PSY270 EXAM 4
Stimulus salience
Areas that stand out and capture attention -Bottom up process -Depends on characteristics of stimulus -Color and motion are highly salient
This type of neuron receives information from neurons and sends information to other neurons.
Association
Cognitive dissonance may be a mechanism for repentance.
Based on our understanding of material in this course, what could we conclude about the relationship between cognitive dissonance and the gospel?
Which of the following is NOT a property of the connectionist approach?
Before any learning has occurred in the network, the weights in the network all equal zero.
__________ is a cue to depth based on the fact that our two eyes are in somewhat different positions on our head.
Binocular disparity
Broca's aphasia:
Both A and B
Processing that does not require any specific knowledge of the stimulus.
Bottom-up processing
When the features of individual letters are combined to identify each letter, and then the letters are combined to identify a word, what does this illustrate?
Bottom-up processing
What methods, other than accuracy and response time, do investigators use to study mental processes?
Brain visualization measures
What makes neurons different from other cells in the body?
Branch-like projections
Being given a set of 3 letters to memorize (e.g., BEL) and then being asked to count backwards from some number (e.g., 274) likely means that you are performing which test?
Brown-Peterson
Using Alex the parrot and Washoe the chimp as examples, it was demonstrated that animals ____________ expand their communicative capabilities well beyond their natural tendencies.
Can
What helps us estimate objects' size and stance to aid in our perception
Cues
27. Which of the following psychologists is known for research on operant conditioning? A. Franciscus Donders B. Wilhelm Wundt C. John Watson D. B.F. Skinner
D. B.F. Skinner
32. Who proposed that children's language development was caused by imitation and reinforcement? A. Noam Chomsky B. John Watson C. Keller Breland D. B.F. Skinner
D. B.F. Skinner
A patient with fluent but meaningless speech and problems with comprehension has most likely damage i the left _____________ and should be diagnosed with __________ aphasia A. Inferior frontal cortex; Broca's B. Inferior frontal cortex; Wernicke's C. Posterior temporal lobe; Broca's D. Posterior temporal lobe; Wernicke's
D. Posterior temporal lobe; Wernicke's
Which of these topics would not be considered part of 'cognition'.
Digestion
The belief bias and atmosphere effect suggests that people:
Do not analyze syllogisms by simply applying the rules of logic
Early-selection model
Filters message before incoming info is analyzed for meaning
Vividly remembering where you were during the April 15th, 2013 terrorist attack of the Boston Marathon would be an example of
Flashbulb memory
For an action potential to be transmitted to the next neuron, it must be ______ at the axon hillock
Generated
These cells are typically viewed as auxiliary to neurons and provide support and protection.
Glial
Flashbulb memory is best represented by which of the following statements?
It is memory for the circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an emotional event that remains especially vivid but not necessarily accurate over time.
Based on the results of the studies on the Geon Theory we can say that:
It is not supported because recognition is better from familiar views versus unfamiliar views
What was the historical importance of the Turing Machine?
It provided the theoretical foundation for the design of electrical computers
Observable behavior
John Watson believed that psychology should focus on the study of:
mind wandering.
Lan has no idea what she just read in her text because she was thinking about how hungry she is and what she is going to have for dinner. This is a real-world example of
Linguistic Relativity is the idea that:
Language effects other areas of cognition
According to the chapter on working memory, what was nontraditional about George Miller's article on the "magical number seven"?
Miller's article emphasized active mental processes, rather than simply focusing on the stimulus and the response.
Teaching a dog to "shake hands" on command using a food reward is an example of:
Operant conditioning
Linguistic string
Phoneme-> morpheme -> word-> phrase -> sentence
The Misinformation Effect can be considered a form of:
Reconsolidation
Scientist A is trying to produce the same results that scientist B reported, using the same methods. This is called:
Replication
the main effect of cell phone use on driving safety can be attributed to the fact that attention is used up by the cognitive task of talking on the phone.
Research on the use of cell phones while driving indicates that
Late selection model
e.g. McKay (1973)
Wilhelm Wundt.
