins of Aggression and Antisocial Behavior: Family Influences Children whole experience __ or low-quality parenting are at greater risk of becoming aggressive or antisocial - Children from __ homes tend to be relatively high in disruptive behavior, and this relation appears not to be due to genetics - Unclear to what degree poor parenting and chaotic homes, in and of themselves, may account for children's antisocial behavior, but it's clear that they comprise several factors that can promote such behavior Parental punitiveness - Many children whose parents often use harsh but __ physical punishment are prone to problem behaviors in the early years, aggression in childhood, and criminality in adolescence and adulthood - Especially true when the parents are __ and punitive in general, when the child does not have an early __ attachment, and when the child has a difficult temperament and is chronically angry and unregulated - Although some researchers have argued that the relation between physical punishment and children's antisocial behavior varies across racial, ethnic, and cultural groups, longitudinal studies with large samples have __ found this to be true - - One study of more than 13,000 American families found that although African American parents did spank their 5 year olds more than other families, spanking predicted increases in children's aggression over time across all four race and ethnic groups - - In an international study, both spanking and yelling were associated with higher levels of aggression in children in six countries, although this relation was weaker if children viewed such parenting as __

harsh; chaotic non-abusive; cold; ; secure; not; normal

Attachment Theories Mothers attend more than fathers to children's __ needs __ attend much more to kids' daily school needs Fathers engage more in __ play

health mothers rough

Box 6.2 Individual Differences: Language Development and Socioeconomic Status The number of words children know is intimately related to the number of words they __, which is linked to their caregivers' __ - One of the key determinants of the language children hear is the __ of their parents - In a study, experimenters recorded the speech that 42 parents used with their infants over the course of 2.5 years: Why are researchers and policy makers so worried about the amount of language input that children receive? - One reason is that the number of words that children hear predicts the number of words they __ - Differences in the amount of language input also affect how quickly toddlers recognize __ words: children whose mothers talked more to them at 18 months of age were faster at recognizing words at 24 months than were children whose mothers provided less input - Within groups of parents of similar SES, there is a great deal of variability in the amount of input parents provide: One study of low-income Spanish-speaking families in California found that 19-month-old infants who heard more speech had larger vocabularies and were faster at processing words 6 months later Input quality also impact language learning, perhaps even __ than input quantity - In one study of low-income toddlers, researchers found that the richness of the communicative context, as assessed by such variables as joint engagement, routines and rituals, and fluency, __ children's language attainment a year later - These indicators of quality were a better predictor of language development than the __ of speech the children heard - Children who experienced higher-quality language input-in particular, a greater number of conversational back-and-forths-showed greater activation in language areas of the brain, as well as increased cortical surface area in left-hemisphere language regions The __ environments in which children learn language also influence the quality of language input - For example, toddlers have more difficulty learning new words in __ environments (Children in poverty are more likely to experience crowded and noisy home environments and to be exposed to street sounds and other sources of noise pollution that may make it more difficult for them to process language input) Similar issues of both quantity and quality in language input emerge in the school context - When preschool children with low language skills are placed in classrooms with peers who also have low language skills, they show __ language growth than do their counterparts who are placed with classmates who have high language skills - These peer effects have important implications for programs like Head Start, which are designed to enhance language development and early literacy for children living in poverty: One promising intervention to provide rich language exposure to children in low-SES environments lies in increased access to children's __, which often include words that parents don't typically use in conversation with their infants - Reach Out and Read is an intervention program that provides books during pediatrician visits, building on studies that suggest that primary care physicians can influence language outcomes by modeling and promoting reading to young children - Other interventions focus on increasing the amount of __ that lower-SES parents spend speaking to their children - In one such intervention, signs were placed in supermarkets in low- and middle-SES neighborhoods, encouraging parents to converse with their children about foods they saw in the market: - Enhancing teacher training and support in low-income school settings is another promising route for intervention

hear; vocabularies; SES Some of the parents were upper-middle class, others were working class, and others were on welfare. The results were astonishing: the average child whose parents were on welfare received half as much linguistic experience (616 words per hour) as did the average working-class parents' child (1,251 words per hour) and less than ⅓ that of the average child in a professional family (2,153 words per hour). - The researchers did the math and suggested that after 4 years, an average child with upper-middle-class parents would have heard 45 million words, compared with 26 million for an average child in a working-class family and 13 million for an average child with parents on welfare - The researchers noted differences in how parents talked to their children as well, with more questions and conversations initiated in the higher-income families learn; familiar more; predicted; amount physical; noisy less Congregating children from lower-SES families together in the same preschool classrooms may limit their ability to "catch up". However, negative peer effects may be offset by positive teacher effects. One study found that children whose preschool teachers used a rich vocabulary showed better reading comprehension in 4th grade than did children whose preschool teachers used a more limited vocabulary. books; time In the low-SES neighborhood where the signs were present, parents increased both the quality and quantity of talk to their children while shopping (a similar effect was not found in the middle-SES neighborhood). Other interventions provide parents with individualized coaching about both quality and quantity of interactions; results suggest both enhanced parental input and larger child vocabularies. Larger scale interventions aim to do something similar by providing parents with recording devices that track how much they speak to their baby so that they can monitor and increase their amount of speech. These interventions are motivated by research suggesting that educating parents about their own role has a positive effect on language development outcomes.

Moral Judgment: Piaget's Theory of Moral Judgment Piaget's first stage of moral development, which he referred to as __ morality, is most characteristic of children who have not achieved Piaget's stage of __ operations-that is, children younger than 7 who are in the preoperational stage - Children in the heteronomous morality stage regard rules and duties to others as unchangeable "__" - In their view, justice is whatever authorities say is __, and authorities' punishments for noncompliance are always __ - Children believe that what determined whether an action is good or bad are the __ of the action, not the __ behind it - Piaget suggested that young children's belief that rules are __ is due to two factors, one social and one cognitive - - First, Piaget argued that parental control of children is coercive and unilateral, leading to children's unquestioning respect for rules set by adults - - Second, children's cognitive immaturity causes them to believe that rules are "__" things that exist outside people and are not products of the human mind After this first stage, children enter a transition period in which interactions with their peers lead them to develop the ability to take one another's __ and to develop __ about fairness

heternomous; concrete; givens; right; justified; consequences; motives; unchangeable; real perspectives; beliefs

Genes, Environment, and the Development of Intelligence: Family Socioeconomic Context According to Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model, children's development is affect by a variety of contexts that are nested into a set of __ systems - The family is the child's most proximal context and thus the one that has the most __ influence on development - Yet the family itself is __ by the contexts in which it is embedded, including cultural contexts, economic contexts, and work contexts

hierarchical; direct; affected

Genes, Environment, and the Development of Intelligence: Programs for Helping Poor Children - Project Head Start In response to the same political consensus of the 60s that led to small-scale early-intervention programs, the US government initiated a large-scale intervention program: Project Head Start - In the past 50 years, this program has provided a wide range of services to more than 36 million children - At present, Head Start serves more than 900,000 preschoolers per year, most of them 3- or 4-year-olds - The population served is racially and ethnically diverse - - Of the families served in 2017-2018, 37% identified as Hispanic, 30% as Black, 24% as White - - 28% of families reported that their child was ESL - - Almost all children are from families with incomes below the poverty line; most are single-parent families - In the program, children are provided with medical and dental care, nutritious meals, and a safe environment - Many parents of participating children work as caregivers at the Head Start centers, serve on policy councils that help plan each center's directions, and receive help with their own vocational and emotional needs Consistent with the findings of the smaller experimental intervention programs that have been aimed at 3- to 4-year-olds, participation in Head Start produces __ IQ and achievement test scores at the end of the program and briefly thereafter - The strongest evidence for this conclusion comes from the Head Start Impact Study, which included 5000 3- and 4-year-olds from low-income families who were on waiting lists to participate in a Head Start program:

higher Half the children were randomly assigned to participate in Head Start; the other half followed another path of their parents' choosing. The children comprised a nationally representative sample of the low-income population, and the Head Start centers in which the children enrolled were representative in terms of their quality. The results were very similar to those of the experimental preschool programs. Children who participated in Head Start showed better pre-reading and pre-writing skills at the end of one year in the program, but their intellectual outcomes did not differ from those of nonparticipants by the end of 1st grade or 3rd grade. On the other hand, participation in Head Start produces a number of positive effects that do endure: greater likelihood of graduation from high school and enrolling in college, better health and social skills, and lower frequency of later being held back in school, using drugs, and delinquency.

Availability and Quality of Childcare The quality of care children receive outside the home is related to some aspects of their development - Organizations have established minimal standards that are meant to ensure that a childcare center is both safe for children and promotes their development: - - Child-to-caregiver ratio of 3:1 for 12 months or younger, 4:1 for 13-35 months; 7:1 for 3 years; 8:1 for 4-5 years - - Maximum group sizes of 6 for 12 months or younger; 8 for 13-15 months; 14 for 3 years; 16 for 4-5 years - - Formal training for caregivers - Children in a form of childcare that met more of these guidelines tended to score __ on tests of language comprehension and readiness for school, and they had fewer behavior problems at 36 months - - Quality was generally highest in nonprofit centers that weren't __; intermediate in nonprofit religious centers and in for-profit independent centers; and lowest in for-profit __ A majority of working parents with infants and preschoolers reports that it's difficult to find child care that's both high quality and affordable - In some regions, keeping a child in a licensed childcare center requires 15% of a dual-earner family's combined salary and more than half of the salary of a single parent - In half of states, child care for a 4 year old for 1 year exceeds the cost of in-state tuition at a public university

higher; religious; chains

Box 12.2 Applications: Should Parents Spank Their Children? A meta-analysis of the research on spanking determined that spanking does not increase children's __ compliance Spanking also does not __ children's behavior in the long term; the more children are spanked, the less likely they are to behave appropriately in the future, and the more likely they are to behave aggressively or to engage in antisocial behavior - This finding holds even when the initial tendency for children's aggression or antisocial behavior to elicit more spanking from parents has been taken into account through longitudinal research designs Spanking increases children's risk for a range of negative outcomes - In addition to not improving children's behavior, spanking has been linked with a range of negative, unintended outcomes that can be thought of as negative "side effect" - The more children are spanked, the more __ __ problems they have, the more problems they have in their __ with their parents, the lower their self-esteem, and the lower their __ ability The most serious outcome linked with spanking is physical abuse - The more frequently parents spank, the greater the likelihood they will use __ methods that can injure children - Parents who spanked their children at age 1 had a __% greater likelihood of being suspected of physically abusing their children by the time they were 5 Spanking is linked with negative outcomes equally across cultural groups

immediate improve mental health; relationships; cognitive harsher; 33

Box 9.2 A Closer Look: Developmental Social Neuroscience While many of the theories of social development invoke biological mechanisms, from instincts to imprinting to genetic adaptation, they largely avoid invoking brain systems One such approach emerged from the literature on caregiving in nonhuman animals - For example, __ systems appear to be disrupted by adverse experience early in the lives of nonhuman animals - - In particular, the development of the HPA axis, which regulates hormones that are critically involved in the body's response to __, is impacted by adverse rearing conditions Taking their lead from these studies, developmental social neuroscientists have investigated unfortunate situations in which human children are exposed to adverse rearing conditions - One such group are children who were raised in orphanages abroad, in setting that lacked consistent emotional and physical contact from caregivers, prior to being internationally adopted - Like the nonhuman animals that received aberrant early care, these children show atypical hormonal responses in __ situations - By examining the neural consequences of early social stress, it is possible to begin to understand why some children, such as those reared in institutions, show pervasive social challenges, including difficulties with attachment to their adoptive families Developmental social neuroscience methods have also been used to investigate interventions that may be effective in improving the outcomes of children growing up in adverse conditions - One such intervention was used in Bucharest, Romania, to ameliorate the negative impacts of orphanage-rearing:

hormonal; stress social The Bucharest Early Intervention Project randomly selected a group of institutionalized children to move into foster homes, while their peers remained behind in orphanages. The results of a structural MRI study several years later showed that the children who had left the orphanage had more white matter in their brains than did the children still living in the orphanage, suggesting improvements in neural information transmission. The brains of the children who had transitioned to foster care were indistinguishable from other Romanian children who had grown up at home with their families. These results illustrate resilience; leaving the stark orphanage setting for foster care had a palliative effect on these children's brains. But the news is not all good; even years later, as adolescents, the children who had been moved to foster care showed residual negative effects on cognitive functioning as compared to peers who grew up at home with their families, suggesting lingering negative effects of early institutional care.

Whereas aggression in young children is usually instrumental, aggression in elementary school children is often __ arising from the desire to hurt another person, or is motivated by the need to protect oneself against a perceived threat to self-esteem - Children who engage in physical aggression tend to also engage in relational aggression; the degree to which they use one or the other tends to be __ across childhood - Overall, the frequency of physical aggression __ for most teenagers, at least after mid-adolescence Despite the overall developmental trend toward less physical aggression, __ acts of violence increase markedly in mid-adolescence, as do property offenses and status offenses There is considerable __ in individual differences in both girls' and boys' aggression across childhood and adolescence (especially for __) - In one study, children who had been identified as aggressive by their peers when they were 8 had more criminal convictions and engaged in more serious criminal behavior at age 30 than did those who hadn't been identified as aggressive - In another study of girls, relational aggression in childhood was related to subsequent conduct disorders Many children who are aggressive early on have __ deficits that underlie problems such as hyperactivity and difficulty paying attention -These deficits, which may become more marked with age, can result in troubled relations with parents, peers, and teachers that further fuel the child's aggressive, antisocial pattern of behavior - In addition, callous, unemotional traits, which often accompany aggression and conduct disorder, appear to be associated with a delay in cortical maturation in brain areas involved in decision making, morality, and empathy Youths who develop problem behaviors in adolescence typically stop engaging in antisocial behavior later in adolescence

hostile; consistent; decreases serious consistency; boys neurological

Dweck's Theory of Self-Attributions and Achievement Motivation These two types of internal views also have implications for children's development in domains beyond academic achievement - Adolescents who maintain an entity theory about personality traits are more likely to demonstrate a __ attributional bias than are adolescents who endorse an incremental theory - - If they hold the view that people's behaviors are due to __ personality traits, rather than due to situations or circumstances, they are more likely to interpret other people's harmful behavior as hostile rather than as accidental or situational - - When adolescents received an intervention about neuroscience concepts designed to shift their perspectives away from the fixed-entity view and closer to the incremental view, there was a __ in participants' hostile attributions Where do these individual differences in internal theories come from? - One obvious source is parents, who often try very hard to enhance their child's self-esteem - Another obvious source is teachers - - The way teachers comfort poor-performing students when the teacher has an entity perspective (as seen in comments like "It's okay; not everyone can be good at math") can undermine their students' motivation and self-expectations

hostile; fixed; reduction

Moral Judgment: Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning - Postconventional or Principled Level Postconventional moral reasoning is centered on __ and moral __ Stage 5: social contract or individual rights orientation - Moral behavior involves upholding rules that are in the best interest of the __ ("the greatest good for the greatest number"), are impartial, or were mutually agreed upon by the group - An individual at this stage might reason that if society agrees that a law is not benefiting everyone, that law should be __ Stage 6: universal ethical principles - Moral behavior in stage 6 is commitment to self-chosen ethical principles that reflect __ principles, such as life, liberty, basic human rights, and the dignity of each human being - Moral reasoning at this stage would assert that these principles must be upheld in any society, regardless of __ opinion - When laws violate these principles, the individual should act in accordance with these universal principles __ the law - So few people ever attained Stage 6 of the postconventional level that Kohlberg eventually stopped scoring it as a separate stage

ideals; principles group; changed universal; majority; over

Sources of Individual Differences in Attachment Styles: Parenting and Attachment Styles The mothers of insecure/resistant infants tend to be __ in their early caregiving: they sometimes respond promptly to their infants' distress, but sometimes they do not - These mothers often seem highly __ and __ by the demands of caregiving Mothers of insecure/avoidant infants tend to be __ and emotionally __, sometimes __ their baby's attempts at physical closeness Mothers of disorganized/disoriented infants sometimes exhibit __, frightening, or __ behaviors and may be dealing with unresolved loss or trauma The association between maternal sensitivity and the quality of infants' and children's attachment has been concentrated in studies involving over 26 different cultural groups - what constitutes sensitive and responsive parenting differs by cultural group - What is the same across cultures is that caregivers respond in a soothing and encouraging manner to the child when they seek their attention

inconsistent; anxious; overwhelmed indifferent; unavailable; rejecting abusive; disorienting

Family Structure: Changes in Family Structure in the US - First-Time Parents are Older Than in the Past The average age at which American women have their first child has __ over the past several decades, from 21 years in 1970 to 27 years in 2016 - This average has increased both because women are __ when they have children and because the __ birth rate has been decreasing Having children at a later age has definite parenting advantages - Older first-time parents tend to have more education, higher-status occupations, and higher incomes than younger parents do - They are less likely to get divorced within 10 years if they are married - Older parents tend to be more __ in their parenting of infants than younger parents are - - For example, one study found that, compared with people who became parents between the ages of 18 and 25, older mothers and fathers had lower rates of observed __ parenting with their 2-year-olds, which, in turn, predicted fewer problem behaviors a year later - - Men who delay parenting until age 30 or later are likewise more __ about the parenting role and tend to be more responsive, affectionate, and cognitively and verbally stimulating with their infants than are younger fathers

increased; delaying; teen positive; harsh; positive

Temperament: - The temperament of any given child is influenced both by their __ and by the __ in which they live; therefore, the construct of temperament is highly relevant to __ differences and the role of nature and nurture in development Thomas and Chess are pioneers of temperament research - They began by interviewing a sample of patents, repeatedly and in depth, about their infants' specific behaviors; on the basis of those interviews, nine characteristics of children were identified, including their mood, adaptability, activity level, attention span, and persistence - Further analyzing the interview results in terms of these characteristics, the researchers classified the infants into three groups: - In the initial study, __% of infants were classified as easy, __% as difficult, and __% as slow to warm up; the rest did not fit into any single category but rather displayed characteristics of more than one category - Of particular importance, some dimensions of temperament showed relative __ within children over time; temperament in infancy predicted how children were doing years later

individual differences in emotion, activity level, and attention that are exhibited across contexts and that are present from infancy and thus thought to be genetically based genes; environment; individual easy babies (quick to warm up), difficult babies (slow to adjust), slow-to-warm-up 40; 10; 15; stability

Putting Words Together: Grammar - A Tool for Building New Words and Sentences Human languages are generative: through the use of the finite set of words and morphemes, individuals can create an __ number of sentences and express an infinite number of ideas - The power of language derives from the mastery of their __, which allows individuals to produce and understand language beyond the specific words and sentences to which they have been __ Much of the research of this topic has focused on morphemes that are added to nouns and verbs - Young children recognize these patterns and are able to generalize them to novel words - In an experiment, preschoolers were shown a picture of a made-up animal, which the experimenter referred to as "a wug": - Evidence for generalization also comes from the way children treat irregular cases - Overregularization: Parents play a role in their children's grammatical development, although a more __ one that one might expect - Clearly, they provide a __ of grammatically correct speech - In addition, they frequently __ __missing parts of their children's incomplete utterances - One might think that parents also contribute by correcting their grammatical errors, but parents generally __ even wildly ungrammatical mistakes, and such efforts are largely __ anyway One way to understand how infants learn the syntax of the native language is by creating __ __-known as artificial grammars-and determining which types of linguistic patterns infants are able to learn - After a brief exposure in the lab, infants as young as 8 months can learn new __ patterns, generalizing beyond the specific items they have heard - For example, infants who have heard a list of three word sequences in which the second word is repeated, such as "le di di, wi je he, etc" recognize the pattern when it is presented in new syllables

infinite; regularities; exposed Then, the children saw a picture of two of the creatures, and the experimenter said, "Here are two of them; what are they?". Children as young as 4 readily answered "wugs". Since the children had never heard the word wugs before, their ability to produce the correct plural form can't be attributed to imitation. Instead, these results provide evidence that the participants had learned the English plural, generalizing beyond words they had previously learned. speech errors in which children treat irregular forms of words as if they were regular - Ex: go -> goed limited; model; fill in; ignore; futile mini languages; grammatical

What is Theory of Mind? Understanding that others have minds and can perceive/believe different __ than you Understanding how the mind works and that mental states influence __ Requires __ others' beliefs, thoughts, and knowledge

information behavior representing

Theoretical Approaches to Gender Development: Cognitive and Motivational Influences - Cognitive Developmental Theory Liben and Bigler proposed that children use two kinds of filters when processing information about the world - Gender schema filter: - - "Is this information __ for my gender?" - Interest filter: - However, Liben and Bigler noted that children sometimes find a new toy attractive without initially evaluating its appropriateness for their gender - Liben and Bigler's modification to gender schema theory helps to account for findings indicating that children are often __ in their gender-typed interests - It also allows for the fact that some children actively pursue certain cross-gender-typed activities simply because they enjoy them Although gender schemas are resistant to change, they can be modified in many children through explicit instruction and encouragement - Such an approach was demonstrated by Bigler and Liben, who created a cognitive intervention program in which elementary school children learned that a person's interests and abilities are important for the kind of job that the person could have: - However, a limitation of interventions aimed at reducing gender stereotyping is that their __ typically fades once the intervention ends

initial evaluation of information as relevant for one's own gender relevant initial evaluation of information as being personally interesting inconsistent Children who participated in this week-long program showed decreased gender stereotyping and also had better memory for gender-inconsistent stimuli impact

Fixed v Growth Mindset praising '__' abilities leaves people vulnerable to failure, fearful of challenges, and unwilling to remedy their shortcomings praising effort promotes __ and academic success

innate perseverance

Constraints on Word Leaning Where do these constraints (whole-object constraint, mutual exclusivity constraint) come from: - innate, domain-specific interactions? - learned via patterns and experience?

innate, domain-specific interactions? - born with it learned via patterns and experience - learn via logic

Moral Judgment: Critique of Piaget's Theory Piaget's theory of moral development has received some support from empirical research - Studies of children from many countries and various racial or ethnic groups have shown that as they age, boys and girls increasingly take __ into account when judging the morality of actions - In addition, parental __ has been associated with less mature moral reasoning and moral behavior, as Piaget predicted - Consistent with Piaget's belief that cognitive development plays a role in the development of moral judgment, children's performances on tests of perspective-taking skills, Piagetian logical tasks, and IQ have all been associated with their level of __ judgment However, the body of research on this topic has led to an overall __ of Piaget's theory of moral judgment - Piaget __ young children's ability to appreciate the role of intentionality in morality - When Piagetian moral vignettes are presented in ways that make the individuals' intentions more __-such as by using video-recorded dramas-preschoolers and early elementary school children are more likely to recognize individuals with bad intentions - In contrast to Piaget's theory, even young children use knowledge of intentionality to evaluate others' behavior: - This ability to appreciate others' intentions is present in children younger than 2: 21-month-olds in another study were more likely to help an adult who had tried (but failed) to assist them in retrieving a toy than an adult who had been unwilling to assist them

intentions; punitiveness; moral rejection; underestimated; obvious In one study, 3-year-olds who saw an adult intend (but fail) to hurt another adult were less likely to help that person than they were if the person's behavior toward the other adult was neutral (intended to neither help not hurt the other). In contrast, the 3-year-olds helped an adult who accidentally caused harm as much as they helped an adult whose behavior was neutral.