The founder of the first laboratory of scientific psychology was:
Which of these demonstrates sign language in children who are born deaf?
They usually develop some form of sign language even if not exposed to it by others
Intermediate selection model
Tresiman's attenuation theory
A person with damage to Wernicke's area has trouble __________________.
Understanding language
How do we produce speech?
Vocal tract with articulators
Close attention
Which of the following options would NOT be an important factor in automatic processing?
The recency effect is attributed to:
Working memory
For most adults over age 40, the reminiscence bump describes enhanced memory for
adolescence and young adulthood
Compared to people who are not depressed, people suffering from major depression:
have difficulty with some working memory tasks
Attention
• Process of concentrating on specific features of the environment or on certain thoughts or activities
location-based visual attention
moving attention from one place to another
In the semantic network model, a specific category or concept is represented at a
node.
object-based visual attention
attention being directed to one place on an object
According to levels of processing theory, deep processing results in better memory. However, studies have shown that shallow processing can result in better memory when the individual encodes _____ and is tested _____. A. semantically; auditorially B. auditorially; auditorially C. auditorially; semantically D. semantically; visually
auditorially; auditorially
10. Compared to the whole-report technique, the partial-report procedure involves a. a smaller stimulus set. b. a smaller response set. c. a smaller stimulus set and a smaller response set. d. a shorter rehearsal period.
b
13. Sperling's delayed partial report procedure provided evidence that a. STM and LTM are independent components of memory. b. information in sensory memory fades within 1 or 2 seconds. c. information in STM must be rehearsed to transfer into LTM. d. STM has a limited capacity.
b
A patient with impaired episodic memory would most likely have the greatest difficulty in
remembering where a best friend had moved.
Retrograde amnesia is usually less severe for ______ memories
remote
Retrograde amnesia is usually less severe for memories. A. remote B. recent C. anterograde D. emotional
remote
According to the multiple trace hypothesis, the hippocampus is involved in retrieval of A. remote, episodic memories B. remote, semantic memories C. remote procedural memories D. state-dependent memories
remote episodic memories
According to the multiple trace hypothesis, the hippocampus is involved in retrieval of
remote, episodic memories.
The standard model of consolidation proposes that the hippocampus is
strongly active when memories are first formed and being consolidated but becomes less active when retrieving older memories that are already consolidated.
If you say that "a Labrador retriever is my idea of a typical dog," you would be using the ___________ approach to categorization.
exemplar
Words that sound the same but mean different things, such as 'ate' and 'eight.'
homophones
Amnesiac patients like Clive Wearing and H.M demonstrate:
impaired LTM, intact STM
Consider the following scenario. An intergalactic team of psychologists discovers a planet with robot-like androids and is trying to understand them. Which school of psychology does a researcher probably belong to if he/she uses the following research method?
structuralist
The word-length effect reveals that
the phonological loop of the working memory model has a limited capacity.
How many morphemes are in the words "kitchen chairs"
three
Memory performance is enhanced if the type of task at encoding matches the type of task at retrieval. This is called
transfer-appropriate processing
An advantage of the exemplar approach over the prototype approach is that the exemplar approach provides a better explanation of the ___________ effect.
typicality
more accurately; than
under laboratory conditions, participants seem ____ to recall items that have pleasant associations items ____ that have unpleasant associations
A driver who is listening to a football game on the radio and forming clear images of the action may experience difficulty driving. This interference may be attributable to the limited capacity of a working-memory component called the:
visuospatial sketchpad.
You are trying to retain—in your working memory—a mental picture of a stranger's face. According to Baddeley, you are using your
visuospatial sketchpad.
Language in animals
-They do not have language
Intermediate-selection model
-Attended message can be separated from unattended message early in the info processing system -Selection can also occur later
Classic view
-Concepts are definitions -They are represented as a list of defining features -A particular object has to have the defining features of a category to be a member of the category. -Membership is all or none
Operational Decisions
-Day to Day decisions that run the organization. -Employees in an organization.