Family Dynamics: Parenting - Parenting Styles Although specific parenting behaviors can influence child development, parents' overall style of __ with their children can also govern the parent-child relationship and children's developmental outcomes - Parenting style: In trying to understand the impact that parents can have on children's development, researchers have identified two dimensions of parenting style that are particularly important: (1) the degree of parental __ and __, and (2) the degree of parenting __ and __

interacting parenting behaviors and attitudes that set the emotional climate in regard to parent-child interactions, such as parental responsiveness and demandingness warmth; responsiveness; control; demandingness

Children learn new words best for categories they are __ in

interested

Why do attachment relationships predict anything at all?

internal working models

Family Dynamics: Parenting - Discipline Discipline techniques that apply too much psychological or even physical pressure on children are not effective at promoting __ - Most punishments fall into this category - Punishment: - Punishments, such as time-out or taking away privileges, make clear that the parent disapproves of the misbehavior, but on their own they do not teach the child how to __ in the future - While mild punishments can provide the minimally sufficient pressure needed for internalization, it is important to remember that a parent's slightly raised voice or disapproving look are often all the pressure that is needed to get a child to comply - A large body of research has indicated that spanking is not effective at teaching children how to behave and is linked with a range of unintended negative consequences for children - Other forms of punishment, such as yelling, time-out, taking away privileges, and love withdrawal, have also been found to be ineffective and linked with negative outcomes for children, despite the fact that 20-40% of parents report using each of these methods

internalization a negative stimulus that follows a behavior to reduce the likelihood that the behavior will occur again behave

Milestones in Gender Development: Adolescence According to some developmental psychologists, adolescence is a period when gender roles might become more rigid (gender-role intensification) or more relaxed (gender-role flexibility) depending on individual and contextual factors - Many girls and boys __ traditional gender roles in their personal values - Gender-role intensification: - - Commonly occurs in the context of heterosexual dating when adolescents usually adhere to traditional heterosexual scripts (such as the boy paying for dates) Traditional heterosexual dating scripts stem from ambivalent sexism - Ambivalent sexism: - Although benevolent sexism may seem innocent, it helps to perpetuate gender differences in status and __ when women are expected to rely on their male partners for financial support and safety - Both hostile and benevolent forms of sexism tend to occur __ Also related to increases in gender discrimination during the course of adolescence - A national survey found that most adolescent girls and boys experiences sexual harassment, and the rates increased with age-especially for girls Alternatively, some adolescents may reject traditional gender roles as social conventions - Gender-role flexibility: - Great gender-role flexibility during adolescence is more likely among __ = For girls and boys, gender-role flexibility will partly depend on the breadth of __ they experience in society for their gender ingroup

internalize heightened concerns with adhering to traditional gender roles that may occur during adolescence model of sexism that includes two components, hostile sexism (endorsement of men's dominance with negative views of women seeking equality) and benevolent sexism (the belief that men need to protect women, and that women and men have complementary traits) power; together recognition of gender roles as social conventions and adoption of more flexible attitudes and interests girls; opportunities

The Origins of Aggression and Antisocial Behavior: Social Cognition Children's aggressive behaviors are often in reaction to how they __ social situations - Aggressive children tend to interpret the world through an "aggressive" lens - Their goals in such encounters are more likely to be hostile and inappropriate to the situation, typically involving attempts to __ or get back at a peer - When asked to come up with possible solutions to a negative social situation, aggressive children generate __ options than do nonaggressive children, and those options are more likely to involve aggressive or disruptive behavior Most children are more likely to describe their own aggressive behavior as a __ reaction to the behavior of others than they are to describe their helping behaviors as such - A study asked 7, 11, and 16 year olds to describe their reasons behind a specific instance in which they hurt a friend and one in which they helped a friend: - Aggressive children are also inclined to evaluate aggressive responses more favorably and prosocial responses less favorably; this is partly because aggressive children feel more __ of their ability to perform acts of aggression, and they expect their aggressive behavior to result in __ outcomes as well as to reduce negative treatment by others -Aggressive children are predisposed to aggressive behavioral choices, which, in turn, appears to increase children's subsequent tendency to __ evaluate aggressive interpersonal behaviors, further increasing the level of future antisocial conduct Although these aspects of functioning contribute to the prediction of children's aggression, not all aggressive children exhibit the same biases in social cognition - Reactive aggression: - Proactive aggression:

interpret; intimidate; fewer natural Each age group focused on their own perspective and on external constraints when explaining hurtful actions. However, each group focused on their friends' perspective in describing the reasons behind their helpful behaviors. confident; positive; positively emotionally driven, antagonistic aggression sparked by one's perception that other people's motives are hostile unemotional aggression aimed at fulfilling a need or desire

Milestones in Gender Development: Adolescence - Gender-Typed Behavior During early adolescence, peer contacts for most youth remain primarily with members of the same gender - However, in many cultural communities, mixed-gender interactions and friendships become more common during adolescence Adolescence is also a period of increased __ in same-gender friendships Self-disclosure and supportive listening are generally associated with relationship satisfaction and emotional adjustment - However, it's possible to have too much of a good thing; i.e. __

intimacy corumination

Divorced Parents As a result of the stress associated with such changes, the parenting style of newly divorced parents, compared with that of parents in two-parent families, often tends to be characterized by more __ and coercion and by less __, emotional availability, consistency, and supervision of children - This outcome is unfortunate because children tend to adjust best during and after the divorce if their custodial parent is __ and emotionally available Divorce can thus disrupt children's __ and social networks - Sometimes as a result of the financial hardship that accompanies being a single parent, and sometimes for other practical reasons, the custodial parent may move the children to a new neighborhood and a new school; children then must go through an often wrenching transition to a new home, neighborhood, school, and peer group at the same time that they are adjusting to a new family structure - All of these potentially stressful life changes during and after divorce can affect children's mental health directly but can also affect children indirectly by undermining __ parenting and enjoyable family interactions

irritability; warmth; supportive routines; positive

Theme 2: Children Play Active Roles in Their Own Development Children are physically active even in the womb - Physically __ Mentally learning enough about the __ in a story their mother repeatedly reads aloud that, as newborns, they react differently to that story than to ones their mother did not read aloud From first minutes outside the womb, infants selectively __ on objects and events that interest them rather than passively gazing at whatever appears before their eyes Their actions also produce __ in other people

kicking sound focus reactions

Risks for Maltreatment Certain characteristics increase the risk for maltreatment, such as parents' lack of __ about their children's needs and abilities or strong negative reaction to __, or the family's low __, inadequate housing and material __, or __ isolation - Parental alcohol and other drug dependence also increase the probability of maltreatment, as does whether a parent is in an abusive romantic relationship Parents with a history of being maltreated themselves are __ as likely (29%) as parents without a maltreatment history (15%) to maltreat their own children

knowledge; stress; income; resources; social twice

Theoretical Approaches to Gender Development: Cognitive and Motivational Influences - Cognitive Developmental Theory In contrast to Kohlberg's view that gender-typed interests emerge after gender constancy is achieved, gender schema theory holds that the motivation to enact gender-typed behavior begins as soon as children can __ other people's and their own gender, usually by about 3 years of age, which is younger than when gender constancy is attained According to this theory, children's understanding of gender develops through their __ of gender schemas - Gender schemas: - Include memories of one's own __ with males and females, gender stereotypes transmitted directly by adults and peers, and messages conveyed indirectly through the media - Children use an ingroup/outgroup gender schema to classify other people as being either "the same as me" or not - The motivation for cognitive consistency leads them to __, pay attention to, and remember more about others of their own gender - As a consequence, an own-gender schema is formed, consisting of detailed knowledge about how to do things that are __ with one's own gender - In one illustrative study that tested the impact of gender schemas on children's information processing, researchers presented 4- to 9-year-olds with three boxes: - Another observational study conducted in a preschool classroom demonstrated the influence of same-gender peers in determinations of gender-appropriate behavior:

label construction organized mental representations (concepts, beliefs, memories) about gender, including gender stereotypes experiences; prefer; consistent Each box contained objects unfamiliar to the children, and each box was separately labeled as "boys," "girls," or "boys and girls/girls and boys". The children spent more time exploring objects in boxes labeled for their own gender (or for both genders) than objects in the box labeled only for the other gender. One week later, not surprisingly, they remembered more details about the objects they had explored than about the objects they had explored than about the ones with which they had spent less time. Boys approached toys that were being played with primarily by boys and shunned those that seemed popular mainly with girls

What is Required for Language? Human Environment. Children must also be exposed to other people using __-any language, signed or spoken-for language to develop - Adequate linguistic experience is readily available in the environment of almost all children around the world Infants identify speech as something __ very early on - When given the choice, newborns prefer listening to __ rather than to artificial sounds - Newborns also prefer nonhuman __ vocalizations to other nonspeech sounds, and show no preference for speech over macaque vocalizations until 3 months of age - These results suggest that infants' auditory preferences are fine-tuned through __ with human language

language important; speech; primate; experience

Putting Words Together: Conversational Skills Although young children are early to participate in conversations, their conversational skills lag behind their __ skills - Vygotsky believed that young children's private speech serves as a strategy to __ their thoughts - Gradually, private speech is internalized as thought, and children become capable of mentally organizing their behavior, so they no longer need to talk out loud to themselves - When young children converse with other children, their conversations tend to be __ __ labeled young children's talk with their peers as collective monologues - Collective monologues: Gradually, children's capacity for sustained conversation increases, and they become better able to stick to the same topic as their conversational partners - They also become better able to talk about the __ - Three-year-olds' conversations include occasional brief references to past events if any 5-year-olds produce narratives - Narratives: - Parents actively assist their children in developing the ability to produce coherent accounts of past events by scaffolding their children's narratives

language; organize; egocentric Piaget conversation between children that involves a series on non sequiturs, with the content of each child's turn having little or nothing to do with what the other child has just said past story-like structured descriptions of past events

Theoretical Approaches to Gender Development: Cognitive and Motivational Influences Cognitive theories of gender development emphasize the ways that children __ gender-typed attitudes and behaviors through observation, inference, and practice - According to these explanations, children form expectations about gender that __ their behavior Cognitive theories stress children's active self-socialization - Self-socialization: - Self-socialization occurs in gender development when children seek to behave in __ with their gender identity as a girl or a boy-or possibly as transgender, gender fluid, or agender However, cognitive theories also emphasize the role of the environment-the different role models, opportunities, and incentives that girls and boys might experience

learn; guide active process during development whereby children's cognitions lead them to perceive the world and to act in accord with their expectations and beliefs accord

Theoretical Approaches to Gender Development: Social Cognitive Theory Bussey and Bandura proposed a theory that depicts a triadic model of reciprocal causation among personal factors, environmental factors, and behavior patterns According to social cognitive theory, learning occurs through tuition, enactive experience, and observation - Tuition: - Enactive experience: - Observational learning: - Involves four key processes: According to social cognitive theory, gender development became a process of self-__ (or self-socialization), whereby children monitor their behavior and evaluate how well it matches personal standards - After making this evaluation, children may feel pride or shame - When individuals experience positive self-reactions for their behavior, they fain the sense of personal agency referred to as self-efficacy

learning through direct teaching - Ex: a father showing his son how to throw a baseball learning to take into account the reactions one's past behavior has evoked in others - Ex: girls and boys receiving positive reactions for behaviors that are gender-stereotypical learning through watching other people and the consequences others experience as a result of their actions attention, memory, production, and motivation regulations

Learning Theories: Social-Learning Theory Social-learning theory, like other learning-oriented theories, attempts to account for social development in terms of __ mechanisms - However, unlike Skinner's focus on reinforcement, social-learning theory emphasizes __ and __ - Albert Bandura, for example, had argued that most human learning is inherently social in nature and is based on observation of the behavior of other people - Children learn rapidly and efficiently simply from __ what other people do and then __ them - They can also learn from __ models, that is, from reading books and viewing screen, in the absence of any direct reinforcement for their behavior Over time, Bandura increasingly emphasized the __ aspects of observational learning, eventually renaming his view "social cognitive theory" - Observational learning clearly depends on basic cognitive processes of __ to others' behavior, __ what is observed, __ the information in memory, and __ it at some later time in order to reproduce the behavior observed earlier Unlike earlier learning theorists like Watson and Skinner, Bandura emphasized the active role of children in their own development, describing development as a reciprocal determinism between children and their social environment - Reciprocal determinism: - The basic idea of this concept is that children have characteristics that lead them to seek particular kinds of __ with the external world

learning; observation; imitation; watching; imitating; indirect cognitive; attention; encoding; storing; retrieving child-environment influences operate in both directions; children are both affected by and influence aspects of their environment interactions

Stepparents A parent's remarriage often leads to __ frequent contact with the noncustodial parent, which can be stressful to the child and can lead to difficulties adjusting to the stepparent A custodial parent's remarriage can have a positive effect on family income, although if a stepparent is supporting their open biological children from a previous marriage, that impact will be __ - A child who bonds with the stepparent also gains another trusted adult in their life, which can have positive benefits for emotional and behavioral health - Positive relationships with each parent (both biological and stepparents) can have independent __ effects on children, including reduced stress Both the benefits and challenges in stepfamilies may differ somewhat for families with stepfathers and those with stepmothers - Conflict between stepfathers and stepchildren tends to be __ than that between fathers and their biological offspring, perhaps in part because stepfathers are more likely to see the children as burdens than their biological fathers are - Stepmothers generally have more difficulty with their stepchildren than do stepfathers, possibly because the biological fathers expect stepmothers to take an __ role in parenting, and children frequently resent and reject the stepmothers' role as disciplinarian - Children of both sexes are most __ in stepfamilies when the stepparent is warm and involved and supports the custodial parent's decisions rather than trying to exert control over the children independently - An additional fact in children's adjustment in stepfamilies is the attitude of the __ biological parent toward the __ and the level of conflict between the two

less diminished; positive greater; active; adjusted; noncustodial; stepparent

Putting Words Together: Later Development While children continue to develop their language skills beyond the ages of 5 or 6 years, this later development is __ dramatic than in the early years of life - For example, the ability to sustain a conversation, which grows so dramatically in the preschool years, continues to improve into adulthood - School-age children become increasingly capable of __ upon and __ language, and they master more complex __ structures, such as the use of passive constructions in languages like English - One consequence of schoolchildren's more reflective language skills is their increasing appreciation of the multiple __ of words, which is responsible for the emergence of the endless series of puns, riddles, and jokes with which they delight themselves and torture their parents - They are also able to learn the meaning of new words by hearing them __, a factor that helps their comprehension vocabulary expand-from the 10,000 words that the average 6-year-old knows to the 40,000 words estimated for 5th-graders to the average college-student vocabulary that has been estimated to be as high as 150,000 words

less; reflecting; analyzing; grammatical; meanings; defined

What is Required for Language? A human brain. Human children learn language with __ explicit teaching Humans are notoriously __ at learning the communicative systems of other species Brain-language lateralization - There are __ differences in language functioning - For the 90% of people who are right handed, language is primarily represented and controlled by the left hemisphere - Left-hemisphere __ for most aspects of language emerges very early in life The reasons for the left hemisphere predominance in linguistic stimuli isn't known - One possibility is that the left hemisphere is innately predisposed to process languages but not other types of stimuli - However, lifelong signers process sign languages in left-lateralized language centers in the brain, whereas non-signers do no, illustrating experience-dependent plasticity, which suggests that left-hemisphere brain regions are not solely specialized for spoken languages but are used for signed languages as well

little poor hemispheric; specialization

Effects of Friendships on Psychological Functioning and Behavior Support and Validation - Children with best friends and with intimate, supportive friendships experience less __ than children who do not have a best friend or whose friends are less caring and intimate - Children who experience chronic friendliness are more likely than children with friends to develop symptoms of __ and social withdrawal - The support of friends can be particularly important during periods of transition - - For example, young children have more positive initial attitudes toward school if they begin school with a large number of established __ as classmates - - As children move into junior high, they are more likely to increase their levels of __ and leadership if they have stable, high-quality, intimate __ - Friendships may also serve as a __ against unpleasant experiences, such as being yelled at, being excluded or victimized by peers, or being socially isolated - - In one study, 10 and 11 year olds reported on their negative experiences over a 4-day period, indicating shortly affect each bad experience how they felt about themselves and whether or not a best friend has been present during each episode: - The degree to which friends provide caring and support generally __ from childhood into adolescence - - Around age 16, adolescents, especially girls, report that friends are more important confidantes and providers of support than their __ are

loneliness; depression; friends; sociability; friendships; buffer The researchers also recorded the children's cortisol levels multiple times each day, as a measure of the children's stress reactions. The results showed that when a best friend was not present, the more negative children's everyday experiences were, the creator the increase in their cortisol levels and the greater the decline in their sense of self-worth following each experience. When a best friend was present, there was less change in cortisol response and in the child's self-worth due to negative experiences. increases; parents

Tuning Perception to the Native Language ERP study: If an infant is better at discriminating sounds in a non-native language, their vocabulary is __.

lower - Both native and nonnative discrimination predict vocabularies, but in opposite ways - It means you aren't narrowing in on the language that matters to you

Self-Esteem: Culture and Self-Esteem In Western cultures, self-esteem is related to individual accomplishments and self-promotion whereas in Asian societies, which traditionally have had a collectivist orientation, self-esteem is believed to be more related to contributing to the welfare of the larger group and affirming the norms of social interdependence Thus, scores on measures of self-esteem vary considerably across cultures - Self-esteem scores tend to be __ in Eastern than Western cultures - These differences seem to be partly due to the greater emphasis that the Asian cultures place on modesty and self-effacement-which results in less positive __ - In some Asian societies, people tend to be more comfortable acknowledging __ in themselves than are people in Western cultures; this tendency results in reports of lower self-esteem in late adolescence and early adulthood Surprisingly, studies have shown that cultures does not appear to be a factor in gender differences related to self-esteem - A large study of 1 million adolescents and adults in 48 countries confirmed that males have __ self-esteem on average than females, and that while self-esteem increased from age 16 on for both genders, females' self-esteem on average never reachers that of males - However, this same study found that gender differences in self-esteem were largest in countries that were wealthy, individualistic, and egalitarian, were women officially have the same freedoms as men, rather than in highly patriarchal societies where gender roles are traditionally more restrictive

lower; self-descriptions; discrepanices higher

The Role of Family in Emotional Development: Parents' Socialization of Children's Emotional Responses - Parents' Discussion of Emotion Family conversations about emotion are an important aspect of children's emotional socialization - By discussing emotions with their children, parents teach them about the __ of emotions, the __ in which they should and should not be expressed, and the __ of expressing or not expressing Emotion coaching: - Children who receive this type of guidance tend to display better emotional __ thank children who do not - A longitudinal study found, for example, that the degree to which children are exposed to, and participate in, discussions of emotions with family members at ages 2 and 3 predicts their understanding of __ emotions until at least age 6 - In two similar studies, mothers' __ to their children's desires at 15 months of age predicted their children's understanding of emotions and use of emotion language at 24 months - - In fact, mothers' verbal references to others' thoughts and knowledge when describing a series of pictures to their children at 24 months of age predicted children's use of emotion __ and understanding of emotion at 33 months of age - - In these same two studies, as well as in another, mothers' references to others' mental states predicted children's emotion understanding better than did mothers' references to __ themselves, perhaps because references to mental states help children understand the thoughts that accompany - Researchers have also found that children whose parents use emotion coaching are more socially competent with peers, more empathic, and less likely to exhibit problem behaviors or depression than are children who do not receive such guidance - - Of course, children's own characteristics-such as their ability to sustain attention and their initial understanding of emotions-may affect the degree to which adults talk about emotion with them - - For instance, in one study, parents engaged in more conversations about emotional past events with their 5- and 6-year-olds if the children were relatively well regulated and if their expression of negative emotions such as anger, sadness, or fear was __ with what their parents expected from a child of their age

meanings; circumstances; consequences the use of discussion and other forms of instruction to teach children how to cope with and properly express emotions understanding; others'; references; language; emotions; consistent

The Role of Family in Emotional Development: Parents' Expression of Emotion Parents' expression of emotion provides children with a __ of when and how to express emotion - This modeling may affect children's understanding of what types of emotional expressions are __ and __ in interpersonal relations - - In families in which parents tend not to express emotions, children may get the message that emotions are basically __ and should be avoided/inhibited - In addition, the parental emotions to which children are exposed may affect their general level of __ and arousal in social interactions, in turn affecting their ability to __ important information about the interactions that would help them moderate their behavior The consistent and open expression of emotions in the home is associated with children's emotional expressions as well as their behavior - In a review of studies, researchers found that when positive emotions such as happiness are prevalent in the home, children tend to express __ themselves - - These children in turn are socially skilled, well adjusted, low in __, able to understand others' emotions, and typically high in self-esteem - - In a recent study in China, researchers found that the more often mothers expressed positive emotions to their children, the better their children were at understanding emotion __ rules - In contrast, when negative emotions such as anger are prevalent in the home, especially when they are intense, children tend to exhibit low levels of social __ and to experience and express negative emotion themselves, including depression and anxiety - - Even when the conflict or anger in the home is not directed at the children, there is an increased likelihood that they will develop anger, behavior problems, and deficits in social competence and self-regulation - - These outcomes are also more likely when children are exposed to high levels of parental depression, perhaps in part because children of depressed parents are especially attentive to expressions of __ in others

model; appropriate; effective; bad; distress; process happiness; aggression; display; competence; sadness