Manner of articulation
-How /b/ vs /m/
Tools/Techniques for Making Better Decisions
1.Nominal group technique. 2.Delphi technique. 3.Majority rule. 4.Consensus. 5.Group decision support. systems. 6.Decision trees.
The amount of processing capacity devoted to any given task is a function of two main components of the model:
1. Arousal 2. Allocation
12. In Baddeley's working memory model which system holds visual and spatial images for manipulation? A. the visuospatial sketchpad B. the phonological loop C. the central executive D. the iconic memory
A
Differences between humans and apes
1. Universal acquisition in children; variable acquisition in apes 2. Differ in ease of learning 3. Children experiment; apes copy 4. Differences in usage
43. Newell and Simon were among the first to use computers in cognitive psychology. Their computer program A. simulated human attention. B. solved logic problems. C. controlled presentation of visual stimuli during cognitive psychology experiments. D. introduced the first flow diagram.
B. solved logic problems
Which of the following reaction time data sets illustrates the typicality effect for the bird category, given the following three trials?
583: 653: 518 ms
Which of the following reaction time data sets illustrates the typicality effect for the bird category, given the following three trials? (NOTE: Read data sets as RTs for Trial 1: Trial 2: Trial 3) Trial 1: An owl is a bird. Trial 2: A penguin is a bird. Trial 3: A sparrow is a bird.
583: 653: 518 msec
Using the example presented above, you should turn over the card with the 'E' and the to determine whether the rule was true or not.
7
Which of the following sets of results shows evidence of proactive interference with a three-trial recall task? (Note: Read the selections as percent correct for Trial 1: Trial 2: Trial 3)
80% : 40% : 30% correct
23. Which task is used to study the controlled updating of working memory? A. an N-back task B. the Tower of Hanoi C. the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test D. the Stroop task
A
40. If one wants to use one's working memory MOST effectively, one should: A. try to multitask as much as possible. B. keep one's stress levels relatively high. C. focus on one task at a time. D. try to use just one's verbal memory store.
C
A group of scientists notice that people who smoke often develop cancer later in life. To test this, they design a longitudinal study in which they take note of how many cigarettes each participant smokes each day, how many years each participant smokes, and whether he or she develops any kind of cancer at any point. What type of study is this?
A correlational study
If a researcher were interested in studying how multiple variables relate to each other, which research approach would he likely use?
A correlational study
In evaluating retrieval rates for category information for a concept, Collins and Quillian's semantic network approach would predict the slowest reaction times for which of the following statements using a sentence verification technique?
A field sparrow is an animal.
Which of the following analogies would provide the best description for how research progresses in cognitive psychology?
A trail from which one thing leads to another.
According to Collins and Quillian's semantic network model, it should take longest to verify which statement below?
A turtle is an animal.
24. Which of the following was considered positive by the behaviorists? A. Observable behavior B. Consciousness C. Introspection D. The mind
A. Observable behavior
According to Treisman's "attenuation model", which of the following would you expect to have the highest threshold for most people?
A. The word "house" B. The word "fire" C. Their spouse's first name D. The word "platypus" ANSWER: D
30. A mental conception of the layout of a physical space is known as a(n) A. cognitive map. B. mental model. C. artificial intelligence. D. memory consolidation.
A. cognitive map.
2. The branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of the mind is called A. cognitive psychology. B. introspection. C. behaviorism. D. memory consolidation.
A. cognitive psychology.
Selective attention
Ability to focus on one message and ignore all others • We do not attend to a large fraction of the information in the environment
The word "platypus"
According to Treisman's attenuation model, which of the following would you expect to have the highest threshold for most people?
preattentive
According to Treisman's feature integration theory, the first stage of perception is called the __________ stage.
auditorially; auditorially
According to levels of processing theory, deep processing results in better memory. However, studies have shown that shallow processing can result in better memory when the individual encodes _____ and is tested _____.
short; and across several days
According to memory research, studying is most effective if study sessions are...
Spelke et al. (1976)
After hours of practice, participants could read and categorize dictated words.
Baddeley's model of working memory had a different focus from the earlier approaches to short-term memory because a. he emphasized that working memory is useful in holding related items in our memory simultaneously. b. he devised a precise operational definition for every component of working memory. c. he examined a much more limited set of processes, compared to earlier models. d. he focused much more on the visual characteristics of stimuli than on the auditory characteristics of the stimuli.
Answer: a
strongly active when memories are first formed and being consolidated but becomes less active when retrieving older memories that are already consolidated.
The standard model of consolidation proposes that the hippocampus is...
Damage to which of the following areas would be most likely to impair processing and encoding of emotional memories?
Amygdala
17. Ebbinghaus' "memory" experiments were important because they A. described complex decision-making. B. plotted functions that described the operation of the mind. C. were the first to combine basic elements of experience called sensations. D. showed how positive reinforcers strengthen behavior
B. plotted functions that described the operation of the mind.
A friend has just told you his cell phone number, and you repeat it to yourself several times as you search for a pen to record it. The technique you are using to remember the number is called a. rehearsal. b. the serial position effect. c. release from proactive interference. d. the working-memory approach
Answer: a
According to Atkinson and Shiffrin's classic theory, a. short-term memory and long-term memory are distinctly different processes. b. items stored in short-term memory are fairly permanent. c. rehearsal is necessary in order to move material from sensory memory to short-term memory. d. there are no strict limits in the capacity of short-term memory.
Answer: a
Consonants
Articulated with complete or partial closure of vocal tract
This technique simulates the basic architecture of the human brain.
Artificial neural network
Which of the following is not true? A. "l" is a phoneme but never a morpheme B. "s" is a phoneme but never a morpheme C. The word "wish" consists of three phonemes D. The word "walked" consists of two morphemes
B. "s" is a phoneme but never a morpheme
12. Donders' measurement of reaction time is particularly important because it demonstrated the "time course" on which the mind operates. Donders found that it took ______ to decide which of two buttons to push in response to a stimulus. A. 1/100 second B. 1/10 second C. a second D. two seconds
B. 1/10 second, LESS THAN A SECOND
44. At the MIT Symposium on Information Theory, George Miller presented a paper suggesting that A. the human ability to process information is unlimited. B. there are limits to the human ability to process information. C. intelligent machines can be successfully created. D. memory consolidation is enhanced by REM sleep.
B. there are limits to the human ability to process information
Items high on prototypicality have ___________ family resemblances.
strong
The study of cognition fell out of favor because of the rise in popularity of what?
Behaviorism
Dr. Smith believes that overt, observable behavior is the only valid way we can study people. He is a what?
Behaviorist
25. The "Little Albert" experiment involving the rat and the loud noise is an example of which of the following types of experiments? A. Reaction time B. Unconscious inference C. Classical conditioning D. Operant conditioning
C. Classical conditioning
35. Your text describes the occurrence of a cognitive revolution" during which dramatic changes took place in the way psychology was studied. This so-called "revolution" occurred parallel to (and, in part, because of) the introduction of A. cognitive psychology textbooks. B. analytic introspection. C. Skinner boxes. D. computers.
D. computers.
The _________________ is the evolutionarily newest part of the brain and is comparatively bigger in humans than in any other species.
Cerebral cortex
The expected utility hypothesis states that given the right information, people will generally:
Choose the action that is most likely to lead to the highest expected value
The primary cluster of fibers that connects the right and left hemispheres of the brain is called the ____________________.
Corpus callosum
Dictionary unit
Contains words, each of which have thresholds for being activated -Words that are common or important have low thresholds -Uncommon words have high thresholds
Pollack and Picketts' (1964) study where they recorded conversations of students and spliced out individual words from the recording demonstrated that
Context plays an important role in speech segmentation
Sensory information from your left hand is processed in the right side of your brain. This is because most sensory information from one side of the body tends to cross over to the _______________ hemisphere of the brain.
Contralateral
46. An individual suffering from _____ would exhibit deficits in his/her working memory due to insufficient levels of dopamine. A. ADHD B. anxiety C. depression D. schizophrenia
D
47. Which psychiatric problem is one of the most commonly diagnosed in children? A. depression B. anxiety C. schizophrenia D. ADHD
D
10. The ability to hold information in short-term memory is limited by: A. the capacity of STM. B. what one can pay attention to. C. how one encodes the information. D. All of the answers are correct.