Childcare and Cognitive and Language Development Research suggests that high-quality childcare can have a __, __ effect on cognitive and language development, although the effects somewhat weaken over time - Overall, the number of hours in childcare does not correlate with cognitive or language development when demographic variables such as family income were taken into account; however, higher-quality childcare that included specific __ to stimulate children's language development was linked to better cognitive and language development in the first 3 years of life - Children in higher-quality childcare scored higher on tests of pre-academic cognitive skills, language abilities, and attention than did those in lower-quality care - Children from low-income families who spend long hours in childcare, compared with those who spend fewer hours, tend to show __ in quantitative skills; it's likely that childcare, unless it's low quality, provides greater cognitive __ than is available in some low-income homes

modest; positive; efforts; increases; stimulation

Harlow's Monkeys - Said there's something about attachment beyond __ - Love is not just reward: monkeys raised in isolated environment even with cloth mother had huge __ problems

monkeys preferred contact with the comfortable cloth mother than the one with the food rewards; behavioral

Social Domain Theory of Moral Development Social domain theory argues that, in order to successfully negotiate their social worlds, children must understand principles in three different domains of social knowledge: Moral domain: - For example, knowing that it is not acceptable to __ another child's toy - Parents play an important role in this domain by teaching children how and why to __ with, take the __ of, and __ other children and adults Societal domain: - For example: choices about clothing, manners, and forms of greeting - Knowledge in this domain helps children negotiate __ with peers and adults in their environments Personal domain: - For example, decisions children might make about their appearance, how they spend their money, their choice of friends - Decisions children make in this domain are central to the development of their sense of __ as well as their identity

moral domain, societal domain, personal domain an area of social knowledge based on concepts of right and wrong, fairness, justice, and individual rights; these concepts apply across contexts and supersede rules or authority seal; cooperate; perspective; help an area of social knowledge that encompasses concepts regarding the rules and conventions through which societies maintain order interactions an area of social knowledge that pertains to actions in which individual preferences are the main consideration; there are no right or wrong choices autonomy

The Origins of Aggression and Antisocial Behavior: Family Influences - SES and Children's Antisocial Behavior Children from low-income families tend to be __ antisocial and aggressive - This pattern is highlighted by the finding that when families escaped from poverty, 4-7 year olds tended to become __ aggressive and antisocial, whereas families' remaining in poverty or moving into poverty was associated with an increase in antisocial behavior One major factor is the greater number of __ experienced by children in poor families, including stress in the family and neighborhood violence - Low SES tends to be associated with with living in a single-parent family or being an unplanned child of a teen parent, and stressors of these sorts are linked to increased aggression and antisocial behavior - Because of the many stressors they face, impoverished parents are more likely to be __ and low in warmth; to use erratic, threatening, and harsh discipline; and to be lax in supervising their children

more; less stressors; rejecting

Ethnic and Racial Identity Establishing a clear ethnic identification may be more difficult and less consistent for some adolescents, such as multi-ethnic or multi-racial youth, who could develop identifications with __ than one ethnic or racial group - However, when ethnic- or racial-minority parents actively socialize their children by teaching about their culture and instilling pride, children tend to have a more __ ethnic and racial identity and are less __ to the negative effects of discrimination - In some cases, ethnic- and racial-minority youth develop a bicultural identity that includes a comfortable identification with both the majority culture and their own ethnic culture The study of racial and ethnic identities has almost entirely focused on children in racial or ethnic minority families; however, children growing up in White families in the US also experience socialization from parents that helps shape their beliefs about their own race and ethnic identity - Research indicated White parents often do not discuss race with their children or do not think they __ a "race" and that some White parents actively teach their children to be "colorblind" Ethnic and racial identities are also linked with adolescents' self-esteem - Despite the fact that African American children and adolescents experience discrimination and stereotyping, they have __ self-esteem on average than their White peers - Although discrimination can have a negative effect on adolescents' self-esteem, how ethnic minority children and adolescents think about themselves is influenced much more strongly by __ from their family, neighbors, and friends than by __ from strangers and the society at large

more; positive; susceptible have higher; acceptance; reactions

Box 12.5 Applications: Family-Leave Policies Paid family leave has been linked with a range of important child outcomes, including a decrease in infant __, an __ in breast-feeling, an increase in vaccination rates, and a __ in child maltreatment

mortality; increase; reductions

Trolley problem alternative: the only thing that can save the people is if you push the overweight man off of the bridge

most people will say no; intuitions differ because it's a different rational picture

Consequences of Maltreatment Children who are maltreated experience a range of immediate outcomes that can include physical pain and injury (from physical or sexual abuse); hunger, cold, or other physical discomfort (from neglect); and fear or anxiety (from any type of maltreatment, but particularly from emotional abuse) The effects emerge early: 3-month-old infants who have been physically abused show increased rates of fearfulness, anger, and sadness while interacting with their __ - In later infancy, maltreated infants are at risk of developing an unusual attachment pattern to their caregivers, known as the __/__ attachment pattern Children who are victims are at an increased risk of developing __ delays and __ behaviors and of engaging in risky behaviors in adolescence and into adulthood Children who are victims of physical abuse show a heightened response to anger cues that manifests in increased __ behavior, changes in brain functioning and other physiological responses that are typical responses to threats, and increased negative emotion, as measured via facial musculature

mother; disorganized; disoriented cognitive; antisocial aggressive

Eliciting Reactions from Other People The effects that children's initial inclinations have on their parents' behavior toward them __ over time - Children's characteristics and behavior also influence their peers - Peer reactions to children's behavior often have long-term consequences; children who were rejected by peers when younger are more likely than children who were popular to have __ later in school and to engage in criminal activity

multiple; difficulty

Word Comprehension Babies respond to their own __ around 4 months Word learning is happening from the __ Maybe around 6 months they learn very basic things

name beginning

Me vs. Not Me: What Enables Self-Awareness in Infancy? a certain __ of visual/social experience general improvements in __ understanding __ from caregivers of what the child looks like conversations about noteworthy events ("remember where we went last week?" - child creates __ which contributes to understanding as self as stable

threshold symbolic descriptions self-narrative

Effects of Friendships on Psychological Functioning and Behavior: The Possible Costs of Friendships and Negative Peer Interactions Not all peer interactions are positive, not even when those peers are considered to be a child's close friends - Peers can encourage __ behaviors, such as aggression or alcohol and substance use - They can also be a source of emotional and physical harm through __ Aggressive and disruptiveness - Friends who have behavioral problems may exert a __ influence, contributing to the likelihood that a child or adolescent will engage in violence, drug use, or other negative behaviors - In the elementary school years and early adolescence, children who have antisocial and aggressive friends tend to exhibit antisocial, delinquent, and aggressive tendencies __ - Aggressive and disruptive children may gravitate toward peers who are __, thereby taking an active role in creating their own peer groups - At the same time, friends appear to affect one another's behavior - - Through their talk and behavior, youths who are antisocial may both __ and __ aggression and deviance in one another by making these behaviors seem acceptable, a process known as deviancy training Alcohol and substance abuse - Adolescents tend to choose friends who are __ to themselves in terms of drinking and drug use - Youths who are susceptible to peer pressure seem particularly __ to any pressure and, as in the case of aggression, this is especially true if those friends have high status in the peer group - There's evidence that adolescents' use of alcohol and drugs and their friends' alcohol and substance use mutually __ each other, often resulting in an escalation of use - Another factor in the association between adolescents' drug abuse and alcohol and that of their friends is their __ makeup - - Youths with similar genetically based __ characteristics such as risk-taking may be drawn both to one another and to alcohol or drugs - - Thus, friends' alcohol and drug abuse may be correlated because of their similarity in genetically based characteristics as well as in their socialization experience - The extent to which friends' use of drugs and alcohol may put individuals at risk for use themselves seems to depend on the nature of the __ relationship - - Adolescents with substance-using close friends are at risk primarily if those adolescents' parents are uninvolved - - If their parents are authoritative, they're more protected against peer pressure - - If the parents are authoritarian, they're more susceptible to peers' drug use and thus to using drugs themselves

negative; bullying detrimental; themselves; similar; model; reinforce similar; vulnerable; reinforce; genetic; temperamental; child-parent

Box 12.1 Individual Differences: Teenagers as Parents The children of teen parents also have a higher risk for __ outcomes than their peers, including school readiness, language ability, and academic achievement - They also tend to have __ education, income, and life satisfaction as young adults - Teen parents spend less time __ with and __ to their children and more time speaking and behaving __ with them, and these factors are linked to lower __ and more __ problems in children One explanation for these findings is that teen mothers tend to have had high levels of exposure to __ childhood experiences in their own childhoods, which in turn leads to greater parenting stress and a stronger reliance on physical punishment, both of which predict their children's behavior problems Intervention programs that teach teens how to be responsive parents have been found to be __ at improving their parenting skills and in turn improving their children's cognitive development - One promising strategy being used by pediatric clinics around the country is the implementation of "teen-tot" programs - - These programs allow teen parents and their children to be seen by the same doctor and also provide an array of other services, including child development education, parenting education, safety education, family planning, and financial planning - - A randomized experiment involving a teen-tot program in Boston found that teen mothers in the program were higher in caretaking skills, higher in self-esteem, and lower in rates of repeat pregnancy than teen mothers in the control group - - However, the intervention __ reduce teen mothers' depressive symptoms or their risk for maltreating their children

negative; less; interacting; reading; harshly; achievement; behavior adverse effective; didn't

Screen Time and Physical Inactivity There's a __ relationship between screen time and physical activity in the tween and teen years - When a child both exceeds screen time recommendations and has a TV in their bedroom-as do more than half of 8-18 year olds-the child is at heightened risk of becoming __ - In a recent study in China, where rates of childhood obesity are rising, high levels of screen viewing predicted increased obesity in grade school, as did high levels of after-school homework and inadequate sleep The WHO recently issued guidelines suggesting that children under 5 should have no more than 1 hour of sedentary screen time per day, and children under 2 should have none

negative; obese

Genes, Environment, and the Development of Intelligence: Effects of Poverty The __ effects of poverty of children's IQ scores are indisputable - Even after taking into account the mother's education, whether both parents live with the child, and the child's race, the adequacy of family income for meeting family needs is __ to children's IQ scores - The more years children spend in poverty, the __ their scores tend to be Poverty can exert negative effects on intellectual development in numerous ways - Chronic inadequate diet early in life can disrupt brain __; missing meals on a given day (e.g., achievement test day) can impair __ functioning on that day; reduced access to health services can result in more __ from school; conflicts between adults in the household can produce __ turmoil that interferes with learning; insufficient intellectual stimulation can lead to a lack of __ knowledge needed to understand new material; and so on In all countries that have been studied, children from wealthier homes tend to score higher on IQ and achievement tests than do children from poorer homes - Large mean differences between children from less and more affluent backgrounds are already __ in measures of reading and math knowledge when children enter kindergarten, and the differences grow even larger over the course of schooling In those developed countries where the income gap between rich and poor is widest, such as the US, the difference between the intellectual achievement of children from rich and poor homes is much larger than in countries in which the income gap is smaller - Children from affluent US families score, on average, about the same on mathematics achievement tests as children from affluent families in some comparison countries with greater income equality; but children from poor US families score far below children from poor families in those same comparison countries - The key difference is that poor US families are much poorer, relative to others in their society, than their counterparts in many other developed countries; in 2015-2016, 22% of US children lived in families with lower than 50% of the median family income, which is far more than other countries

negative; related; lower development; intellectual; absences; emotional; background present

Box 13.1 Individual Differences: The Development of Children's Social Play In the 30s, a researcher named Mildred Parten attempted to determine whether children's social play, or the extent to which they play with others, followed a developmental sequence She observed 42 children enrolled at a preschool at the University of Minnesota over a period of 7 months From her multiple observations of each classroom, she identified six types of play that increase in complexity of their social interactions The least complex play is __-children choose and engage in activities by themselves - This type of play is observed more among the __ children (below 2) who are in the process of learning language as well as social norms for interacting with peers The most complex forms of play are __ and are observed more among the __ children (4+), who are able to engage in more advanced play as they master communication and self-regulatory skills Non-social types of play - Unoccupied play: - Onlooker play: - Solitary play: Social types of play - Parallel play: - Associative play: - cooperative play: The higher the children scored in __ emotion knowledge, the more they engaged in social forms of play and the less they engaged in the non-social forms of play

non-social; youngest social; oldest child watches things in the environment, but only briefly; nothing holds their interest for very long child watches other children's play; child may ask questions about the play but will not try to join in child is engrossed in their own activity and doesn't attend to the behavior of others; all preschoolers engaged in this at some point, but some more than others child plays alongside, but not with, other children; typically engaged in similar but independent activities child plays with other children in a common activity; may share toys with a peer or comment on their behavior, but don't have a shared goal; each child does what they want and don't coordinate child plays with peers in an organized activity with a goal, which involves playing a game, reaching an aim, or enacting a dramatic situation from daily life; typically involves a distinction in roles and children who don't conform to their roles may be criticized by the other participants situational

Milestones in Gender Development: Middle Childhood - Gender-Typed Behavior Most cisgender girls and boys spend time primarily in same-gender peer groups throughout childhood - On average, boys' and girls' peer groups establish somewhat different __ for behavior - The gender-role norms seen in the social interactions of many cisgender girls and boys tend to reflect differences in the __ of assertion and affiliation - Assertion: - Affiliation: - Collaboration: Average gender differences in girls' and boys' peer cultures reflect the organization of gender in the larger society However, valuing affiliation is not necessarily incompatible with self-assertion As with most average gender differences, there is also considerable __ between girls and boys in collaboration and other styles of social behavior - When children violate gender-role norms, their peers often react __, including mercilessly teasing someone who has crossed gender "borders" Although most cisgender children typically favor same-gender peers, in certain contexts friendly mixed-gender contacts regularly occur - At home and in the neighborhood, the choice of play companions is frequently limited - In more public settings, the implicit convention is that girls and boys can be friendly if they can attribute the reason for their cross-gender contact to an __ cause Overall, gender typing during childhood tends to be more rigid among __

norms; balance tendency to take action of behalf of the self through competitive, independent, or aggressive behavior tendency to affirm connection with others through being emotionally open, empathetic, or supportive coordination of assertion and affiliation in behavior, such as making initiative for joint activity overlap; negatively; external boys

Social Domain Theory of Moral Development: Cultural and Socioeconomic Similarities and Differences Cultures around the world share some characteristics when it comes to how their members make moral decisions - All human societies maintain social order through __ - The moral, societal, and personal judgments are found across cultures, and children's ability to __ among the domains appears across a variety of cultures - - __ judgments in particular, such as judgments about behaviors related to fairness and the welfare of others, are largely universal - - - For example, a study of seven countries found that children from all countries protested when they were at a disadvantage compared to another child; however, only children form three countries recognized unfairness when they were the one at advantage What issues fall within the societal domain or the personal domain differ across cultures - Ex: one's obligation to attend to the needs of one's parents and to try to address the needs of friends or strangers: -A hint about the source of the differences between the behaviors of children in these two countries came from an experiment in which parents were asked to model giving a stingy or generous donation to unseen adults while their children watched: - Even within a given society, __ beliefs may affect what is considered a moral judgment or a societal judgment - Socioeconomic class can also influence the way children make such designations - - Research in the US and Brazil indicates that children of lower-income families are somewhat less likely than middle-class children to differentiate sharply between moral and societal actions and, prior to adolescence, are less likely to view personal judgments as a matter of choice; which may be due to the tendency of individuals of low SES to place a greater emphasis on __ to authority and to allow children less __

norms; distinguish; moral Children in India believe they have a clear moral obligation to attend to these needs, while children in the US consider it a matter of personal judgment or a combination of moral and personal judgments. The children were then provided with 10 candies and given the opportunity to donate a portion to an unseen child. US children in the generous parent model condition were no more generous with their own candies than were children in a control condition with no parent-modeled behavior. However, US children did become more stingy than children in a control condition when they observed their parents being stingy. In contrast, Indian children's behavior was affected both when parents were generous and when they were stingy. Overall, in the generous condition, 10% or fewer of US children shared more than half of their candies at any of the ages studies, while more than 20% of Indian 3-4-year-olds, 60% of Indian 5-6-year-olds, and 50% of 7-8-year-olds shared more than half of their candies. religious; submission; autonomy

Historical Perspective on Morality: Kohlberg also believed that the right way to probe children's reasoning was to present scenarios and code their answers preconventional, stage 1 - __ to authority, fear of __ - pro stealing: "if you let your wide die, you will get in trouble" - con: "you shouldn't steal because you could go to jail" preconventional, stage 2 - what it right is what is in one's own best __ - might involve __ exchange between people - pro: "he can always pay him back" - con: the druggiest just wants to make a profit like others conventional, stage 3 - moral behavior is that which __ or is approved by others - primary objective is to be thought of as "__" - pro: "no one will think you are bad for stealing the drug, but your family will think you are inhuman if you don't" - con: "if you steal, you might bring dishonor on your family; you won't be able to face anyone" conventional, stage 4 - what is right is upholding __ and __ to group/society - kids don't fear __, but believe rules and laws maintain __ - pro: "the druggist is leading the wrong kind of life is he lets someone die, so he had to steal, but he must pay the druggist back and accept punishment" - con: "natural to want to steal, but you have to follow the rules regardless of personal feelings" postconventional, stage 5 - laws are instruments that express the will of the __ and further human values - laws that compromise rights might be __ - pro: "Heinz should steal because the right to life transcends the right to property" postconventional, stage 6 - hold abstract moral guidelines of universal justice that transcend any law or social contract that may conflict with them

obedience; punishment interest; equal helps; good laws; contributing; punishment; order majority; challenged

Box 10.2 A Closer Look: Basic Emotional Expressions in Infants To make their own interpretations of infant's emotions more __, researchers have devised highly elaborate systems for identifying the emotional meaning of infants' facial expressions - These systems involve coding dozens of __ cues-whether an infant's eyebrows are raised or knitted; whether the eyes are wide open, tightly closed, or narrows; whether the lips are pursed, softly rounded, or retracted; and so on-and then analyzing the combinations in which these cues are present AFFEX is a prominent system for coding emotions in infants that linked particular facial expressions and facial muscle movements with particular __ - Researchers first watch training videos of infants' facial expressions and compare what they see on screen to the official set of AFFEX facial codes; when they consistently agree with the official set, they have established __ __ - They can then watch videos of infants' and older children's faces and make note of which facial and muscle movements they see The AFFEX system has been used to demonstrate links between children's emotional expressions and their emotion __ skills and social behaviors - In one study conducted with 3- to 5-year-olds attending a Head Start center, the more the children expressed anger and sadness in a lab task, the more they displayed __ __ and __ problems in their classrooms 6 months later

objective; facial emotions; interrater reliability regulation; mental health; behavior

social class

one's access to social and economic resources as well as one's rank relative to others in society

Sexual identity: __ is the most common time for youth the begin experiencing feelings of sexual attraction to others - Studies using a variety of methodologies, including twin and adoption studies as well as epigenetic studies, indicate that a person's sexual orientation is at least partly __; identical twins, for example, are more likely to exhibit similar sexual orientations than are fraternal twins 88.8% of high school students reported being heterosexual, 6.0% reported being bisexual, 2.0% reported by gay, and 3.2% weren't shore Throughout childhood and adolescence, sexual-minority youth often feel "different", and some even display __ behaviors from a relatively early age - This process begins with the first recognition-an initial realization that one is somewhat __ from others, accompanied by feelings of alienation from oneself and others - - At this point, the individual is generally aware that same-sex attractions may be the relevant issue but does not reveal this to others - Across genders, sexual identities, and age, most participants reported experiencing their first same-sex attraction between 10-15, but didn't __ until after 15 One factor that complicates the study of sexual identity is the fact that, especially for females, there is considerable __ in adolescents' and young adults' reports of same-sex attraction or sexual behavior - One longitudinal study that followed 79 lesbian, bisexual, and unlabeled women ages 18-25 found that, over a 10-year period, __ changed the identity labels they had claimed at the beginning of the study and __ changed labels two or more times When they do come out, sexual-minority youths usually disclose to a best friends, a peer to whom they are attracted, or to a sibling, and they don't tell their parents until a year or more later Victimization and harassment are also commonly experienced - They're more likely than straight youth to be involved or injured in a physical fight and to be the victim of dating violence or sexual assault - Fear of being harassed or rejected outside the home is one reason many hide their sexual orientation from straight peers - In one survey, the top three most important life problems listed by sexual-minority youth were non-accepting families, bullying at school, and fear of being open about their sexual identity; in contrast, the top three problems listed by heterosexual youth were grades, college, and financial pressures Given these levels of harassment and violence, it is not surprising that sexual-minority youth are __ to a number of social and psychological problems A survey of sexual-minority youth in 2012 found that 77% said that they knew their lives would get better

one's sense of oneself as a sexual being (sexual orientation, separate from gender identity) puberty; hereditary cross-gender; difference; identify instability; 2/3; 1/3 vulnerable