D
17. What does the word-length effect demonstrate about working memory? A. The central executive is required for storing long words. B. The visuospatial sketchpad is used when long words are remembered. C. The phonological loop can only store short words. D. The phonological loop holds verbal information for only a short time.
D
John went to the bank and dealt with a rude teller. Rather than being rude back, John figured he shouldn't take it personally because the teller probably was just having a bad day. John's attitude best illustrates what?
Determinism
Your psychology professor tells you, "Our cognitive processes exist mainly to provide a means of interacting with the world around us" Which approach to cognitive psychology is this?
Embodied cognition
This is a measure that correlates with intelligence by measuring actual brain size relative to the size that would be predicted based on body size alone.
Encephalization quotient
Typicality guides inferences
Ex: Learn about a robin, see a duck and typicalize it. Robin is typical, duck is atypical. But not the other way around
Background knowledge guides inferences
Ex: Lion eats giselle, people ask if it works other way around- but no. New info on giselle, ask if will be new about lion, but no
overt attention
Eye movements, attention, and perception. Studied by using an eye tracker.
Evidence form imaging studies show that the FFA is active during ______________ perception and the LOC is active during ______________ recognition.
Face; object
It has been found that Jean Piaget was correct in his theory that adults consistently think clearly and logically and rarely make errors in deductive reasoning.
False
The optic nerve:
Forms a 'hole' in the array of photoreceptors
The idea that many parts of the brain work together to produce specific functions is known as:
Functional localization
Which of the following types of autobiographical memory refers to sequences of events that are all related?
General events
Which psychological approach focuses on how humans use principles of organization to understand our surroundings?
Gestalt
Which of these is not considered a figure-ground cue?
Good continuation
How do we know a certain object's lightness (black, white, gray, etc...)?
Guess how much light is hitting the surface
Winawer and colleagues (2007) found, using a color matching task, that:
Having different names for colors leads us to perceive colors as more different
Classical conditioning is an example of which type of memory?
Implicit
Where does most of the information from the optic nerve go?
Lateral geniculate nucleus
All of these are Gestalt Principles except
Law of Occlusion
Given what we know about the operation of the phonological loop, which of the following word lists would be most difficult for people to retain for 15 seconds?
MAC, CAN, CAP, MAN, MAP
Pomerantz and Portillo (2012) found that larger arrays of stimuli containing basic feature elements and more complex stimuli are easier to perceive that smaller basic arrays of stimuli. What is this called?
The configural superiority effect
The __ effect involves viewing visual articulations of one phoneme while hearing the auditory signal consistent with a different phoneme.
McGurk
According to levels of processing theory, information encoded in terms of _________ will be best remembered
Meaning
Basic level categories: subordinate
Most specific Ex: Terrior, spaniel, rainbow trout, brown trout
The fact that objects farther away from you will change their position change their position more slowly on your retina as you move is called ______________.
Motion parallax
Created proofs for problems in logic.
Newell and Simon were among the first to use computers in cognitive psychology. Their computer program:
Specificity encoding
One neuron will be active for Alan and one neuron will be active for Brittany.
What do illusions reveal about the assumptions that the brain makes during perception?
Perception often depends on guesses
the focused attention stage of feature integration theory
Placing tomatoes, onions, jalapenos, garlic, cilantro, and lime juice into a blender and turning it on to produce salsa is similar to which of the following?
Detector
Processes all info to determine higher-level characteristics of message
Which approach to categorization involves forming a standard representation based on an average of category members that a person has encountered in the past?
Prototype
What is the basis of category membership?
Prototype theory and exemplar theory
An inborn biological program.
Regarding children's language development, Noam Chomsky noted that children generate many sentences they have never heard before. From this, he concluded that language development is driven largely by:
when memory is reactivated, it becomes capable of being changed or altered just as it was immediately after it was formed
Recent research on memory, based largely on fear conditioning in rats, indicates that...
_______ cues help us remember information that has been stored in memory
Retrieval
knowledge about what is contained in a typical scene.
Scene schema is
Memories for general knowledge and facts are which type of memory?
Semantic
Which of the following scenarios best illustrates how effective or ineffective maintenance rehearsal is in transferring information into LTM?
Serena's keys were stolen from her purse. She cannot give a detailed description of her keychain to the police, even though she used it every day for three years.
Phoneme
Smallest unit
Morpheme
Smallest unit that carries meaning (umpire,s)
What ion is mainly responsible for maintaining the positive charge found in the extracellular space of a neuron at rest?
Sodium
A person with damage to Broca's area has trouble with __________________.
Speech production
Bottom-up Determinants of Eye Movement
Stimulus salience
talking on either kind of phone impairs driving performance significantly and to the same extent.
Strayer and Johnston's (2001) experiment involving simulated driving and the use of "hands-free" versus "handheld" cell phones found that
Which of the following are the two primary categories of models in cognitive psychology?
Structural models and process models
meaning.
Suppose twin teenagers are vying for their mother's attention. The mother is trying to pay attention to one of her daughters, though both girls are talking (one about her boyfriend, one about a school project). According to the operating characteristics of Treisman's attenuator, it is most likely the attenuator is analyzing the incoming messages in terms of
Noam Chomsky thought that which of these basic concepts of language do not need to be learned?
That there are words, syntax, and tense
Which region of the brain is important for declarative memory?
The hippocampus and surrounding temporal lobe areas are important for forming declarative memories.
A subject is shown an image of a turtle and asked to keep that item in their WM. After waiting silently for 2 mins, the subject is asked what they remember seeing. The subject responds "a turtle". Which of the following is likely true?
The subject may have converted the image to a verbal code to rehearse it.
Basic-level categories: Superordinate
Top of the web- most vague Ex: Mammal, fish
Communication system
Transmission of a signal (sound, motion, etc.) that conveys information -Language is richer than that
True or False: The computer and information processing models of cognition led to the representationalist view of cognitive processes
True
True or False: There can be more than one independent variable in an experimental study?
True
Argument from Analogy
We observe that two things share some set of properties and conclude that they must share a different property.
B.F. Skinner
Who proposed that children's language development was caused by imitation and reinforcement?
Proactive interference is __________.
a cost in the ability to remember due to memories of prior events
blocking
a difficulty in recalling information that one knows they should know, such as the name of one's uncle, is called
In a lexical decision task, participants have to decide whether
a presented stimulus is a word.
19. If a person has a digit span of two, this indicates that he has memory. a. an absence of sensory b. poor short-term c. exceptional short-term d. normal short-term
b
Allocation
based on importance/priority • Enduring dispositions • Momentary intentions • Evaluation of effort
31. Working memory differs from short-term memory in that a. short-term memory consists of a number of components. b. short-term memory has unlimited capacity. c. working memory is concerned with both holding and processing information. d. working memory has unlimited capacity.
c
30. "The best Illini basketball game I ever went to was against Michigan State, back in 1998," said Brent. "There was a fight, and the Illini won by about 20 points." Brent's recollection is an example of a(n) ________ memory. a. Procedural b. Sequential c. Episodic d. Semantic
c. Episodic
The 'Cognitive Revolution' led to the idea of cognition as a form of :
computation
Compared to the earlier view of short-term memory, the current view of working memory
states that information is continuously being manipulated and changed
Inferences based on theories
-Inferences about categories are based on typicality and our background knowledge that relates to the concept
Rational Examples
-Information on alternatives can be gathered and quantified. -The decision is important. -You are trying to maximize your outcome.