The Emergence of Emotions: Disgust The emotional experience of disgust-which involves __ the mouth and __ __ the tongue-is thought to have an evolutionary basis, as it helps humans __ potential poisons or disease-causing bacteria Children learn, at least in part, from the behaviors of adults __ they should react to with disgust, such as how their caregivers react to particular foods - For example, eating insects is a normal practice in some countries, but it is considered unacceptable and disgusting by most cultures in the US, Canada, and Europe Of course, most children younger than 3-4 years do not know the words "disgust" or "disgusting," or their equivalents in other languages; however, even at such a young age, children are able to express feelings of disgust using other __ to convey that something is yucky or gross - For young children, these feelings are mostly directed at __, but older children and adults eventually come to view some __ and moral transgressions with disgust as well

opening; sticking out; avoid what words; food; behaviors

Box 11.2 Applications: Interventions to Improve Attachment A meta-analysis of 10 attachment interventions for families at risk for insecure attachments found that infants were nearly 3x as likely to have a secure attachment classification if they and their parents __ in an attachment intervention, compared with infants and parents who did not - The interventions were most effective if they occurred __ (when children were between 3-9 months) and if the family had a history of __ - Some of these efforts are directed entirely at __ behavior but others are directed at __ parents and children One commonly used intervention targeted at parenting behavior is called the Circle of Security - Parents are encouraged to reflect on their own mental representations of how parents and children should __ and they are guided by trained therapists to change any maladaptive representations A study in Australia evaluated the effectiveness of the Circle of Security intervention - After 20 weeks, the caregivers developed more __ representations and the number of children with a disorganized/disoriented attachment style __ Another intervention, known as the Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-Up (ABC), was developed specifically for mothers identified as at risk for __ their children - ABC focused on changing parents' __ - Trainers teach parents to achieve three goals: provide __ to the child, follow the child's __, and avoid __ behaviors - Trainers observe parent-child interactions and give the parents immediate positive feedback and concrete suggestions to implement in the moment - ABC also includes structured parent-child activities (such as preparing a simple snack) to help parents practice their new skills - The ABC intervention has been found to be very __ and changing both parents' behaviors and children's security - Maltreated children who participated in the ABC intervention were more likely to have secure attachments, compared with maltreated children who were not in the intervention (52% versus 33%), and they were less likely to have disorganized attachments (43% versus 57%) Contingent and __ responses to children's emotions are key to promoting children's own positive emotional and social development

participated; early; maltreatment; parenting; both interact positive; decreased maltreating; behaviors; nurturance; child; frightening; effective appropriate

Chapter 11: Attachment to Others and Development of the Self Well into the twentieth century, many professionals working in orphanages and similar institutions believed that children could be raised in an environment that prioritized good physical care, including proper nourishment and health care, over the emotional dimensions of caregiving, and develop normally - Yet studies of children who lost their parents during WWII demonstrated the __: no matter how hygienic and competently managed they may be, institutions like orphanages put babies at high risk because they do not provide the kind of caregiving that enables infants to form close socioemotional bonds How children __ to family separations has become an important focus of developmental science - Although many factors influence these areas of development, the quality of children's early attachments lays the foundation for how children feel about __, including their sense of security and well-being - Over time, children's self-understanding, self-esteem, and self-identity are also shaped by how others perceive and treat them, by biologically based characteristics of the child, and by children's developing abilities to think about and interpret their social worlds Attachments: - The attachment process appears to be __ based, yet it unfolds in different ways, depending on the familial and cultural context - Although most children in normal social circumstances develop attachments to their parents, the __ of these attachments differs in important ways and has implications for each child's social and emotional development

opposite adapt; themselves an emotional bond with a specific person that is enduring across space and time biologically; quality

Understanding Emotions: Identifying the Emotions of Others The first step for children to develop an understanding of emotions is to recognize different emotions in __ By 3 months, infants can distinguish between facial expressions of happiness, surprise, and anger - This ability is determined through the use of the __ paradigm - 3- or 4-month-olds who were first habituated to pictures of happy faces before being presented with a picture of a face depicting surprise showed renewed interest by looking longer at the new picture By 7 months, infants appear to discriminate a number of additional expressions, such as fear, sadness, and interest - For example, 7-month-olds exhibit different patterns in brain waves when they observe fearful and angry facial expressions, a finding that suggests some ability to discriminate these emotions An experiment compared a group of children 12-14 months with a second group aged 16-18 months to determine when children develop the ability to relate facial expressions of emotion and emotional tones of voice to __ in the environment:

others habituation; events Individually, the children were shown an object and a video of a facial expression at the same time; specific toys were associated with each of 6 different emotional expressions-anger, fear, sadness, surprise, happiness, and a neutral expression. The children were then presented with both an emotion-paired toy and a neutral toy that had not been paired with an emotion; experimenters observed which toy the children reached for. An age difference clearly emerged. The 12-14 months children didn't differentiate between objects that had been associated with each emotion; they reached for all of them at about the same rates. However, children at 16-18 months stronger preferred the toys associated with surprise/happiness and they strongly avoided toys that had been associated with anger/fear.

Self-esteem: Sources of Self-Esteem Perhaps the most important influence is the approval they receive from __, particularly their parents - Early theories viewed self-esteem as the internalization of the views of ourselves help by important people in our lives - - In this view, self-esteem is a reflection of what others think of us, or our "__ __ __" - - Similar ideas were proposed by Erikson and Bowlby, who argues that children's self-esteem is grounded in the __ of their relationships with their parents - Parents' behavior with and discipline of their children affect the children's self-esteem - - Parents who are accepting of and involved with their children and who use supportive yet firm child-rearing practices tend to have children and adolescents with high self-esteem - - Parents who regularly react to their children's unacceptable behavior with belittlement or rejection-in effect, condemning the child rather than the behavior-are likely to instill in their children a sense of worthlessness and of being loved only to the extent that they meet parental standards Over the course of childhood, childrens' self-esteem is increasingly affected by __ acceptance - This tendency to evaluate the self on the basis of peers' perceptions has been associated with a preoccupation with approval, fluctuations in self-esteem, lower levels of peer approval, and lower self-esteem - At the same time, children's self-esteem likely affects how peer respond to them Can also be affected by their school and neighborhood environments - The effect of the school environment is most apparent in the decline in self-esteem that is associated with the transition from elementary school to junior high or middle school - Aspects of the neighborhoods in which adolescents live have also been linked with self-esteem - - Living in impoverished and violent neighborhoods is associated with __ self-esteem among adolescents in the US

others; looking glass self; quality peer lower

Hints of self-awareness in early infancy Newborns show signs up upset when they hear recordings of __ crying but not when they hear recordings of __ crying With 24 hour old infants, they __ respond to accidental self-touch, but if someone else touches, they show rooting reflex Babies who showed better postural control were more likely to reach for objects - Better sense of their motor skills/self in __ to objects?

others; themselves don't relation

Box 15.2 Applications: Where are Spongesally Squarepants and Curious Jane? Differences in the gender representation of TV, movie, and videogame characters have been well documented, are very large, and have changed surprisingly little over the past four decades - Functional characters are commonly depicted in gender-stereotypical ways in terms of behavior, roles, and appearance - One content analysis found that boys in children's TV programs were commonly depicted as objectifying girls for their appearance, whereas girls were shown to be self-objectifying and "ego-stroking" of boys Another striking trend is that male characters are typically __ in TV programs - According to one analysis, the prevalent of female characters was 28% in family films, 39% in prime-time TV programs, and 31% in children's shows From the perspectives of cognitive-motivational theories, the fact that children have so much __ to highly stereotypes gender models matters a great deal - Children who watch a lot of televised and online programs have more highly __ beliefs about males and females and prefer gender-typed activities to a greater extent than do children who are less avid viewers - Several experimental studies have established a causal relationship between TV viewing and gender stereotyping:

overrepresented exposure; stereotypic When children are randomly assigned to watch shows with either gender-stereotyped or neutral content, they are more likely to endorse gender stereotypes themselves after watching the gender-stereotyped programs

The Child's Influence on Parenting Among the strongest influences on both parental discipline and on parenting style is children's __ __ - Children who are disobedient, angry, or challenging, for example, make it more difficult for parents to use authoritative parenting than do children who are compliant and positive in their behavior How children behave with their parents-including the degree to which they express anger, low self-regulation, or disobedience-can be due to a number of factors - The most prominent of these are __ factors related to temperament - - In line with differential susceptibility, some children may be more __ to the quality of parenting they receive than are others - - - For instance, children with anxious temperaments tend to become fearful and immobilized in response to harsh and demanding parenting; in contrast, these same children are eager to please and comply with warm and responsive parents In resisting their parents' demands, for example, children may become so whiny or aggressive that their parents back down; the parents' behavior has been affected by the children's behavior, and the children's behavior has been affected by the children's behavior, and the children's behavior has been reinforced by the parents behavior - Such patterns have been called __ cycles - By adolescence, such patterns appear to be influenced more by the __ than the __: youths who are noncompliant and antisocial, in part due to their heredity, evoke harsh parenting from their parents to a greater degree than their parents' harshness leads to the youths' externalizing problems Bidirectionality of parent-child interactions:

own behavior genetic; reactive coercive; child; parent the idea that parents and their children are mutually affected by one another's characteristics and behaviors

Child maltreatment: action or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker than results in physical or emotional harm to a child or a risk of serious harm In the vast majority of cases (>78%) the perpetrator is the child's __ In 2017, 674,000 American children were confirmed victims of child maltreatment-a rate of __ per 1000 children Which gender is more likely to be a victim? What age group has the highest rate of victimization (25/1000) Authorities identify four main types of maltreatment: The most common form of maltreatment is __: 75% of maltreatment cases involve neglect, 18% involve physical abuse, 9% involve sexual abuse, 6% involve emotional abuse, and 7% involve some other form of maltreatment Polyvictimization:

parent 9.1 equal infants younger than 1 neglect, physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse neglect the co-occurrence of multiple form of maltreatment

Theories of Social Cognition: Dodge's Information-Processing Theory of Social Problem Solving Why might children begin to attribute hostile intent to those around them? - Early harsh __ predicts social information-processing biases that persist into early adulthood - Children who have been __ abused are particularly likely to attribute anger to others, even in neutral situations - The experience of physical abuse may heighten children's __ to anger cues - - For example, physically abused children are better at recognizing __ facial expressions than are children who have not experienced abuse, and the speed with which they do so is related to the degree of anger and hostility to which they have been subjected (as reported by their parent) - Physically abused children also have difficulty __ about negative emotions - In one study, abused children had difficulty determining which __ might trigger anger in parents, endorsing both positive and negative events as potential causes of parental anger - - For instance, when presented hypothetical stories about child-parent situations, the abused children saw anger as a plausible response to positive events, such as a child's winning a prize at school or helping around the house - A tendency to assume anger in others (even when it's not present), paired with difficulty understanding what might provoke anger in others, is likely to result in a hostile attributional bias

parenting; physically; sensitivity; angry reasoning; situations

Interventions for Aggressive and Antisocial Children Children with aggressive or antisocial problem behaviors can be successfully treated with individual psychotherapy or with a combination of psychotherapy and drug therapy - Often usual and even necessary to involve __; interventions that teach parents how to better manage their own behavior when interacting with their children can help reduce children's aggression and antisocial behavior There are community-based programs aimed to reduce antisocial behavior by increasing __ behavior through an approach called positive youth development Schools can also be settings for effective intervention with this population - The Fast Track program, a federally funded intervention for children at high risk for antisocial behavior, trained students in a special curriculum designed to promote understanding and communication of __, positive social behavior, self-control, and social problem solving - Children with the most serious behavior problems participated in an intensive intervention - The program was successful, with classrooms as a whole exhibiting less aggression and disruptive behavior and a more positive atmosphere

parents positive; emotions

The Development of Conscience As they mature, children are more likely to take on their __ moral values-and to exhibit __ for violating those values-if their parents use disciplinary practices low in parental power and high in reasoning that help children __ and learn the parents' values - Children's adoption of their parents' values is also facilitated by a __, positive parent-child relationship, which inclines children to be open to, and eager to __, their parents' values Children with different temperaments may develop a conscience in different ways - Toddlers who are prone to fear unfamiliar people or situations tend to exhibit __ guilt at a young age than do less fearful children - - For those infants who are prone to fear, the development of conscience seems to be promoted by the mother's use of __ discipline that includes reasoning with the child and providing nonmaterial incentives for compliance - - When mothers use gentle discipline, fearful children do not become so __ that they tune out their mother's messages about desired behavior - - Gentle discipline arouses fearful children just enough that they attend to and remember what their mother tells them - In contrast, gentle discipline seems to be unrelated to the development of conscience in fearless young children, perhaps because it is insufficient to __ their attention - - What does seem to foster the development of conscience in fearless children is a parent-child relationship characterized by __ parenting, mutual cooperation, and positive effect - - Fearless children appear motivated more by the desire to __ their mother than by a __ of her

parents'; guilt; understand; secure; internalize more; gentle; anxious; arouse; responsive; please; fear

The Self: Self-Concept in Infancy Self-concept starts as an appreciation of one's __ self - Infants must first __ themselves from the environment, which they do by developing the sense that they are __ beings - Infants do this in part by realizing that some things are always __, such as their hands, while other things come and go, such as their parents or toys - Eventually, infants understand that the things that are always present are part of their own __ In their theories of cognitive development, both Piaget and Vygotsky argue that children learn by __ with their environments - One important lesson infants learn through experience is that they can __ their environments - - For example, over the first few months of life, infants learn that if they cry, a parent will come and provide comfort and that if they grab a toy, they can bring it closer to play with or suck on - - Through such interactions, infants gradually appreciate that they are __ from the people and objects in their environments and that they can influence these people and objects to meet their own needs

physical; differentiate; physical; present; bodies interacting; affect; separate

What is an emotion __ component - Heart racing, different breathing patterns, sweaty palms __ - Laughing, crying __ - anxious, happy __ - Encompasses physiology, expression, and thoughts

physiological expression thoughts situation

Prosocial Behavior: The Origins of Individual Differences in Prosocial Behavior - Socialization Modeling and the Communication of Values - Consistent with social-learning theory's emphasis on observation and imitation, children tend to imitate other people's helping and sharing behavior, including even that of strangers - Children are especially likely to imitate the prosocial behavior of adults with whom they have a __ relationship - In a study, individuals who had risked their lives to rescue Jews from the Nazis during WWII were interviewed many years later, along with "bystanders" from the same communities who had not been involved in rescue activities: - One effective way for parents to teach their children prosocial values and behaviors is to have discussions with them that appeal to their ability to sympathize - - In lab studies, when elementary school children heard adults explicitly point out the positive consequences of prosocial actions for others, they were more likely to donate money anonymously to help other people: Opportunities for prosocial activities - In the home, opportunities to help others include household tasks that are performed on a routine basis and benefit others, although performance of household tasks may foster prosocial actions primarily toward family members - Participation in prosocial activities may also give children and adolescents opportunities to take others' __, to increase their confidence that they are __ to assist others, and to experience emotional __ for helping Discipline and parenting style - High levels of prosocial behavior and sympathy in children tend to be associated with __ and __ parenting, including authoritative parenting - Parental support of and attachment to the child have been found to be especially predictive of prosocial behavior for youths who are low in __ - Sympathetic children might also elicit more support from their parents - A parenting style that involves physical punishments, threats, and an authoritarian approach tends to be associated with a __ of sympathy and prosocial behavior in children and adolescents - The way in which parents attempt to directly elicit prosocial behavior from their children is also important - - If children are regularly punished for failing to engage in prosocial behavior, they may start to believe that the reason for helping others is primarily to __ punishment - - If children are given material rewards for prosocial behaviors, they may come to believe that they helped solely for the rewards and may be __ motivated to help when no rewards are offered - - What seems particularly likely to foster children's voluntary prosocial behavior is discipline that involves __ Peer Influences - Children are motivated to do nice things for their friends, both because they care about them and because doing so increases the likelihood that those friends will do nice things for them in return Interventions - However, some school interventions have been effective at promoting prosocial behavior in children, so __ factors must contribute to its development - The research underlying such interventions indicates that experience in helping and cooperating with others, exposure to prosocial values and behaviors, and adults' use of reasoning in discipline contribute to the development of prosocial behavior

positive When recalling the values they had learned from their parents and other influential adults, 44% of the rescuers mentioned generosity and caring for others, whereas only 21% of bystanders mentioned the same. Rescuers were 7x more likely than bystanders to report that their parents taught them that values related to caring should be applied to everyone (28% of rescuers; 4% of bystanders). Bystanders reported that their parents emphasized ethical obligations to family, community, church, and country, but they rarely reported that their parents emphasized their having such obligation to other people. Children were less likely to donate anonymously if adults simply said that helping is "good" or "nice" and did not provide sympathy-arousing rationales for helping or sharing perspectives; competent; rewards constructive; supportive; fearfulness; lack; avoid; less; reasoning environmental

__ in the US is why the US ranks so low in infant mortality Deaths fall disproportionately on different racial/ethnic lines because of disproportionate __ - Black infant mortality is __ total infant mortality

poverty access; double

Growth Mindset (incremental theory) __ on challenge see failure as __ for growth and for stretching existing abilities intelligence and creativity can be __ through effort and deliberate practice

thrive motivation cultivated

Attachment and Social-Emotional Development Children's attachment status, both in infancy and later in childhood, has been found to __ their later social-emotional development, with securely attached infants experiencing __ adjustment and more social skills than insecurely attached children - One explanation for this may be that children with a secure attachment are more likely to develop positive and constructive __ __ __ of attachment - Children's working models of attachment are believed to shape their adjustment and __ behavior, their __ and sense of self, and their __ about other people; there is also some direct evidence for this belief - In addition, children who experience the sensitive, supportive parenting that is associated with secure attachment are likely to learn that it is acceptable to express __ in an appropriate way and that emotional communication with others is important - In contrast, insecure/avoidant children, whose parents tend to be nonresponsive to their signals of need and distress, are likely to learn to __ emotional expressiveness and to not seek comfort from other people - Consistent with these patterns, children who were securely attached in infancy seem to have closer, more harmonious relationships with peers later in childhood than do children who were insecurely attached - Correspondingly, they are less anxious, depressed, or socially withdrawn-especially compared with children who had insecure/resistant attachments-as well as less aggressive and delinquent

predict; better; internal working models; social; self-perceptions; expectations; emotions; inhibit

Milestones in Gender Development: Preschool Years - Gender-Typed Behavior Many children begin to demonstrate __ for some gender-typed toys by about 2 - These preferences become __ for most children during the preschool years - During childhood, one of the largest average gender differences is in toy and play preferences Although studies find large average gender differences in play preferences, there is still some variability - First, variation exists within each gender in how strongly individual children __ gender-types over cross-gender-typed play - Second, some children stronger prefer cross-gender-typed play and dislike gender-typed play - - This group includes genetic females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), who were exposed to unusually high levels of prenatal androgens, or genetic males with androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS), who were unable to respond to androgen during prenatal differentiation - Transgender children who identify with a gender different from the one assigned to them at birth usually prefer the play activities typically associated with their __ gender Gender segregation: - Gender segregation increases steadily between 3-6 and then remains stable throughout childhood - Gender-segregated peer groups a lab for cisgender children to learn what it means to be a girl or a boy - - "Social dosage effect" in which the amount of time that preschool or kindergarten children spent with same-gender peers predicted subsequent changes in gender-typed behavior over 6 months - The reasons for children's same-gender peer preferences seem to involve a combination of temperamental, cognitive, and social forces - - The reasons for children's same-gender peer preferences seem to involve a combination of temperamental, cognitive, and social forces - - Behavioral compatibility may become a __ important factor with age - - Ingroup identity and conformity pressures may __ behavioral compatibility as reasons for gender segregation as children become older

preferences; stronger favor; self-identified children's tendency to associate with same-gender peers and to avoid other-gender peers less; supersede

Social Media From 2012-2018, teens have shifted from __ face-to-face interaction to preferring online interaction with peers For most teens, social media enhances their sense of __ with their peers; 81% of American teens reported that social media helped them feel connected, and 68% said that social media helped them feel as though they could rely on people who will __ them in tough times - ⅔ said that social media helps them broaden their networks and diversify their perspectives - The majority of teens reported that they had made at least one new friend online, and ⅓ reported online flirting with a potential partner With increased use of social media platforms, concerns have emerged about potential negative effects on mental health - Results from a study examining relationships between depressive symptoms/suicide-related outcomes and time spent with new media suggests that teens who spend more time with new media were more likely to report mental health __, whereas teens who spent more time with non-screen activities were less likely to do so - In a recent longitudinal study, researchers found that among adolescent girls, depressive symptoms reported in childhood and early adolescence __ more frequent social media use; but no relationship was observed for boys

preferring connectedness; support issues; predicted

Box 9.2 A Closer Look: Developmental Social Neuroscience Research in adult social and affective neuroscience also inspires new approaches to studying development One current example lies in the potentially beneficial effects of mindfulness meditation on the brain - Over the past decade, the emerging field of contemplative neuroscience has provided evidence that at least for adults, there are numerous benefits of meditation, ranging from effects on the immune system to those parts of the brain associated with attention - Neuroimaging studies suggest that the brain bases of these effects reside largely in the __ cortex, in areas that are responsible for such behaviors as emotion regulation, selective attention, and empathy - These findings have led to a great deal of interest in the potential use of meditation and other contemplative practices with children and teens, especially given the fact that developing brain are more plastic than adults ones In one study, researchers used a meditation-based Kindness Curriculum in a preschool setting: Another study focused on low-income middle-schoolers living in high-stress urban environments: To date, no developmental studies have gone beyond behavioral measures to demonstrate neural changes as a function of meditation - And, despite a great deal of interest in developing meditation-based interventions for a range of developmental disorders, including ADHD and autism, it is important to be cautious about the cause of any observed positive effects

prefrontal After 12 weeks, they observed improvements in the children's social competence and measures of executive function relative to a wait-list control group Researchers used a randomized-control trial method to assign children to a mindfulness-based stress reduction curriculum. Results revealed beneficial effects on a range of outcomes, including decreased levels of depression and negative affect.