Nativist view
-Innate learning device for language, that contains info about the structure common to all languages -Thought that language input we receive is by itself too poor to learn language -Language and cognition are independent
Specific language impairment (SLI)
-Is diagnosed when child's language development is deficient for no apparent reason -Cause unknown, seems hereditary -Prevalence: 7 in 100 births -Typical cognitive abilities, impaired language at all levels
Things that do/don't determine typicality
-Item frequency does NOT determine this (ex: encounter -It's feature frequency: ex: table is more typical furniture, but rug is more frequent in our lives. Table is more typical
Membership is also independent of resemblance
-Membership without resemblance: (flattened striped lemon); still a lemon, even though it doesn't resemble it -Resemblance without membership: (counterfeit money) *Resemblance is not the basis for membership. Why is it still a lemon? In essence, it is still a lemon, came from a lemon tree
Bounded Rationality
-The minimum criteria are clear. -You do not have or you are not willing to invest much time to making the decision. -You are not trying to maximize your outcome.
Non-programmed Decisions
-Unique and important. -Require conscious thinking, information gathering and consideration of alternatives. -Careful balance of timelines and available information.
Voicing
-Vibration of vocal folds /b/ vs /p/ /z/ vs /s/
Tactical Decision Examples
-What should we do to help facilitate employees from the two companies working together? -How should we market the new product line? -Who should be let go when we downsize?
23. John Watson believed that psychology should focus on the study of A. observable behavior. B. mental processes. C. consciousness. D. attention.
A. observable behavior.
26. Behaviorists believe that the presentation of_______ increases the frequency of behavior. A. positive reinforcers B. negative reinforcers C. practice trials D. excitatory neurotransmitters
A. positive reinforcers
Which neurotransmitter has been shown to be particularly decreased in patients with AD?
Acetylcholine Levels of Acetylcholine also decrease in normal aging, but AD patients have severely lowered levels, by as much as 60 - 90%.
The tendency to rely on information that quickly comes to mind when trying to make a decision.
Availability Heuristic
45. A neuromodulator that alters neuron-to-neuron communication is known as: A. serotonin. B. dopamine. C. epinephrine. D. glutamic acid.
B
11. A common feature of both a reaction time experiment and an operant conditioning experiment is A. the presentation of positive reinforcers. B. the measurement of behavior. C. the inference of mental processes. D. all of these are common features
B. the measurement of behavior.
Based on the available evidence, which of these is true of 'Flashbulb Memories'?
People often feel as if they are resistant to forgetting
encoding specificity
People often report an annoying memory failure when they walk from one end of the house to the other for something and then forget what they went to retrieve when they reach their As soon as they return to the first room, they are reminded of what they wanted in the first place. This common experience best illustrates the principle of...
The broken form of language spoken by adults who move to foreign countries and develop limited capabilities in the language of their adopted country.
Pidgin
Where do the plaques and tangle first appear?
Plaques tend to build up BETWEEN nerve cells while Tangles form INSIDE cells
Which one of these items is not a cue to depth?
Proximity
Which of these is not one of the basic goals of the nervous system mentioned above?
Secret hormones into the bloodstream
Occurred rapidly, within a period of a few years, in response to the attacks on Skinner and the development of computers.
The "cognitive revolution":
14. The relationship between the _____ is NOT measured directly by cognitive psychologists. A. physiological response and the behavioral outcome B. cognitive task and the behavioral outcome C. cognitive task and the physiological response D. cognitive task and the mental response
D. cognitive task and the mental response
low-load
If you are folding towels while watching television, you may find that you don't have to pay much attention to the act of folding while keeping up with the storyline on the TV show. Folding the towels would be an example of a(n) ________ task.
binding
If you stand very close to a pointillist painting, all you will see are tiny colored dots. But as you step away from the painting, larger areas of color become noticeable and eventually become recognizable objects such as flowers or clouds. This is similar to which of the following?
combinations of features from different stimuli.
Illusory conjunctions are
Elise has good semantic memory and poor episodic memory, while Lauren has good episodic memory but poor semantic memory
In which of the following examples of two different brain-injured patients (Elise and Lauren) is a double dissociation demonstrated?
How do psychologists typically deal with the challenge of cognitive differences across individuals?
Include many participants
Our inability to remember events from before the age of 4 is termed:
Infantile amnesia
Concepts
Mental representations of categories
Modus ponens or affirming the antecedent
Observe that the antecedent is true we can conclude that the consequent is true.