Ethnic and Racial Identity The family and the larger social environment play a major role in the development of children's ethnic and racial identity - Parents and other family members and adults can be instrumental in teaching their children about the strengths and unique features of their ethnic culture or race and instilling them with pride - Such instruction can be especially important for the development of a positive ethnic identity when the child's racial or ethnic group is the object of __ in the larger society The issue of ethnic or racial identity often becomes more central in __, as young people being actively exploring their multiple identities - Minority-group members in particular may be faced with difficult decisions as they try to decide the degree to which they will __ the values of their ethnic group or those of the dominant culture - Children and parents can acculturate at different rates to their new culture, sometimes resulting in acculturation __ between them, which can in turn be a source of conflict - - In a study of Latino youth born in the US to foreign-born parents, parent-youth acculturation gaps were related to increased parent-youth conflict, which negatively affected academic performance among the youth - - A study of Arab Canadian youth transition to adulthood found that acculturation gaps were linked with more youth-parent conflict, but mostly when the relationship was low in trust and __ Research suggests that higher levels of ethnic and racial identity are generally associated with __ self-esteem, well-being, and __ levels of emotional and behavioral problems - Adolescents with a positive ethnic and racial identity appear to be __ from the negative effects of discrimination - The benefits of high ethnic and racial identification for adolescents' academic, physical health, and mental health outcomes appear to hold more consistently for African American youth than for other minority youth

prejudice adolescence; adopt; gaps; communication high; low; buffered

Patterns of Gender Development: Aggressive Behavior Research studies indicate a reliable average gender differences in aggression, but the magnitude isn't great and it depends on the type of aggression being considered Researchers distinguish between direct and indirect forms of aggression - Average gender differences in the incidence of physical aggression emerge gradually during the __ years In two comprehensive meta-analyses of studies comparing boys' and girls' aggressive behavior, both physical and verbal forms of direct aggression occurred more often among __ - Although direct aggression generally declined for both with age, the drop was more __ for girls There appears to be __ average gender difference during childhood in indirect aggression - Because direct aggression is less likely among girls, girls tend to use proportionally more indirect aggression than boys Average gender differences in aggression have been found primarily in research on __-gender interactions Studies in the US comparing children's behavior in same-gender versus cross-gender conflicts revealed another interesting patterns:

preschool boys; pronounced no same In same-gender conflicts, boys were more likely to use power-assertive strategies (threats, demands) and girls were more likely to use conflict-mitigation strategies (compromise, changing the topic). In cross-gender conflicts, girls' use of power-assertive strategies increased while boys' use of conflict-mitigation strategies didn't change. These studies suggest that girls often find it necessary to play by the boys' rules to gain influence in mixed-gender settings.

Patterns of Gender Development: Cognitive Abilities and Academic Achievement - Explanations for Gender Differences in Cognitive Abilities and Achievement Brain and hormonal influences - Some researchers have proposed that sex differences in brain structure and function may underlie some differences in how male and female brains __ different types of information; however, because the research supporting this interpretation has largely been based on studies of adults, it is impossible to determine whether any differences in brain structure and function seen in adults are due to genetic or environmental influences - Also, a slight biological tendency can get exaggerated through differential __ (i.e., boys playing video games that aid their spatial processing) - Stronger evidence for possible physiological influence is suggested by research showing that some sex differences in brain structure may be partly due to the influence of sex-related __ on the developing fetal brain - - Support for this hypothesis comes from studies that have linked very high levels of prenatal androgens in girls with above-average spatial ability - - Conversely, males with androgen insensitivity syndrome tend to score lower than average in spatial ability

process; experience; hormones

Family Structure: - Alterations in the family structure due to births, deaths, divorce, remarriage, or other factors can also influence interactions among family members and may affect family routine and norms, as well as children's emotional well-being - In many cases, the effects of such shifts in family dynamics tend to be gradual; however, a single event such as a traumatic divorce or the death of a parent may cause a fairly dramatic change in a child's behavior and emotional adjustment - There are three specific family structures about which there has been some concern and much debate: same-sex parents, divorced parents, and stepparents

the number of and relationships among the people living in a household

Continuity/Discontinuity of Overall Development: The Question of Stages Although stage theories differ in their particulars, they share four key assumptions: (1) development progresses through a series of __ distinct stages; (2) when children are in a given stage, a fairly __ range of their thinking and behavior exhibits the features characteristic of that stage; (3) the stages occur in the same __ for all children; and (4) transitions between stages occur __ - Development is less tidy than stage approaches imply - Children who exhibit preoperational reasoning on some tasks often exhibit concrete operational reasoning on others - Rarely is a sudden change evidence across a broad __ of tasks - Developmental processes often show a lot of continuity - Are __ sudden jumps Whether development appears to be continuous or discontinuous often depends on whether the focus is on __ or on __ processes - Behaviors that emerge or disappear quite suddenly may reflect continuous underlying processes - Also depends on the __ being considered

qualitatively; broad; order; quickly; range; some behavior; underlying; timescale

Biology and Socialization: Their Joint Influence on Children's Antisocial Behavior It's often a combination of genetic and environmental factors that predict children's antisocial, aggressive behavior and that some children are more sensitive to the __ of parenting than others - Children with certain gene variants related to SE or DA, which affect neurotransmission, appear to be more responsive to their __ than are children with different variants - In other cases, such gene variants are related to higher risk for aggression in __ situations like maltreatment and divorce but are not related to aggression in the absence of the adverse conditions

quality; environment; adverse

Electronic v Traditional Toys Electronic baby toys are associated with decreases in __ and __ of language input to babies - fewer conversational __ - fewer __ words - fewer __ responses Electronic toys do promote __ attention, but babies don't __ or __ as much

quality; quantity; turns; adult; parental sustained; vocalize; gesture

The Development of Conscience The effects of parenting on children's conscience also vary with the child's genes because genes affect children's temperaments - This can be seen in the dynamic between maternal responsiveness-the mother's acceptance of, and sensitivity to, the child-and the child's genotype for the serotonin transporter gene - A particular allele variant is believed to make children especially __ to their rearing environment - - For children with this allele variant, high maternal responsiveness is associated with high levels of conscience at 15-52 months - - For children with this same variant, low maternal responsiveness is associated with low conscience - - For children with a different allele, their level of conscience is __ to their mother's responsiveness - This pattern is an example of goodness of fit between temperament and environment, whereby some children are more reactive than others to the __ of parenting they receive Early development of conscience undoubtedly contributes to whether children come to accept the moral values of their parents and society - In a longitudinal assessment of children's behavioral and affective expressions of guilt (in which they were led to believe that they had broken a valuable object), the children's level of guilt at 22 and 45 months predicted their morality at 54 months (e.g., their tendency to violate rules about touching prohibited toys, to cheat on tasks, and to express selfish and antisocial themes when discussing vignetters with morally relevant topics) - In a related study, children's internalization of parental rules at 2 or 4 predicted their __ as being moral at 67 months

reactive; unrelated; quality self-perceptions

Box 10.2 A Closer Look: Emotional Intelligence Cognitive intelligence refers to the ability to __ about, __ from, and __ verbal and visual information Emotional intelligence: - involves the ability to __ one's own emotions as well as the emotions of others, as perceived through their facial expressions, body movements, and verbal tone To measure emotional intelligence in children and adolescents, researchers typically ask participants to respond to direct statements about __ and their __ - For example, one commonly used measure, known as the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire, asks adolescents to rate the truth of statements such as "I can control my anger when I want to" and "I'm good at getting along with my classmates" Emotional intelligence has been linked to a range of positive outcomes in both childhood and adolescence - Children high in emotional intelligence are better able to manage their own emotions and are less likely to engage in __ behavior than are children with lower emotional intelligence - A review of studies conducted in a diverse set of countries found that children high in emotional intelligence in adolescence have fewer __ health problems, lower __ behaviors, and better strategies for __ with stress than do children low in emotional intelligence - Emotional intelligence also appears to predict these positive outcomes over and above other related factors such as self-esteem, personality, and cognitive intelligence Such findings have led researchers to develop interventions to promote emotional intelligence as a way of reducing aggressive and antisocial behavior - One intervention for elementary school students, called RULER, focuses on building their emotion recognition, emotion understanding, emotion labeling, and emotion expression and regulation: - Another intervention for middle and high school students in Spain focuses on enhancing aspects of emotional intelligence, such as perceiving emotions in others and being aware of how emotions influence thought processes: Emotional intelligence is a helpful concept for understanding how emotion-related skills affect children's interactions with others and provides a useful target for interventions aimed at improving children social-emotional skills and mental health

reason; learn; remember individuals' ability to cognitively process information about emotions and to use that information to guide both their thoughts and behaviors understand themselves; abilities aggressive; mental' risk; coping An experimental study in NYC found that students in classrooms randomly assigned to participate in the RULER program were observed to be more emotionally supportive and respectful of others' perspectives than were those in the control classrooms For example, one activity uses emotional laden music, poems, and short stories as a springboard for a discussion of the role and usefulness of emotion in daily life - In an experimental evaluation, students who participated in the intervention engaged in less verbal and physical aggression and reported fewer mental health problems than did students who were not in the program

Friendships Most children, at every stage of development and across all cultures, have at least one peer whom they consider to be a friend Researchers generally agree that friends are people who like to spend time together and feel affection for one another - In addition, their interactions are characterized by __; that is, friends have mutual regard for one another, exhibit give-and-take in their behavior, and benefit in comparable ways from their social exchanges Friend: a person with whom an individual has an intimate, reciprocated, positive relationship

reciprocities

The Self: Self-Concept in Infancy An emerging recognition of the self becomes more directly apparent by 18-20 months, when many children can look into a mirror and __ themselves, which requires that they have __ of their appearance that they can match to the image in the mirror A commonly used test of this ability is the mirror self-recognition test to "__ test," in which an experimenter surreptitiously puts a dot of rouge on a child's face, places the child in front of a mirror, and observes the child's first reaction - Children younger than 18 months typically respond by: - Most children 18-24 months will: - The rouge test was developed in the US, and when it has been tried in developing countries, even children much older than __ often fail to recognize themselves in the mirror - Researchers wondered whether these children really had less self-recognition or whether differences in __ due to cultural factors accounted for the different test results - - For instance, children in interdependent cultures may ignore the mark because they assume the experimenter put it there on purpose, while children in independent cultures are more disposed to explore the mark on their own - - To examine this dea, researchers administered the mirror self-recognition test to infants in Scotland, Turkey, and Zambia, along with a second test known as the "body-as-obstacle" task: By 2, many children can recognize themselves in photographs: During their third year, children's self-awareness becomes quite clear in other ways as well - Similar to how memory aids in self-recognition, young children use language to store __ of their own experiences and behaviors, which they then use to construct __ of their own "life story" and develop more enduring self-concept - 2-year-olds exhibit embarrassment and shame-emotions that require a __ - The strength of 2-year-olds' awareness of self is even more evident in their notorious __, which has led to the period between 2-3 being called the "terrible twos"; during this time, children begin to act __ of, and often in direct opposition to, what their parents (and other adults) want them to do

recognize; memories rouge; either trying to touch the image in the mirror or doing nothing, suggesting that they do not recognize the image as themselves touch the rouge on their own face, indicating that they recognize themselves in the mirror, although children with ASD have significant difficulties in this regard 2; autonomy In this task, children are made to stand on a mat that is attached to a toy cart and are then encouraged to push the cart to their mothers. Children who realize they must step off the mat in order to push the cart are considered to have a sense of self-concept. In this study, children from Scotland did best on the mirror self-recognition test, whereas children from Zambia did best on the body-as-obstacle task. These findings make clear that cultural contexts can influence how children think about themselves and their environments. A study of 18-month-olds found that they showed more brain activity when shown their own face than when they were shown faces of familiar or unfamiliar children and adults memories; narratives; self-concept; self-assertion; independently

Dweck's Theory of Self-Attributions and Achievement Motivation Achievement motivation: - Underlying the two patterns of achievement motivation are differences in the attributions children make about __, particularly with regard to their sense of __ entity/helpless orientation: - Goal is to be __; however, when one fails, they feel helpless and __ their abilities and self-worth - belief that intelligence is __ - Seek out situations where they can be __ of success and receive __, and avoid situations where they might be __ incremental/mastery orientation: - Because they don't equate failure with a personal flaw, they can __ the challenge of a hard problem and __ in the attempt to solve it

refers to whether children are motivated by mastery or by others' views of their success themselves; self-worth a tendency to attribute success and failure to enduring aspects of the self and to give up in the face of failure successful; doubt; fixed; assured; praise; criticized a general tendency to attribute success and failure to the amount of effort expended and to persist in the face of failure enjoy; persist

Milestones in Gender Development: Infancy and Toddlerhood During their first year, infants' perceptual abilities allow them to figure out that there are two groups of people in the world: females and males - Must research indicates that infants can detect complex __ in perceptual information - Clothing, hairstyle, height, body shape, motion patterns, vocal pitch, and activities all tend to vary with gender, and these differences provide infants with gender cues - Habituation studies of infant perception and categorization indicate that by about 6-9 months, infants can __ males from females, usually on the basis of hairstyle - Infants can also distinguish between male and female voices and make intermodal matches on the basis of gender: Shortly after entering toddlerhood, most children begin exhibiting distinct patterns of gender development - By the latter half of their second year, children have begun to form gender-related __ about the kinds of objects and activities typically associated with males and females - As observed in one study, 18-month-olds looked __ at a doll than at a toy car after viewing a series of female faces, and looked longer at a toy car than at a toy doll after habituating to male faces - Another study with 24-month-olds found that counter-stereotypical matches of gender and action (a man putting on lipstick) led to __ looking times; it appeared that the children were surprised by the action's gender inconsistency - The clearest evidence that children have acquired the concept of gender occurs around 2.5 years, when they begin to __ other people's gender Children typically begin to show understanding of their own gender identity within a few months after labeling other people's gender - By 2.5-3 years, most children use __ terms in their speech to refer to themselves and other children

regularities; distinguish For instance, they expect a female voice to go with a female face rather than with a male face expectations; longer; longer; label gender

Theoretical Issues in Language Development: Chomsky and the Nativist View The modern study of language development emerged from a theoretical debate - In the 50s, B.F. Skinner proposed a behaviorist theory of language development - Behaviorists believed that development is a function of learning through __ and punishment of overt behavior - Skinner argued that parents teach children to speak by means of the same kinds of __ techniques that are used to train animals to perform novel behaviors Chomsky countered Skinner by pointing out some of the reasons why language __ be learned via reinforcement and punishment - One key reason was that we can understand and produce sentences that we have __ heard before (generativity); If language-learning proceeds by means of reinforcement and punishment, how could we know that a sentence like "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously" is a grammatical English sentence, whereas "Green sleep colorless furiously ideas" is not - Similarly, how could children __ words they have never heard before, like "wented" or "mouses"; Children appear to know details about the structure of our native language that we have not been taught-facts that are unobservable and thus __ to reinforce-contrary to Skinner's proposal Chomsky proposed that humans are born with a Universal Grammar - Universal Grammar: - Chomsky's account is consistent with the fact that, despite many surface differences, the world's languages are fundamentally __ - His strongly nativist account also provides an explanation for why most children learn language with exceptional __, while nonhumans do not

reinforcement; reinforcement cannot; never; produce; impossible a proposed set of highly abstract structures that are common to all languages similar; rapidity

Secondary (self-conscious) emotions: - emerges during the __ year - embarrassment around 15-24 months and pride around 3 years (increasingly tied to __)

related to our sense of self and our consciousness of others' reactions (and may therefore require theory of mind) 2nd; performance

Effects of Friendships on Psychological Functioning and Behavior: The Development of Social and Cognitive Skills Friendships provide a context for the development of social skills and knowledge that children need to form positive __ with others - Throughout childhood, positive behaviors such as cooperation and negotiation are all more __ among friends than nonfriends - Young children who discuss emotions with their friends develop a better __ of others' mental and emotional states than do children whose peer relationships are less close - Children can use these skills when __ their friends - - In a study of 3rd-9th graders, those with high-quality friendships improved in the equality of their reported __ for helping friends deal with social stressors; they reported becoming more likely to be emotionally __ in talking with their friend about a problem and less likely to pretend as though the problem didn't exist Friendship provides other avenues to social and cognitive development as well - Through gossip, children learn about peer norms, including how, why, and when to display or control the __ of emotions and other behaviors - Friends are more likely than nonfriends to __ and expand on one another's ideas and to elaborate and clarify their own ideas - This kind of openness promotes cognitive skills and enhances performance on __ tasks - - One demonstration was provided by a study in which teams of 10 year olds, half of them made up of friends and the other half of them by nonfriends, were assigned to write a story about rainforests: Because friendships fill important needs for children, it isn't surprising that having friends enhances children's social and emotional __ - Having close, __ friendships in elementary school has been linked to a variety of positive psychological and behavioral outcomes for children, not only during the school years but also years later in early adulthood - - In a longitudinal study, researchers looked at children when they were 10 and again when they were young adults:

relationships; common; understanding; helping; strategies; engaged expression; criticize; creative The teams consisting of friends engaged in more constructive conversations and were more focused on the task than nonfriends. The stories written by friends were of higher quality. health; reciprocated They found that children who had best friends were viewed by classmates as more mature and competent, less aggressive, and more socially prominent. 13 years later, individuals who had best friends at age 10 reported greater success in college and in their family and social lives than did individuals who had not had a best friend at age 10. They also reported higher levels of self-esteem, fewer legal problems, and less psychopathology.

Moral Judgment: Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning - Conventional Level Conventional moral reasoning is centered on social __ - A child at this level focuses on __ with social duties and laws Stage 3: __ interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity orientation - In stage 3, good behavior is doing what is __ by people who are close to the person or what people generally expect of someone in a given __ - - Being "a good girl" or a "good boy" is important and entails having good __, showing __ about others, and maintaining good __ with others Stage 4: social system and conscience orientation - Moral behavior in Stage 4 involves fulfilling one's duties, upholding laws, and __ to society or one's group - The individual is motivated to keep the social system going and to avoid a __ in its functioning

relationships; compliance mutual; expected; role; motives; concern; relationships contributing; breakdown

Theoretical Approaches to Gender Development: Neuroscience Approaches Genes - Although no research with humans has provided evidence for direct genetic influences on gender-typed behavior, research with rodents indicates some __ effects - - For instance, studies with mice indicate links between genes on the Y chromosome and later levels of some aspects of aggressive and parenting behaviors Hormones and brain functioning - Androgens: - - Produced in the bodies of genetic females and males - Organizing influences: - - For example, sex-related differences in prenatal androgens may influence the organization and __ of the nervous system; in turn, this may be related to later average gender differences in certain play preferences - Activating influences: Brain structure and functioning - Adult male and female brains show some small average differences in physical __ - - However, these differences do not appear to result in any clear advantage to __ performance - There is a great deal of overlap between female and male brains, and no brain structures are unique to one sex - An important limitation of research documenting sex differences in adult brain structure or functioning are due to genetic or environmental influences

relevant class of steroid hormones that normally occur at slightly higher levels in males than in females and that affect physical development and functioning from the prenatal period onward potential result of certain sex-linked hormones affecting brain differentiations and organization during prenatal development or at puberty functioning potential result of certain fluctuations in sex-linked hormone levels affecting the contemporaneous activation of the nervous system and corresponding behavioral responses structure; cognitive

Theoretical Approaches to Gender Development: Cognitive and Motivational Influences - Cognitive Developmental Theory Gender schemas are also responsible for biased processing and __ of information about gender - Studies show that children tend to __ more about what they observe from same-gender role models than from different-gender ones - They're more likely to __ encode and remember information about story characters that behave in gender-consistent ways and to forget or distort information that is gender-inconsistent - In one study, children were shown a series of pictures that included a combination of gender-typed images (e.g., a girl baking cookies) and cross-gender-types images (e.g., a girl sawing wood):

remembering; remember; accurately When they were later asked to recall the pictures, they showed a greater tendency to mistakenly recall cross-gender-typed images as gender-types (e.g., remembering a picture of a girl sawing wood as a boy sawing wood) than the reverse (e.g., remembering a picture of a girl baking cookies as a boy baking cookies). This tendency to retain information that is schema-consistent and to ignore or distort schema-inconsistent information helps to perpetuate gender stereotypes that have little or no basis in reality. Further, this process can perpetuate thinking about gender as a dichotomous category.

Preparation for Language Production: Babbling Babbling: - Babies begin babbling between 6-10 months - Produced from a fairly limited set of sounds, some of which are not part of their native language Language __ is a key component in the development of babbling - Deaf infants who are regularly exposed to signed languages like ASL babble with their hands; they produce repetitive hand movements made up of pieces of full ASL signs, just as vocally babbled sounds are made up of pieces of spoken words Infants' babbling gradually takes on the sounds, rhythm, and intonational patterns of the language infants hear (or see) daily - However, it is still very difficult to tell what language an infant is learning just by listening to their babbling:

repetitive consonant-vowel sequences or hand movements (for learners of sign language) exposure In one study of English-learning and Chinese-learning 12-month-olds, adult listeners were unable to tell from their babbles alone which language the infants were learning

Brain-to-Brain Coupling When communicating, each participant's brain starts firing in ways that __ the other person in the interaction Over course of 5-minute play, infant and child were relatively __, showing that they were processing stuff in __ and in __ ways Significant coupling in __ cortex Brains of infant and adults sync up in time during __ play, and are dynamically tuned to important social cues: gaze, smiling, joint attention, IDC. - opens doors for studying how the developing brain __ acoustic, linguistic, and social information during communication Whose brain activity is leading the show? In moments when young child and adult's brain activity is more similar, child is more likely to __ a new word

resemble correlated; unison; similar prefrontal natural; organizes The babies' brain activity preceded the adults by 4 seconds. Adult isn't just passive, but neurologically, babies precede adults. encode

Resilience • Study of entire 1995 birth cohort on Kauai: 698 infants • Found that more risk factors = more problems • But 1/3 of high-risk children displayed __ and became caring, stable, and confident adults. • __ factors? - 2 main protective factors made the most difference: - Stable, supportive __ is the most important known protective factor against negative outcomes in the context of early adversity Early adversity is associated with certain neurological changes

resilience; protective Strong bond with person who is not your parent and involvement in some community organization caregiving But in one study, for families who participated in an organization in their community supporting their self-esteem did not show this; Social support makes a difference

Patterns of Gender Development: Interpersonal Goals and Communication In terms of interpersonal goals during childhood and adolescence, researchers have found average gender differences that are consistent with traditional gender __ among cisgender youth - More boys than girls tended to emphasize __ and power as goals in their social relationships while more girls than boys tended to favor intimacy and support as goals in their social relationships Researchers have observed some average gender differences among cisgender children's communication styles with peers - Studies generally don't find average differences in __ after early childhood - With regard to self-__ about personal thoughts and feelings, there has been a small-to-medium gender difference, with higher rates among girls - Girls tend to be somewhat more likely to use __ statements, which reflect high affiliation and high assertion ("Let's play superheroes") or elaborations on what the other speaker previously said while boys tend to be more likely to use __ statements ("Do this"), which reflect high assertion and low affiliation

roles; dominance talkativeness; disclosures; collaborative; controlling

Moral Judgment: Piaget's Theory of Moral Judgment Piaget describes how children's moral reasoning changes from a rigid acceptance of the __ of authorities to an appreciation that moral rules are a product of __ interaction and are therefore modifiable He initially studies children's moral reasoning by observing children playing games with their peers that often involve dealing with issues of __ and __ - In addition, Piaget interviewed children to examine their thinking about questions such as what constitutes a __ of a rule, what role a person's __ plays in morality, whether certain punishments are __, and how goods can be distributed among individuals fairly - In these open-ended interviews, he typically presented children of various ages with pairs of short vignettes - After children heard these stories, they were asked which boy was naughtier and why - Partly on the basis of children's responses to such vignettes, Piaget concluded that there are two stages of development in children's moral reasoning-a first stage in which the __ is more important than the __ and a second stage in which the __ is seen as paramount-as well as a transitional period between them

rules; social rules; fairness; transgression; intentions; just outcome; intention

Theoretical Approaches to Gender Development: Integrative Theoretical Approaches Developmental intergroup theory (DIT) integrates ideas from cognitive-developmental theory, gender schema theory, and social identity theory - Highlights three key processes that contribute to the development of stereotyping and prejudice based on a person's gender or other social identities: establishing the psychological __ of gender, __ individuals based on their gender, and developing __ and prejudices based on this categorization Gender self-socialization model (GSSM) bridges gender schema theory, social cognitive theory, social identity, and other theoretical approaches - As with cognitive theories in general, the GSSM emphasizes how much of gender development is a process of __ - That is, children seek to discover their identities in relation to their understandings of the world around them - In turn, they adapt their behavior to match these __, as when they try to conform to expected norms for their gender - The GSSM also builds on balanced identity theory from social psychology; the latter theory is based on the premise that individuals seek to attain cognitive __ across their group identities ("I am a girl"), personal-social attributes ("I like playing dolls"), and group-attribute beliefs ("Girls play with dolls") - In their GSSM, they proposed three hypothesized ways that this balance tends to occur during gender development - - First, the stereotype emulation hypothesis proposes that the more children identify with their gender ingroup, the more __ they will be to adhere to the stereotypes for their gender ingroup - - Second, the stereotype construction hypothesis specifies that children are apt to form __ beliefs or stereotypes about their gender ingroup based on their own personal-social attributes - - Third, the identity construction hypothesis states that children are more likely to identify with their gender ingroup when their own personal-social attributes match their __ beliefs about their gender ingroup

salience; categorizing; stereotypes self-socialization; understandings; consistency; motivated; generalized; stereotyped

What's Special About Peer Relationships? Same age = __ status - equality, reciprocity, cooperation when you're in the same place in the hierarchy Space to __ identity - identity independent of family - climate where you're critiques and celebrated in different ways A more negotiated form of intimacy - peers offer __ support - having a best friend is the best protector against consequences of __

same negotiate emotions; bullying

Gender show gender-stereotyped activities in the __ year of life Use all sorts of gender stereotypes to figure out what kinds of toys other girls/boys like to play

second

Moral Judgment: Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning - Preconventional Level Preconventional moral reasoning is __ - A child at this level focuses on getting __ and avoiding __ Stage 1: punishment and obedience orientation - At stage 1, what is seen as right is __ to authorities - A child's moral actions are motivated by avoidance of __ - The child does not consider the __ of others or recognize that those interests might __ from their own Stage 2: instrumental and exchange orientation - At stage 2, what is right is what is in the child's own best __ or involves __ exchange between people (you hurt me, so I hurt you)

self-centered; rewards; punishment obedience; punishment; interests; differ interest; equal

Sibling Relationships Siblings serve not only as playmates for one another but also as sources of support, instruction, security, assistance, and caregiving Sibling relationships are often similar to peer relationships; like peers, siblings who are close in age interact in ways characterized by sharing and reciprocity Siblings can also be rivals and sources of mutual conflict and irritation; they live in close proximity to one another and are often in competition for resources - In some cases, sibling conflict can contribute to the development of undesirable behaviors, such as disobedience, delinquency, and drinking, as well as depression, anxiety, and social withdrawal - High levels of sibling aggression and conflict predict low __ and __ sexual behavior in one or both siblings - Sibling conflict can be a crucible for learning important life skills: research with families in Ontario, Canada, has found that when parents are taught how to mediate sibling conflicts, siblings successfully learn constructive means of conflict resolution Siblings' relationships tend to be less hostile and more supportive when their parents are __ and __ of them Siblings also have closer, more positive relationships with each other if their parents treat them __ Cultural values may play a role in children's evaluations of, and reaction to, differential parental treatment - For example, in a study of Mexican American families, older siblings who embraced the cultural value of familism, which emphasizes interdependence, mutual support, and loyalty among family members, were not put at risk of higher levels of depressive symptoms or risky behaviors by the parents' preferential treatment of younger siblings - A study that compared a sample of Moroccan siblings with a sample of Dutch siblings found that the children from the collectivist Moroccan culture and less conflict than the siblings from the individualistic culture of the Netherlands

self-regulation; risky warm; accepting similarly

The Process of Language Acquisition: Developmental Changes in Speech Perception Infants increasingly home in on the speech sounds of their native language, and by 12 months, they become less __ to the differences between nonnative speech sounds - This shift was first demonstrated by Ganet Werker and her colleagues, who tested English-speaking infants on their ability to discriminate speech contrasts that are not used in English but that are important in two other languages: Perceptual narrowing does not appear to be an entirely __ process - Kuhl, Taso, and Lui found that infants learned more about the phonetic structure of Mandarin from a __ interaction with a Mandarin speaker than from watching a __ of one - A follow-up study found that infants were more successful at learning Mandarin phonemes from the screen when they did so along with a peer than when they were __

sensitive The researchers used a simple condition procedure: the infants learned that if they turned their head toward the sound source when they heard a change in the sounds they were listening to, they would be rewarded by an interesting visual display. If the infants turned their heads immediately following a sound change, the researchers inferred that they had detected the change. - At 6-8 months, English-learning infants readily discriminated between non-English phonemes; they could tell one Hindi syllable from another, for example - At 10-12 months of age, however, the infants no longer perceived the differences they had detected a few months before passive; interaction; video; alone

Historical Perspective of Morality: Darwin Darwin argues that morality is biological, and existed evolutionarily to keep people __ and socially __. Moral emotions make moral violations feel bad/wrong, which makes us want to hold our position in society, which keeps groups together.

together; regulated

Moral Judgment: Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning Heavily influenced by the ideas of Piaget, Kohlberg was interested in the __ through which children's moral reasoning develops over time - On the basis of a longitudinal study in which he first assessed the moral reasoning of three cohorts of boys (beginning at ages 10, 13, and 16, respectively), Kohlberg proposed that the development of moral reasoning proceeds through a specific series of stages that are __ and __ Kohlberg assessed moral reasoning by presenting children with __ moral dilemmas and then questioning them about the issues involved - Based on these interviews, Kohlberg proposed that there are three levels of moral reasoning with each having two stages:

sequences; discontinuous; hierarchical hypothetical preconventional, conventional, postconventional

The Role of Technology in Friendships Social technologies, such as online social media, instant messages, and texting, play an increasingly __ role in peer interactions of children and especially of adolescents - In a survey of 12-17 year olds, the majority said that texting is one of the three most common ways they contract their closest friends, with phone calls and social media just slightly less popular There is a gender difference regarding which __ of communication are most often used; girls prefer texts, phone calls, and social media more than boys, while boys are more than 12x as likely to use gaming sites to connect with friends Researchers have identified several key ways in which electronic communication facilitates the creation and maintenance of friendships among children, including the following: - Greater anonymity leads children and youth to reduce their social __, which, particularly for temperamentally shy children, could help them interact with others online - Less emphasis on physical __ when conversation is conducted through typing or audio allows children and youth to connect with others based on their shared interests and their personalities rather than on their appearance - More __ over interactions, because they can control where, how, and with whom they connect, leads children and youth to feel they are in charge of their social lives - Finding similar peers is much easier in Internet age than in the past, which allows youth to connect with others who share their interests, thereby increasing their sense of belongingness and well-being - 24/7 access means that children and youth can connect with friends and peers throughout their day

significant modes inhibitions; appearance; control

Measurement of Attachment Security: Development of Attachment and Infancy in Toddlerhood There seems to be some __ between infants' behavior in the Strange Situation and their behavior at home - For example, compared with infants who are insecurely attached, 12-month-olds who are securely attached exhibited more enjoyment of physical __, are less __ or difficult, and are better able to use their mothers as a secure base for exploration at home; Thus, they are more likely to __ about their environments and to enjoy doing so - In addition, children's behavior in the Strange Situation correlated with attachment scores derived from observing their interactions with their __ over several hours

similarity; contact; fussy; learn; mother

How do we know what babies are feeling: Joy Expression meets __ - 3-month-olds smile more at __ than __ objects and at __ adults rather than __ reflexive smiles: social smiles:

situation people; inanimate; familiar; strangers biological, expressed in newborns social, expressed at 2 months

The Emergence of Emotions: Happiness The first clear sign of happiness that infants express is a __ - During the first month, they exhibit fleeting smiles primarily during the __ phase of sleep; after the first month, they sometimes smile when they are __ gently; these early smiles may be reflexive and seem to be evoked by some __ state rather than by social interaction, although there is some evidence that even newborns less than a day old smile when they are being touched - Between the 3rd-8th week of life, infants begin to smile in reaction to __ stimuli, including touching, high-pitched voices, and other stimuli that engage their attention - By the third month, and sometimes as early as 6/7 weeks, babies begin to exhibit __ smiles - - Social smiles: - - Studies across cultures have found that social smiles frequently occur during interactions with __ and tend to elicit the adult's delight, interest, and affection, which in turn inspires more social smiling from the infant; thus, the infant's early social smiles likely promote care from parents and other adults and strengthen the infant's relationships with other people - After about 3-4 months, infants laugh during a variety of activities that given them pleasure Children's expressions of happiness __ across the first year of life, perhaps because they are able to better understand and respond to more interesting and positive events and stimuli - Beginning at 5 months, they laugh when they find something funny, and especially when their parents provide humor __, such as laughing - As their language skills develop along with their understanding of people and events, children in the preschool years begin to find humor and enjoyment in __, including jokes - - One study in Italy found that children as young as 3 years of age understood jokes, including ones based on irony, such as a puppet saying "Well done!" to another puppet that failed to score a basket

smile; REM; stroked; biological; external; social smiles that are directed at people; they first emerge around the third month of life parents increase; cues; words

How Can Young Children Learn Object-Label Mappings? 18-month-olds can use __ cues, such as an adult's eye gaze, to map novel words onto novel objects Children can use emotion to figure out word reference: Children can use the __ of a sentence to distinguish between words that contrast members of the same category and words that do not Children can use __ to learn words; given the infinite possible hypotheses for word meaning, maybe innate constrains restrict the possibilities - whole object constraint: - mutual exclusivity constraint:

social "I'm going to look for the modi" For first bucket, look in and are sad. For second bucket, look in and are happy. Child learns what modi refers to. grammar logic our default is to assume we're looking at the whole object assume that there aren't multiple words for the same object (pick the thing you don't have a label for)

Theories of Social Cognition: Dodge's Information-Processing Theory of Social Problem Solving The information-processing approach also emphasizes the role of cognition in __ behavior - This approach is exemplified by Dodge's analysis of children's use of aggression as a problem-solving strategy In the research that motivated Dodge's theory, elementary school aged children were presented with stories that involved a child who suffers because of another child's actions, the intentions of which are __ - For example, in one story, as a child is working hard to assemble a puzzle, a peer bumps into the table, scattering the pieces, and says "Oops." - The children were then asked to imagine themselves as the victim in this scenario and to describe how they would respond and why Some children interpreted the other child's knocking into the table as an accident and said that they would simply ignore the event; others concluded that the peer bumped the table on purpose and they'd find a way to get even (like by punching the offender) Some children have a hostile attributional bias - Hostile attributional bias: - This bias leads such children to search for evidence of hostile intent on the part of the peer and to attribute to the peer a desire to __ them - They are likely to conclude that __ is an appropriate response - What gender/cultural group has it the most?

social ambiguous in Dodge's theory, the tendency to assume that other people's ambiguous actions stem from hostile intent harm; retaliation; does not appear to be specific to a particular cultural group or gender

Play promotes meaningful, socially interactive learning and enables exchange of high-quality language Play can create __ structures and they can be __ Book-reading can be a form of play (__ book-reading) 1. Pick a book and let the child help 2. While reading... - ask open-ended questions - ask Wh- questions - give them fill in the blanks - prompt their memory - connect with child's experiences - bring in new words - prompt to child to repeat new words - discuss what the child says Playful learning in the community through grocery store signs prompting parents to talk/sing/play with their kids: Playful learning at the children's museum prompting parents to ask their children how the gears work and exploring how they work:

social; dynamic dialogic When these signs are up, 33% increase in conversation between parents and kids Led to more discussion of the gear mechanisms and more testing of the gears following the questions - More than just letting the kids explore - Adults' own exploration of the gears led to more exploration from the kids - Increased the quality and quantity of talk and turn-taking

Word Production: Babies' First Words First words are often not labels for objects, but instead __ and __ words How do we explain learning routine-based words if they don't label anything concrete?

social; routine-based (uh-oh, hi, bye-bye, yum, more, wow, shh, all-gone, yes, no, thank-you, up, night-night) No object consistencies, but situational consistencies

Parenting Style - Baumrind Most important function of parenting is to care for and __ their young Two dimensions of parenting: Warm & Responsive + Restrictive & Demanding = Rejecting & Unresponsive + Permissive & Undemanding = Warm & Responsive + Permissive & Undemanding = Rejecting & Unresponsive + Restrictive & Demanding = warm, involved, considers child's wishes, firm, high expectations = little warmth, doesn't ask for child's opinions, enforces rules without explanation, punitive discipline = moderately warm, glorifies free expression, no clear rules, ignores bad behavior self-centered, unresponsive, minimizes interactions, depressed and needy

socialize emotionality and control authoritative unvinvolved permissive authoritarian authoritative authoritarian permissive uninvolved

Child Development and Parenting - Parents' Work Contexts In families throughout the world, one or both parents have to work outside the home in order to support their children - work can also cause __, and many parents, wittingly or not, bring home that stress Two studies in Australia provide insight into the effect of work on family life and child development - In the first study, nearly 3000 employed parents of 4- and 5-year-olds were asked about their work life and family life: - The second Australian study hinted at potential mechanisms for these findings:

stress Most parents reported that they found work rewarding, but ⅓ also admitted that they experienced family difficulties and conflicts as a result of working. The extent to which a family experienced work-family conflicts was in turn related to higher levels of emotional and behavioral problems in their children; this finding was true even when family income was accounted for, suggesting that the harm of conflict from a stressful job was not outweighed by the benefits of higher income. In the survey of 2151 mothers of young children, work-family conflict was linked with more parent irritability and less parental warmth, whereas work-family reward was associated with more warmth and more consistency.

Peer Influences on Aggression and Antisocial Behavior Aggressive children tend to __ with other aggressive children and often become more delinquent over time if they have close friends who are aggressive - The expression of a genetic tendency toward aggression is stronger for those who have aggressive __ Members of the larger peer group with whom __ children and adolescents socialize may influence aggression even more than their close friends to - In one study, boys exposed to peers involved in overt antisocial behaviors, such as violence and the use of a weapon, were more than 3x as likely as other boys to engage in such acts themselves - Associating with delinquent peers tends to increase delinquency because these peers __ and __ antisocial behavior in the peer group - At the same time, participating in delinquent activities brings adolescents into contact with __ delinquent peers - It appears that children's susceptibility to peer pressure to become involved in antisocial behavior increases in the elementary school years, peaks at about 8-9 grade, and declines thereafter Even popular youth tend to increase participation in minor levels of drug use and delinquency if these behaviors are __ by peers - Peer approval of relational aggression __ in middle school, and students in peer groups that are supportive of relational aggression become increasingly aggressive There are exceptions to this overall pattern that appear to be related to cultural factors: - It may be that peers play less of a role in promoting antisocial behavior for adolescents who are embedded in a traditional culture oriented toward adults' expectations

socialize; friends older; model; reinforce; more approved; increases Mexican American immigrant youth who are less acculturated, and therefore more tied to traditional values, appear to be less susceptible to peer pressure than acculturated kids

The Development of Emotion Regulation When young infants are distressed, frustrated, or frightened, there is little they can do to fix the situation, so their parents typically try to help them regulate their emotional arousal by attempting to __ or __ them - For example, mothers tend to use caressing and other affectionate behavior to calm a crying 2-month-old - Over the next few months, they increasingly include vocalizations in their calming efforts, as well as in their attempts to divert the infant's attention - Holding or rocking upset young infants while talking soothingly to them seems to be the most reliable approach, and feeding them if they are not highly upset is also effective - Co-regulation: As children develop in their abilities to control their own bodies and to understand their environments, they are gradually able to take __ of regulating their own emotions - By 5 months, infants show signs of rudimentary emotion regulation in aversively arousing or __ situations - Self-comforting behaviors: - Self-distraction: Over the course of the first year, infants decrease their use of self-__ behaviors in stressful situations and increase their use of self-__ - These changes in children's self-regulation are at least partly due to the increasing maturation of the neurological systems-including portions of the frontal lobe that are central to managing __ and __ thought and behaviors - They are also partly due to changes in what adults __ of children; as children age, adults expect them to manage their __ emotional arousal and behavior - - Once children are capable of crawling, for example, they are viewed as being more responsible for their behavior and for complying with parental expectations - - By 9-12 months, children start to show __ of adults' demands and begin to __ themselves accordingly - - - Their __ grows rapidly in the second year, and they are increasingly likely to heed simple instructions

soothe; distract the process by which a caregiver provides the needed comfort or distraction to help a child reduce their distress ontrol; uncertain repetitive actions that regulate arousal by providing a mildly positive physical sensation - Examples include sucking fingers and rubbing hands together looking away from an upsetting stimulus in order to regulate one's level of arousal - For instance, an infant may turn his head away from an older sibling jangling a set of keys in front of his face comforting; distraction; attention; inhibiting; expect; own; awareness; regulate; compliance

The Process of Language Acquisition: Speech Perception The first step in language learning is figuring out the __ of one's native language - This task usually begins in the womb as fetuses - Prosody: - Speech perception also involves determining which differences between speech sounds are __ and which can be __

sounds the characteristic rhythm and intonational patterns with which a language is spoken - Differences in prosody are in large part responsible for why languages sound so different from one another important; ignored

Early Word Production An infant's first word can be any __ utterance __ used to refer to or express a __ - Even with this loose criterion, identification of an infant's earliest few words can be problematic: - - Babbling can sound word-like - - Early words may differ from their corresponding adult forms On average, infants produce their first words between 10-15 months, but these early words are __ in a variety of predictable ways - Infants __ the difficult bits of words (banana -> nana) or they __ easier sounds for harder one (brother -> bubba) or they __ parts of words to put an easier sound at the __ (spaghetti -> pisketti) Early words often refer to family members, pets, and important objects - Frequent __ are also labeled (up, bye-bye, night-night) - Important __ are also used (mine, hot, all gone) There is substantial cross-linguistic __ in the content of the most common first 10 words of children in the US, Beijing, and Hong Kong - Many of infants' first words referred to specific __ or were sound __ - Early words across a range of cultures are similar in their __, suggesting that infants around the world have similar __ and priorities Initially, infants express their thoughts with __-word utterances

specific; consistently; meaning mispronounced; delete; substitute; reorder; beginning routines; modifiers similarities; people; effects; meaning; interests one

What is Required for Language? A Human Brain - Language is a species-__ behavior: only humans acquire language in the normal course of development - Further, it is species-__: language learning is achieve by typically developing children across the globe No other animals naturally develop anything approaching the __ of generativity of human language, even though they can communicate with one another In one of the complex examples of nonhuman animal communication, vervet monkeys reveal the presence and identity of predators through specific calls, telling their listeners whether they should look down to avoid a snake or look up to avoid an eagle - However, this is very __ in scope Researchers have had limited success in training nonhuman primates to use human __ systems - Washow, a chimp, and Koko, a gorilla, became famous for their ability to communicate with their human trainers and caretakers using manual signs - However, their simple utterances lacked __ structure The most successful sign-learning nonhuman in Kanzi, a great ape on the bonobo species - His sign-learning began when he observed researchers trying to teach his mother to communicate using a lexigram board, a panel composed of graphic symbols representing specific objects and actions - Over the years, his lexigram vocabulary grew to more than 350 words - He combines symbols, but whether they can be considered syntactically structured __ is not clear There are also several well-documented cases of non primate animals that have learned to respond to spoken language - Rico, a border collie, knew more than 200 words and could learn and remember new words using some of the same kinds of processes that toddlers use - Alex, an African-gray parrot, learned to produce and understand basic English utterances, although his skills remained at a toddler level

specific; universal complexity limited communication; syntactic sentences

Timing Matters Effects on an experience on development depend on the __ of the organism at the time of the experience - Timing of exposure to teratogens greatly influences their effects on prenatal development - Timing also influences many aspects of __ in the months and years following birth The development of perceptual capabilities presents numerous illustrations of the importance of appropriate __ at the appropriate time - Ex: auditory development - Until 8 months, infants can discriminate between phoneme regardless of whether they occur in the language the infants hear daily - By 12 months, they lose the ability - Ex: grammatical development - Children from East Asia who move to the US and begin to learn ESL before 7 acquire grammatical competence in English that eventually matches that of native-born American children - Those who arrive between 7-11 learn almost as well - Those who arrive at later ages rare master English grammar Importance of normal early

state; development expereince

Fixed Mindset (entity theory) Out character, intelligence, and creative abilities are __; can't change them in any __ way __ is the affirmation of inherent intelligence, an assessment of how our static abilities measure up against an equally fixed standard Striving for success and __ failure at all costs becomes a way of maintaining the sense of being smart or skilled

static; meaningful success avoiding

Status in the Peer Group Children and adolescents are often extremely concerned with their peer __: being popular is of great importance, and peer rejection can be a devastating experience - Rejection by peers is associated with a range of developmental outcomes for children, such as dropping out of school and problem behaviors, and these relations can hold independent of any effects of having, or not having, close friends Measurement of Peer Status - The most common method developmentalists use to assess peer status is to: - Alternatively, they may ask children to nominate classmates whom they like the most or the least, or whom they do or don't like to play with - Sociometric status: -The most commonly used sociometric system classifies children into one of five groups: popular, rejected, neglected, average, or controversial How stable is a child's sociometric status in the peer group depends in part on: - Over relatively short periods such as weeks or a few months, children who are popular or rejected tend to remain so, whereas children who are neglected on controversial are likely to acquire a different status - Over longer periods, children's sociometric status is more likely to __ - In one study in which children were rated by their peers in 5th grade and again 2 years later, only those children who had initially been rated __ maintained their status overall, whereas nearly ⅔ of those who had been rated popular, rejected, or controversial received a different rating later on - Over time, sociometric stability for __ children is generally higher than for popular, neglected, or controversial children and may increase with the age of the child Why are some children liked better than others?

status ask children to rate how much their like or dislike each of their classmates a measurement that reflects the degree to which children are liked or disliked by their peers as a group the particular time span and sociometric status that are in question change; average; rejected physical attractiveness, athleticism, status of friends, social behavior, personality, goals when interacting with peers

Determinants of Temperament Temperament is believed to have a __ basis in biology and genetics - Evidence for a genetic component to temperament comes from dozens of studies - Recent studies have shown connections between an individual's __ and aspects of temperament such as self-regulatory capacity Although genes are clearly important for temperament, the environment plays a role as well, even from __ birth - Teratogens during pregnancy have each been found to __ infants' and young children's temperament-based abilities to regulate their attention and behavior - As children age, the behaviors of their parents become a __ influence on temperament - - Children who grow up in home environments that are harsh or unstable tend to have problems with self-regulation and the expression of emotion - - Warm and responsive parenting have can have opposite effect; in a twin study, the twin who received more warm and responsive parenting had fewer emotional problems and exhibited more positive affect and more prosocial behaviors than the twin sibling - Children's temperamental characteristics can affect their __ and particularly their parents' behaviors To determine whether genes or the environment have more influence over temperament, a group of researchers used a twin study: - A large portion of the variance in three aspects of temperament (effortful control, negative affectivity, and extraversion) was explained by __ - They also found that key aspects of the home __-namely how chaotic and unsafe they were-had a heritable component as well: parents' temperaments affected children both directly through genetic transmission and indirectly through the home environment they created

strong; genes before; predict; strong; environments In this study, parents of 807 pairs of twins reported on both of their children's temperaments, and then statistical analyses were used to determine how similar the twins were - They found that MZ twins in the same home environment were more similar than DZ twins who shared the same home environment and thus that temperament is more determined by genes than the environment heritability; environment

Screen Time and Effects on Academic Achievement There is a __ relationship between media use and school grades - Children who are categorized as __ users of screen media (more than 16 hours/day) are far more likely to report fair/poor grades than those who are moderate users (3-16 hours/day) or light users (<3 hours/day) Specific aspects of usage may be particularly problematic; for instance, teen girls who feel a compulsive need to __ have worse grades and perceived academic competence than their peers - A similar negative correlation has been found between screen time and achievement of developmental milestones in __ children One study was able to draw causal conclusions about the relation between video games and school achievement:

strong; heavy text; preschool Boys in 1-3 grade who didn't already own a video game console were randomly assigned to an experimental group, whose members were given a console at the beginning of the study, or to a comparison group. The boys were received the same console at the beginning of the study subsequently spent less time on after-school academic pursuits than did the boys in the comparison group. Four months in, they performed more poorly on measures of literacy and had a higher rate of teacher-reported academic problems that did the comparison group. Boys who spent the most time with the games showed the poorest academic outcomes.

The Origins of Aggression and Antisocial Behavior: Biological Factors Twin studies suggest that antisocial behavior runs in families and is partially due to genetics - Heredity appears to play a __ role in aggression in early childhood and adulthood than it does in adolescence, when environmental factors are a major contributor to it - Heredity contributes to both proactive and reactive aggression; but in terms of stability of individual differences in aggression and the association of aggression with psychopathic traits, the influence of heredity is greater for __ aggression One genetically influenced contributor to aggression is difficult __ - Children who develop problems with aggression and antisocial behavior tend to exhibit a difficult temperament and a lack of __ skills from a very early age - Preschoolers who exhibit lack of control, impulsivity, high activity level, irritability, and distractibility are prone to fighting, delinquency, and other antisocial behavior at ages 9-15 Some aggressive children and adolescents tend to exhibit callous personality traits, in that they feel neither guilty nor empathy nor sympathy for others - They are often charming but __ and insensitive - The combination of impulsivity, problems with attention, and callousness in childhood is especially likely to predict aggression, antisocial behavior, and criminal behavior in adolescence

stronger; proactive temperament; self-regulatory insincere

Theories of Social Cognition: Dodge's Information-Processing Theory of Social Problem Solving School systems have particular problems in dealing with children who have a hostile attributional bias One strategy is to put them into special classrooms in which they can be more closely supervised - However, grouping children with hostile attributional biases together has other negative consequences; they may be more likely to react to one another in a hostile fashion, __ their expectation of hostility from others and __ one another's aggressive tendencies - By segregating children at risk, they lose the opportunity to __ more effective strategies from well-adjusted peers Another strategy targets social cognitive processes themselves - Fast Track is a multiyear preventive intervention program focused on aggression, targeting high-risk kindergarteners with small-group activities, parent training, peer coaching, and other programming - This program has shown long-term benefits of decreased aggression through improved social cognitive processing - These alterations in social information processing meant that participants were less likely to engage in delinquent and criminal behaviors as adults

supporting; reinforcing; learn

Moral Judgment: Critique of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning Kohlberg's work is important because it demonstrated that children's moral reasoning changes in relatively __ ways as they develop - In their longitudinal study, they followed 58 boys into adulthood and found that moral reasoning changed systematically with age: - In addition, because an individual's level of moral reasoning have been related to their moral behavior, especially for people reasoning at higher levels, Kohlberg's work has been useful in understanding how __ processes contribute to moral behavior Kohlberg's theory and findings have also been criticized on several fronts - One is that Kohlberg did not sufficiently differentiate between truly moral issues and issues of __ convention - Another is about cultural differences; although children in many non-Western, industrialized cultures start out reasoning much the way Western children do in Kohlberg's scoring system, their moral reasoning within this system generally does not advance as __ as that of their Western peers - To address this concern, more than 75 studies have used a measure of moral development that instead asks the child __ moral questions such as "How important is it for a person (without losing their own life) to save the life of a friend?" - Another has to do with the argument that change in moral reasoning is discontinuous - - Kohlberg asserted that because each stage is more advanced than the previous one, once an individual attains a new stage, they __ reason at a lower stage - - However, research has shown that children and adults alike often reason at different levels on __ occasions-or even on the same occasion - Another issue is whether gender differences exist in moral reasoning - - It's argued that his classification of moral reasoning is biased against females because it does not adequately recognize differences in the way males and females reason morally - - It's suggested that because of the way they are __, males tend to value principles of justice and rights, whereas females value caring, responsibility for others, and avoidance of exploiting or hurting others - - Contrary to this theory, there's little evidence that boys and girls, or men and women, score differently on Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning - - However, consistent with this argument, during adolescence and adulthood, females focus somewhat more on issues of caring about other people in their moral judgments, whereas males tend to focus on issues of justice

systematic When the boys were 10, they used primarily stage 1 and stage 2. Thereafter, reasoning in these stages dropped off markedly. For 14+, stage 3 was the primary mode, although some adolescents occasionally used stage 4. Only a small number, even by age 36, ever achieved stage 5. cognitive social; far; concrete; don't ; different; socialized

Symbols:

systems for representing our thoughts, feelings, and knowledge, and for communicating them to other people

Traditional Toys and ASD Parents as well as autistic children __ less and use less lexical __ with electronic toys. Electronic toys sometimes take __ parent-child play interactions.

talk; diversity over

Word Learning: Adult Influences The most important way that caregivers influence word learning is by __ to their children - The __ and __ of talking that children hear predicts how many words they learn In addition to using IDS, adults facilitate word learning by __ or __ new words - They also play __ games, asking the child to point to a series of names items Adults can also enhance word learning by choosing optimal naming __ - For example, toddlers show better word learning when the object being labeled is centered in their __ __ rather than in the periphery Early word learning is also influenced by the __ in which words are used - New words that are used in very distinct contexts (like kitchens or bathrooms) are produced __ than words that are used across a range of contexts - For example, while toddlers are generally better at learning the names for solid substances than non-solid substances, toddlers do better at learning the names for non-solids when seated in a high-chair-a context where they frequently encounter non-solid food items Caregivers may also facilitate word learning by maintaining __ consistency with the objects they are labeling - For instance, infants learn the names of objects more readily when the objects are presented in predictable locations - Presumably, consistency in the visual environment helps children map words onto objects and events

talking; amount; quality stressing; repeating; naming moments; visual field contexts; earlier spatial

Nature and Nurture Begin Interacting Before Birth When things go wrong in prenatal development, the interaction between nature and nurture is obvious Ex: __ - Prenatal exposure can cause a wide variety of physical and cognitive impairments - Nevertheless, whether and how much a given baby will actually be affected depends on innumerable __ among the genetics of the mother, the genetics of the fetus, and a host of environmental factors such as the particular teratogen and the timing and amount of exposure Ex: fetal __ - The experience of hearing the mother's voice while in the womb leads a newborn to prefer her voice to that of other women - The influence of prenatal experience can be long-lasting; for example, prenatal exposure to garlic-flavored food influences liking of such flavors among 8 and 9 year olds - Thus, __ reflect nature and nurture

teratogens; interactions learning; preferences

The Relation of Emotion Regulation to Social Competence and Adjustment The development of emotion regulation has important consequences for children, especially with regard to their social competence - Social competence: - A variety of studies indicate that children who have the ability to inhibit appropriate behaviors, delay gratification, and use cognitive methods of controlling their emotion and behavior tend to be well adjusted and liked by their peers and by adults - Moreover, children and adolescents who are able to deal __ with stressful situations-negotiating with others to settle conflicts, planning strategies to resolve upsetting situations, seeking social support, and so on-generally are better adjusted than are children who lack these skills, including those who avoid dealing with stressful situations altogether - Children who are unable to successfully regulate their emotions are at higher risk of becoming victims of __ compared with their peers who are better at emotion regulation - Well-regulated children also do better in school than their less regulated peers do, likely because they are better able to pay __ and are better __ and better __ by teachers and peers, and, consequently, like school better

the ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others constructively; bullying; attention; behaved; liked

emotion regulation: co-regulation of emotion: - study by Waters: independent emotion regulation by looking at children's behavior when waiting to open a present (Ratcliff study):

the ability to effectively manage and respond to an emotional experience when caregivers help infants regulate their emotions Brought infants and caregivers together and took baseline measures of both the mom and the baby's autonomic nervous system. They they manipulated how the mom felt (either relaxed or anxious) and then reunited the mom's with their infants. Some were allowed to touch their infants, while others were not. In the touch condition, the mom and baby became increasingly similar (emotions are contagious!). 120 children were followed from ages 2-5. Children's behavior was observed while they had to wait to open a present. They looked specifically at self-soothing behaviors and distraction. They found that over the first years of live, children decrease their use of self-soothing and increase their use of distraction.

Factors that Influence Attachment Temperaments: Infant temperament profiles - "easy" temperament -> __ - "slow-to-warm-up" temperament -> __ - "difficult" temperament -> __ Less about parents, more about __ temperament But.... - infants can be securely attached to Person A but not B - intervention study with parents of difficult infants: - parent problems are more influential than parent problems - - Parental characteristics often predict insensitive parenting (illness, depression, stress)

the baby's reaction to things in the environment secure; avoidant; resistant/ambivalent innate Netherlands with difficult babies. Mothers with 6 month olds received trainings to be more sensitive to babies' needs. Vast majority of infants showed secure attachment at 12 months. Role of environment/being GOOD at sensitivity/responsivity.

Ethnic and Racial Identity: - Ethnicity refers to the relationships and experiences a child has that are linked with their cultural or ethnic __, religion, or native language - Race refers to __ characteristics, most commonly skin color Children have different understandings of their ethnic and racial identity at different points of their development - Preschool children do not really understand the __ of being a member of an ethnic group, although they may be able to label themselves as belonging to an ethnic group or race; even if they engage in behaviors that characterize their ethnic or racial group and have some simple knowledge about the group, they don't understand that ethnicity and race are __ features of the self - By the early school years, children know the common __ of their ethnic or racial group, start to have feelings about being members of the group, and may have begun to form ethnically based __ regarding foods, traditional holiday activities, language use, and so forth - - Children tend to identify themselves according to their ethnic or racial group between 5-8 - - A study of African American, White, and mixed race 9-year-olds in the US found that each group viewed __ as a more essential part of their identities than race - By late elementary school, minority children in the US often have a very __ view of their ethnic or racial group

the beliefs and attitudes an individual has about the ethnic or racial groups to which they belong ancestry; physical significance; lasting; characteristics; preferences; gender; positive

Attachment Theory Internal working model of attachment: - This internal working model is based on young children's perception of the extent to which their caregivers can be __ on to satisfy their needs and provide a sense of security - Bowlby believed that this internal working model guides the individual's __ about relationships throughout life - Thus, children's internal working models of attachment are believed to influence their overall adjustment, social behavior, perceptions of others, and the development of their self-esteem and sense of self

the child's mental representation of the self, of attachment figure(s), and of relationships in general that is constructed as a result of experiences with caregivers; the working model guides children's interactions with caregivers and other people in infancy and at older ages depended; expectations

Intelligent Machines That Learn Like Children (Diana Kwon article) Prediction Error: What parallels did researchers find between child and robot motor development? How might the predictive brain hypothesis have possible implications for clinical research? How does this article relate to the Saffran article?

the difference between what we expect and what we experience both continuously updated their expectations, their body shape impacted their leaning mental health issues when you expect one thing and get another (dissonance) and visual system things learn by using statistical frequencies and updating their predictions based on their experiences

What is Required for Language? Human Environment. Infant-directed speech (IDS): - When communicating with infants and young children, adults tend to speak with greater pitch variability, slower speech, shorter utterances, more word repetition, and more questions as well as enhancing the clarity of vowels and adjust the sound of their voices, as well as exaggerated facial expressions - Caregivers use IDS to share important information even when infants don't know the __ of the words - For example, a word uttered with sharply falling pitch communicated disapproval, whereas a cooed warm sound indicated approval - These pitch patterns serve the same function in language communities ranging from English and Italian to Japanese - Infants exhibit appropriate facial emotion when listening to these pitch patterns, even when the language is __ IDS draws infants' attention to __, likely because of its exaggerated pitch contours Indeed, infants prefer IDS to ADS even when the IDS is in a language other than their own - Infants' preference for IDS over ADS was recently confirmed in the largest infant study to date-a sample of over 2,000 babies, tested in 67 labs around the world Some studies suggest that infants' preference for IDS may emerge because it is "happy speech"; when the speakers' affect is held constant, the preference __ Perhaps because they pay greater attention to IDS, infants __ and __ words better when the words are presented in IDS than when they are presented in ADS; these behavioral effects are mirrored by the reactions of infant brains, which show greater activation when hearing IDS than ADS Although IDS is very common throughout the word, it is __ universal - In some cultures, such as the Kwara'ae of the Solomon Islands, the Ifaluk of Micronesia, and the Kaluli of Papua New Guinea, is it believed that because infants cannot understand what is said to them, there is no reason for caregivers to speak to them - For example, young Kaluli infants are carried facing outward so that they can engage with other members of the groups, and if they are spoken to by older siblings, the other will speak for them - Thus, even if they are not addressed directly, they are still immersed language

the distinctive mode of speech used when speaking to infants and toddlers meaning; unfamiliar speech disappears learn; recognize not

Theoretical Approaches to Gender Development: Cultural Influences - Bioecological Model The fundamental feature of the macrosystem is its opportunity structure - Opportunity structure: According to the bioecological approach, child socialization practices in the family, peer group, classroom, and other facets of the child's microsystem serve to __ children for these adult roles - Thus, traditional gender-typing practices perpetuate as well as reflect the existing opportunity structures for women and men in a particular community at a particular time in history - Leaper and colleagues have highlighted how play activities provide young children with opportunities to practice particular social behaviors and cognitive abilities - To the extent that children's development is largely an adaptation to their existing opportunities, changes in children's macrosystems and microsystems can lead to greater gender equality - - For example, increased academic and professional opportunities for girls in the US have led to a dramatic narrowing of the gender gap in math and science within the past few decades

the economic and social resources offered by the macrosystem in the bioecological model, and people's understanding of those resources prepare

The Role of Family in Emotional Development: Parents' Socialization of Children's Emotional Responses Emotion socialization: - Parents socialize their children's emotional development through their __ to their children's expression of emotion and through the __ they have with their children about emotion and emotion regulation; these avenues of socialization which are often interrelated, can affect not only children's emotional development but also their social __ Culture plays a significant role in influencing which emotional expressions are encouraged or discouraged by __ - When asked about norms for emotional expression, adults from 48 countries varied __ in the extent to which they believed children should display happiness, fearfulness, or anger; because parents are typically responsible for guiding their children in social norms, these cultural differences are often reflected in parents' emotion socialization - Numerous studies have explored cultural differences related to emotion socialization - - American mothers appear to be __ likely than Japanese mothers to encourage their children to express their emotions, which is in keeping with the high value European American culture places on independence, self-assertion, and individual expression, while Japanese culture emphasizes interdependence, the subordination of oneself to the group, and, correspondingly, the importance of maintaining harmonious interpersonal relationships - - A similar contrast is found in other East Asian cultures, such as China, where mothers other discourage their children from expressing anger

the process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge, and behaviors that are regarded as appropriate for their future roles in their particular cultures reactions; discussions; competence parents; widely more

Family Dynamics: Parenting Socialization: - When asked about the characteristics they want their children to exemplify as adults, the majority of parents say they want them to be honest and ethical (71%), caring and compassionate (65%), and hardworking (62%) - With these long-term goals in mind, parents engage in a variety of socialization behaviors that they hope will foster these characteristics in their children

the process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge, and behaviors that are regarded as appropriate for their present and future roles in their particular culture

Family Dynamics: Parenting - Discipline Discipline: - Parental discipline is effective when the child stops engaging in an undesirable misbehavior and engages in a preferred behavior - Discipline is considered to be most effective if it leads to a __ change in the child's behavior because the child has learned and accepted the reasons for desired behavior Internalization: - For example, if a parent emphasizes that being hit hurts the other child's body and feelings, the child will begin to understand __ it is better not to engage in the original misbehavior - - The use of other-oriented induction has the added benefit of teaching children __ for others, which is a foundational skill for acting prosocially toward others - __ is the most common form of discipline, and ¾ of parents report that they use reasoning on a regular basis - Internalization occurs best when parents apply the right __ of psychological pressure on children - - If they apply too little, the children will discount the parents' message and do what they want - - If they apply too much, the children may comply but only because they feel they are being forced to do so; children then attribute their compliance to an external force (their parents) rather than internalizing the reason for complying

the set of strategies and behaviors parents use to teach children how to behave appropriately permanent the process by which children learn and accept the reasons for desired behavior why; empathy; reasoning; amount

The Components of Language Phonemes: - Difficulty in __ some of the sounds - Combinations of sounds that are common in one language may never occur in others Morphemes: - Difficulty in __ what the sounds mean Syntax: - Even if you know the meaning of each word, you still can't understand unless you know how words are __ Pragmatics: - Required for a full understanding of the __ with a stranger - Knowing how to go beyond the words to understand what a speaker is __ communicating

the smallest units of meaningful sound perceiving the smallest units of meaning in a language understanding rules specifying how words from different categories can be combined combined knowledge about how language is used interaction; really

Phonetics/Phonology: Morphology: Semantics: Syntax: Pragmatics:

the study of sounds the study of smaller units within words the study of language meaning the study of rules that govern sentences the study of meaning in context, of how language is used to communicate

Mental Health, Stress, and Internalizing Mental Disorders: Stress When children are in situations or environments that they perceive to be frightening, __, or overwhelming, they can experience stress - Stress: - The stress response involves increased heart rate, secretion of stress hormones, increased flow of blood to the brain, and a heightened feeling of vigilance and fear Stress can be a common experience in childhood and adolescence, when the pressures of school, extracurricular activities, family obligations, and peer relationships may be overwhelming at times - In most cases, periodic stress serves the beneficial and adaptive function of mobilizing the child to take actions to reduce or manage exposure to the stimulus in the environment that is provoking the anxiety - Children can learn how to cope with the periodic stress if stress is not __ or if they have an adult who can provide support and help them __ the stress - Sometimes a single major negative event can trigger a form of stress known as __ stress, which stress brought on by a sudden catastrophic event; children and adolescents who are directly exposed to such events, such as hurricanes or terrorist attacks, tend to experience unusually high levels of emotions such as fear and anxiety and to experience mood disorders such as depression and PTSD

threatening a physiological reaction to some change or threat in the environment constant; manage; traumatic

Attachment Theory: - initially influenced by several key tenets of Freud's theories, especially the idea that infants' earliest relationships with their mothers shape their later development - However, Bowlby replaced the psychoanalytic notion of a "needy, dependent infant" with the idea of a "competence-motivated infant" who uses their primary caregiver as a secure base - Secure base: - In addition, the primary caregiver serves as a haven of safety when the infant feels threatened or insecure, and the child derives comfort and pleasure from being near the caregiver Attachment serves several important purposes - First, it enhances the infant's change of __ by keeping the caregiver (who is also the source for food and protection) in close proximity - Second, attachment helps the child feel emotionally secure, which allows the child to __ the world without fear - Third, it serves as a form of __ that helps children manage their levels of arousal and their emotions Bowlby proposed that the attachment process between infant and caregiver is rooted in __ and increases the infant's change of survival - Just like imprinting, this attachment process developed from the interaction between species-specific learning biases (such as infants' strong tendency to look at faces) and the infant's experience with their caregiver - Thus, the attachment process is viewed as having an __ basis, but the development and quality of infants' attachments are highly __ on the nature of their experiences with caregivers

theory based on Bowlby's work that posits that children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments to caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of their own survival refers to the idea that the presence of a trusted caregiver provides an infant or toddler was a sense of security that makes it possible for the child to explore the environment survival; explore; co-regulation evolution; innate; dependent

The Growth of Play One way in which children learn about other people's __, as well as about many other aspects of the world, is through play Play refers to activities that are pursued for their __ __, with no motivation other than the __ they bring - The earliest play occurs in the __ year and includes behaviors such as banging spoons on high-chair trays and repeatedly throwing food on the floor One early milestone in the development of play is the emergence, between 12-18 months, of __ play - Pretend play: - Object substitution: Such early pretend play often emerges in interactions between infants and their parents in those societies that __ such interactions - For example, when a mother pretends to bite into a plastic cook, her infant might do the same - Through signals such as strong eye contact, oddly timed movements, and smiles just after a completed action, parents convey to infants that such actions are not to be taken seriously; infants' reciprocal behaviors indicate that infants and parents both understand the message that this activity is pretend Over the next few years, children's pretend play becomes more complex and involves a greater number of other people - Sociodramatic play: - Young children's sociodramatic play is typically more sophisticated when playing with a parent or older sibling who can scaffold the play sequence than when they are pretending with a peer - Such scaffolding during play provides children with opportunities for learning, in particular for improving their storytelling skills

thinking own sake; enjoyment; first pretend make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one a form of pretense in which an object is used as something other than itself, for example, using a broom to represent a horse emphasize activities in which children enact miniature dramas with other children or adults, such as "mother comforting baby"

Box 11.3 Individual Differences: Development of Self-Awareness Among Autistic Children Children with ASD have a variety of cognition and emotional difficulties, including impairments in the development of a theory of mind and in their ability to identify with others - Researchers have found that autistic children typically refer to themselves in the __ person - In addition, autistic children have difficulties __ themselves from other people-difficulties that they may be aware of Therapists and teachers have designed interventions to improve these children's self-awareness, with the hope that they will develop the skills to function independently - One such intervention promotes self-awareness among autistic adolescents through __ __ activities, which involve attracting the attention of another person in order to share interest in an object or event - - Participants are first taught about reflected mirror images using joint attention: - Another intervention goes a step further by focusing on this disorder as an identity

third; differentiating joint attention This ability is then generalized over time such that eventually the participants can recognize themselves in the mirror. Participation in these activities did in fact lead to greater self-awareness in the participants who did not already have it, indicating that autistic children can be guided into having greater self-awareness.

Preparation for Language Production: Early Interactions Learning to take __ in social interactions is facilitated by parent-infant games, such as peekaboo - In these "dialogues," the infant has the opportunity to alternate between an active and a passive role, as in a conversation, giving infants practice in bidirectional communication - Caregivers' responses to babbling may serve a similar function Consistent with the active learning theme, infant babbling evokes a range of parental responses that in turn may help the infant learn Babbling also provides a signal that the infant is __ and ready to __ - When an adult labels an object for an infant just after the infant babbles, the infant learns __ than when the labeling occurs in the absence of babbling Successful communication also requires intersubjectivity, in which two interacting partners share a mutual understanding - The foundation of intersubjectivity is joint attention, in which the caregiver follows the baby's lead, looking at and commenting on whatever the infant is looking at - By 12 months, infants have begun to understand the communicative nature of pointing, with many infants also able to point themselves

turns; attentive; learn; more

Attachment and Social-Emotional Development Securely attached children are also better able to __ others' emotions and display more helping, sharing, and concern for peers - Children with a secure attachment to a caregiver were 2.5x __ likely to develop mental health problems, such as anxiety or depression, or behavior problems than were children with an insecure attachment to their caregivers - Securely attached children are also more likely to report __ emotion and to exhibit normal rather than abnormal patterns of __ to stress - Secure attachment in infancy predicts positive peer and romantic relationships and emotional health in adolescence and early adulthood, as well as physical health in adulthood Although there are only a few studies in which infants' attachments to both parents were assessed, it appears that children may be most at risk if they have insecure attachments to __ their mother and their father - In a study in which attachment was assessed at 15 months, children with insecure attachments to both parents were especially prone to problem behaviors such as aggression and defiance in elementary school; having secure attachments with one or both parents was associated with low levels of problem behavior - However, it is not clear yet if having one secure attachment buffers against other types of negative outcomes, such as internalizing problems (anxiety, depression) or problems in interpersonal relations

understand; less; positive; reactivity both

Active Interpretation of Experience Contribute to their development by trying to __ the world around them - In the first year, infants gain a sense of what's __ in the physical world - - Look longer at an "impossible" event than a possible one - Continuous "__" questions and school-age children's searching for explanations of magic tricks - Desire to understand also motivated young children to construct informal __ concerning inanimate objects, living things, and people - When some children fail to solve a problem, they feel sad and question their ability while others see it as a challenge and an __ to learn - In ambiguous social situations, aggressive children attribute hostile intent to others while other children do not

understand; possible; why; theories; opportunity

Understanding Emotions In addition to the development of children's capacity to feel emotions, another key influence on children's emotional reactions and regulation is the __ of emotion-that is, their understanding of how to __ emotions, as well as their understanding of what emotions __, their __ functions, and what factors __ emotional experience - Because an understanding of emotion affects social behavior, it is critical to the development of social __ Children's understanding of emotions is primitive in infancy but __ rapidly over the course of childhood

understanding; identify; mean; social; affect; competence develops

Childcare Contexts: Adjustment and Social Behavior Initially, the greatest concern among researchers was that it might undermine the early mother-child relationship - Yet, this concern was __ Research has considered whether children in childcare centers are more __ than children not in childcare centers because they compete for resources - A number of investigators have found that children who are in childcare do not __ in problem behavior from those care for at home - In two large studies in Norway, a country in which the quality of childcare is uniformly high, researchers found __ consistent relation between amount of time in childcare and children's externalizing problems - These findings are in contrast to those from a longitudinal study in the US, where the quality of childcare is more variable: The finding that greater time in childcare is related to increased risk for adjustment problems appears not to apply to children from __-income, __-risk families - Longer time in childcare has been found to be __ associated to the better adjustment of such children, unless the quality of care is very low - A large study of children from high-risk families in Canada found physical aggression to be less common among children who were in group childcare than among those who were looked after by their own families - High-quality childcare that involves programs designed to promote children's later success at school may be especially beneficial for disadvantaged children The background characteristics (family income, parental education, parental personality) of children who are in childcare for long hours likely differ in a variety of ways from those of children in childcare for fewer hours - Further, the number of hours spent in childcare is less relevant than the __ of childcare provided: no matter what their SES background, children in high-quality childcare programs tend to be well adjusted and to develop social competencies

unfounded aggressive; differ; little The study indicates that the number of hours per day that a child is in care or the number of changes in caregivers the child experiences in the first two years of life predicted lower social competence and more noncompliance with adults at age 2. At 4.5, children in extensive childcare were viewed by care provides (but not by mothers) as exhibiting more problem behaviors, such as aggression, noncompliance, and anxiety/depression. The relation between more hours in center care and teacher-reported externalizing problems was also found in the elementary school years but generally was not significant by 6th grade. However, more hours of nonrelative care predicted greater risk-taking and impulsivity at age 15. low; high; positively quality

Family Structure: Changes in Family Structure in the US - Many Children Live with Single or Unmarried Parents The increase in the number of children living with single parents is attributable to a steep rise in the number of births to __ women - These changes in average family structure obscure some important qualifications; for example, the likelihood that a child in the US will live with a single parent is greater for some __ and __ groups, and for some __ groups, than for others - More than half (53%) of Black children and 29% of Latino children live with a single parent, compared to 21% of White children and 11% of Asian children Children of parents with college degrees are much __ likely to live with a single parent (13%), compared with children whose parents only attended high school (43%) Family structure has big implications for family income - 34% of children living with single parents live below the poverty line, compared with 8% of children living with two married parents - Another major implications of living with a single parent is that the parent has less __ to spend with each child because they must do all the household tasks alone and often must have more than one job in order to support to family - As a result, single parents are much less likely than married parents to __ to their children, although they are not less likely to eat breakfast with their children

unmarried; racial; ethnic; socioeconomic less time; read

Sources of Individual Differences in Attachment Styles: Genetic Influences The search for a genetic explanation has been largely __ - Twin studies have provided __ evidence that attachment styles are heritable However, several studies have shown that __ effects play a role in the expression of attachment behavior, including support for the __ __ hypothesis - One recent study focused on the possible influence that allelic variants of the serotonin transporter gene, SLC6A4, might have on behavior in the Strange Situation: Such studies highlight the concept of differential susceptibility - That is, they suggest that certain genes result in children being differentially susceptible to the __ of their rearing environment, such that those with the "reactive" genes benefit more from having a secure attachment (e.g., are better adjusted and more prosocial than their peers) but do more poorly if they have an insecure attachment The links between attachment security and genetic makeup have been found to last into __ - One longitudinal study followed children from infancy, when attachment was assessed with the Strange Situation, all the way to age 26, when attachment was assessed with the Adult Attachment Interview: - Taken together, these studies indicate that individuals' genetic makeup affects both the way in which environmental forces influence their attachment security in childhood and the continuity of attachment security into adulthood

unsuccessful; no epigenetic; differential susceptibility The participants were Ukrainian preschoolers, some of whom had been raised in institutions and some of whom had been raised in their biological families. Those participants who had an SLC6A4 variant, frequently associated with vulnerability in the face of stress, exhibited less attachment security and more attachment disorganization if they grew up in an institution than did preschoolers with the same variant who lived with their families. In contrast, participants who were raised in an institution but who had a different SLC6A4 genotype, one that is frequently associated with less reactivity and less vulnerability, did not exhibit adverse attachment behavior. - Similarly, there is some research indicating that certain genes, such as DRD4 (which is involved in the dopamine system), are associated with disorganized/disoriented attachment when an infant is in a stressful environment (as when the mother is suffering from trauma or loss) but are associated with greater attachment security in a less stressful context quality adulthood Researchers found that the continuity in individuals' attachment security dependent on which variant of an oxytocin receptor gene OXTR they had, although not on variations in DRD4

Emotion Understanding Social referencing: - 12-month-old babies watch an unfamiliar woman express emotions toward some objects: putting words to emotions - children begin to say emotion labels around age __ - children tend to use these labels incorrectly (in a __ way) - children first form broader positive and negative categories and only later form more __ emotion categories; they get __ right, but other emotions are prone to error - often, the errors are mixing up emotions that are similar in __ - even once they stop making errors, it still takes awhile to understand adult emotional representation:

using others to assess how you are meant to feel the child acted accordingly with those objects 2; patterned; specific; happiness; valence Adults understand based on how positive/negative they are and how activated the state is (calm/excited), while children tend to only use positive/negative dimension, not so much the activated dimension

Behavioral Change Mechanisms: Habituation, Conditioning, Statistical Learning, and Rational Learning The capacity to habituate begins in __ - By 30 weeks after conception, the CNS is developed enough for habituation to occur, as reflected in a fetus's heart rate initially slowing down when a bell is rung next to the mother's belly and then the heart rate returning toward the typical rate as the bell is rung repeatedly - Habituation motivates babies to seek __ stimulation when they have already learned from an experience and thus helps them learn more Even young infants appear highly __ to learn through conditioning: 2 month olds express joy and interest when they see a behavior produce a desired outcome, and they cry when a learned response no longer produces the desired results Infants in their first year __ their instrumental learning to somewhat novel situations, as well as learning about the specific earlier situation Another mechanism is statistical learning - From birth, infants quickly learn the likelihood that one sight or sound will follow another Related to statistical learning is __ learning, which involves integrating the learner's prior beliefs and biases with what actually occurs in the environment

utero; new motivated generalize rational

Child Development and Parenting - Cultural Contexts Given differences in the frequency with which parents use different discipline techniques, the next question is whether they matter: Are certain techniques more effective in some cultures than others? Differences in the effectiveness of a particular technique could arise from the different parenting beliefs and __ held by different cultures - Some researchers have argued that the extent to which a disciplinary technique predicts negative or positive outcomes in children depends on how __ it is in their wider culture There are some similarities and some differences across cultures in how parenting behaviors __ children's development - For instance, in European American families, authoritative parenting seems to be associated with a close relationship between parent and child and with children's positive psychological adjustment and academic success, while a similar but somewhat weaker relation has been found in china - Some features of parenting that are considered appropriate in traditional Chinese culture are more characteristic of authoritarian parenting than our authoritative parenting - Compared with American mothers, for example, Chinese American mothers are more likely to believe that children owe unquestioning obedience to their parents and thus use scolding, shame, and guilt to control them - Although such a pattern of parental control generally fits the category of authoritarian parenting, it appears to have few negative effects for Chinese American and Chinese children; rather, for younger Chinese children, physical punishment is the primary type of punishment related to negative outcomes

values; normative predict

What is Required for Language? A human brain. Sensitive period for language development - The early years constitute a sensitive period during which languages are learned relatively easily - After this period (which ends sometime between age 5 and puberty), language acquisition outcomes become more __ and, on average, __ successful The case of Genie, who was discovered in appalling conditions in LA in 1970: Adults are more likely to suffer permanent language impairment from brain damage than are children, presumably because other areas of the young brain are able to take over language functions Moreover, adults who learned a second language after puberty use __ neural mechanisms to process that language than do adults who learned their second language from infancy - The same is true for rare cases of individuals who were not exposed to their first language until after puberty-typically, deaf individuals who did not receive signed language input early in life - These results strongly suggest that the neural circuitry supporting language learning operates differently (and better) during the early years In an important behavioral study, Johnson and Newport tested the English knowledge of Chinese and Korean immigrants to the US who had begun learning English at different ages: - A recent study of almost 700,000 adult English learners tested via an online grammar quiz also revealed a drop-off in proficiency, but one that starts later, toward the end of adolescence - A similar pattern has been described for first-language acquisition in the Deaf community: individuals who acquired ASL as a first language when they were children develop a better understanding of the grammar of ASL than do individuals who acquired ASL as a first language as teens or adults The reasons for a sensitive period for language remain unknown - Theories suggest developmental changes in the plasticity of language-related regions of the brain and motivational differences across ages - One account suggests that children's native language knowledge increasingly impinges on second language learning - Another hypothesis suggests that children's poorer working memory abilities lead them to extract and store smaller chunks of the language than adults do The evidence for a sensitive period in language acquisition has clear practical implications - For one thing, deaf children should be exposed to sign language as early as possible to ensure access to a native language during the sensitive period - For another, foreign-language exposure at school should begin as early as possible to maximize children's opportunity to achieve native-level skills

variable; less From 18 months until rescued at 13 years, Genie's parents kept her alone in a room, during which no one spoke to her. At the time of her rescue, Genie's development was stunted-physically, motorically, and emotionally-and she could barely speak. With intensive training, she made some progress, but her language ability never developed much beyond the level of a toddler's. Genie's failure to develop full, rich language might have resulted from the bizarre and inhumane treatment instead of from linguistic deprivation. different The results revealed that comprehension of key aspects of English grammar was related to the age at which these individuals began learning English, but not to the length of their exposure to the language. The most proficient were those who had begun learning English before 7.

The Self: Self-Concept in Adolescence Children's self-concept changes in fundamental ways across adolescence, due in part to the emergence of abstract thinking during this stage of life - The ability to use this kind of thinking allows adolescents to conceive of themselves in terms of abstract characteristics that encompass a __ of concrete traits and behaviors - Adolescents typically develop __ selves-the self they are with their parents is different from the self they are with their friends, and both of these are different from the self they are in school or at a job - - Initially, adolescents may lack the ability to __ these different solves into a coherent whole, resulting in feelings of uncertainty and internal conflict - - However, as they develop, adolescents are able to appreciate that they can act differently in different situations and still be the same person, thereby resolving these sense of confusion Young people's concern over their social competence and their social acceptance, especially by peers, intensifies in early adolescence - Particularly notable is the fact that adolescents can conceive of themselves in terms of a variety of selves, depending on the __ - - The adolescent in the composite, for instance, describes himself/herself as a somewhat different person with friends and with parents, as well as with familiar and unfamiliar people Thinking about the self in early adolescence is characterized by a form of egocentrism called the personal __ - Personal fable: - They may believe that only __ can experience whatever misery or rapture or confusion they are currently feeling - The kind of egocentrism that underlies adolescents' personal fables also causes many adolescents to be __ with what others think of them - - Imaginary audience: - - This dimension of adolescent egocentrism, like the personal fable, has been found to become stronger across adolescence for __

variety; multiple; integrate context fable a form of adolescent egocentrism that involves beliefs in the uniqueness of one's own feelings and thoughts they; preoccupied the belief, stemming from adolescent egocentrism, that everyone else is focused on the adolescent's appearance and behavior boys

Why IDS Caregivers' use of IDS predicts infants' __ growth It supports early __

vocabulary imitation

Play: - Although children can play by themselves, and typically do so early in development, the majority of children's play from age __ onward is social and thus involves siblings, peers, and friends In addition to allowing children to interact with their peers, play can help with many other aspects of development - __ development may be the domain most affected by play; children learn how to cooperate, take turns, and try out social roles - - Play provides a chance for children to learn and practice empathy and concern for others - Play helps foster cognitive development by giving children opportunities to practice problem solving, to strengthen their __, and to express their __ - Because the coordination of behaviors requires communication among participants, play can encourage __ development Education experts view play-based curricula, which guide children to learn through engaging in activities rather than through explicit instruction, as an essential developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood education Play can help children cope with difficult situations - A therapeutic technique known as child-centered play therapy (CCPT) encourages children to express their thoughts and emotions through free play and has been shown to be effective in reducing children's externalizing symptoms (such as aggression) and internalizing symptoms (such as anxiety), as well as improving their social skills

voluntary activities, particularly those of children, with no specific motivation beyond their inherent enjoyment 4 social-emotional; memory; creativity; language

Prosocial behavior: The origins of prosocial behavior are rooted in the capacity to feel __ and __ - Empathy is an __ response to another's emotion state or condition that reflects the other person's state or condition - - To experience empathy, children must be able to __ the emotions of others (at least to some degree) and __ that another person is feeling an emotion or is in some kind of need - Sympathy is a feeling of __ for another in response to the other's emotional state or condition - - Although sympathy often is an outcome of empathizing with another's negative emotion or negative situation, what distinguishes sympathy from empathy is the element of concern: people who experience sympathy for another person are not merely feeling the same emotion as the other person In order for children to express empathy or sympathy, they must be able to take the __ of others - Although early theorists such as Piaget believed that children are unable to do this until 6 or 7, it's now clear that children have some ability to understand others' perspectives much __ - - By 14 months, children become emotionally distressed when they __ other people who are upset and express verbal and nonverbal concern for an adult who has been __ - - By 18-25 months, toddlers in lab studies sometimes share a personal object with an adult whom they have seen being harmed by another (e.g., by having a piece of personal property taken away or destroyed)

voluntary behavior intended to benefit another, such as helping, sharing with, and comforting others empathy; sympathy; emotional; identify; understand; concern perspective; earlier; see; hurt

The Development of Emotions Developmentalists attempt to explain __ we experience emotions and why we express them __ on our faces or in our voice - They view emotions as a combination of physiological and __ responses to thoughts or experiences Emotions: - The near __ nature of these components has led researchers to consider whether emotion is mostly innate (nature) or mostly learned (nurture) - Do we experience the physiological reaction first and then learn to call it "fear"? Or do we cognitively assess a situation as one that is fear inducing and then experience the corresponding physiological reactions and facial expressions? - In other words, what role does __ play in our experience of emotion

why; outwardly; cognitive neural and physiological responses to the environment, subjective feelings, cognitions related to those feelings, and the desire to take action simultaneous; cognition

Status in the Peer Group: Neglected Children Children who are __ with peers but socially __ tend to be neglected Neglected (peer status): Tend to be both less __ and less __ than average and are likely to back away from peer interactions that involve __ Children who are not social and prefer solitary activities may not be especially prone to peer rejection - Neglected children __ that they receive less support from peers, yet that are not particularly __ about their social interactions Other than being less socially interactive, they are rated by their teachers as being as socially competent as popular children Neglected because they aren't __

withdrawn; competent children or adolescents who are infrequently mentioned as either liked or disliked; they simply are not noticed much by peers sociable; disruptive; aggression perceive; anxious noticed

Factors influencing individual differences Cognitive differences - __ memory capacity differs across individuals Sex and birth order - __ and __-borns have larger vocabularies and use more complex language - older __ are (slightly) bad for language development Socioeconomic status - Not because of differences in __ practice, but general __ failure surrounding individuals who did not have access - Nutrition, healthcare, __ experiences (piano lessons, for example) - Diverse, rich, contingent experiences add up and support the paths laid out for success Caregiver language input - Greater __ in vocabulary for kids in wealthier families

working girls; first; brother parenting; structural; enriching gains