___ consolidation involves the gradual reorganization of circuits within brain regions and takes place on a fairly long time scale, lasting weeks, months, or even years. A. Remote B. Standard C. Systems D. Synaptic
systems
Recent research on memory, based largely on fear conditioning in rats, indicates that
when a memory is reactivated, it becomes capable of being changed or altered, just as it was immediately after it was formed.
object-based attention
The Egly cueing task we did in class provides evidence for what kind of attention?
Studies where participants became experts in 'Greebles' challenges the view that:
The FFA is specialized to process faces
What is an example of a scenario of sensing but not perceiving a stimulus?
The music you are playing in the background while you are studying
same-object advantage
The notion that faster responding occurs when enhancement spreads within an object is called
Which lobe of the brain is not as affected by AD?
The occipital lobe is not affected by AD
Analytic Introspection
The procedure in which trained participants describe their experiences and thought processes in response to stimuli presented under controlled conditions is known as:
In the "Mental Rotation" experiment, it generally takes people longer to decide whether the objects are the same when:
They have to compare stimuli that have a large rotational offset from one another
38. Have you ever tried to think of the words and hum the melody of one song while the radio is playing a different song? People have often noted that this is very difficult to do. This difficulty can be understood as a. articulatory suppression. b. an overload of sensory memory. c. rehearsal interference. d. an LTM recency effect.
a
Compared to the whole-report technique, the partial-report procedure involves
a smaller response set. Same amount of stimuli, just have to report less
A task for determining how prototypical an object is would be
a task where participants rate the extent to which each member represents the category title.
____ consolidation involves the gradual reorganization of circuits within brain regions and takes place on a fairly long time scale, lasting weeks, months, or even years.
a. Remote b. Synaptic d. Standard
According to the levels of processing theory, memory durability depends on the depth at which information is
a. retrieved. b. consolidated. c. stored.
One criticism of the embodied approach is that it doesn't explain how humans can recognize ________.
abstractions
encoding specificity
according to the construct of what, the specific way of representing information as it is placed into memory affects the specific way in which the information may be recalled later
According to Goodale and Milner, the dorsal/ventral visual streams are for ____________________________ and ___________________________
action; perception
According to a recent approach proposed (Baddeley, 2000, 2006), working memory:
consists of a central executive, a visuospatial sketchpad, an episodic buffer, and a phonological loop.
Learning information requires synaptic changes in order to make memories last long-term and become enduring. This process is called:
consolidation
In the "word list" false memory experiment where several students incorrectly remembered hearing the word sleep, false memory occurs because of
constructive memory processes.
One beneficial property of connectionist networks is graceful degradation, which refers to the property that
damage to the system does not completely disrupt its operation.
The process of ___ is choosing a specific course of behavioral actions from among many possibilities.
decision making
Imagine that a young child is just learning about the category "dog." Thus far, she has experienced only two dogs, one a poodle and the other a German shepherd. On her third encounter with a dog, she will be LEAST likely to correctly categorize the animal as a dog if that animal
is a breed of dog that is hairless and teacup-sized
Chapter 4 discusses neuroscience research on the central executive. According to this discussion, the central executive
is primarily controlled by portions of the frontal lobe.
George Miller's (1956) classic article, on the magical number seven, introduced the concept of a chunk. According to Miller's terminology, a chunk
is the basic unit in short-term memory.
Based on the results of the studies on the Geon Theory we can say that:
it is NOT supported bc recognition is better from familiar views vs unfamiliar views
According to Chapter 4, working memory is especially important because
it keeps some items active, so that we can use these items when we are working on a relevant task.
Your friend Carla is getting ready to go the Bahamas for a beach vacation. You have never been to the beach but you have a good idea of what her vacation will be like. This is an example of which type of memory?
semantic
Conceptual knowledge
-Enables us to recognize objects and events and to make inferences about their properties -It exists in the form of concepts -People probably have a prototype for most of their concepts and a set of remembered exemplars, and use them for a range of fast and easy judgments about the relevant category -People also seem to have a set of beliefs about each concept they hold. These beliefs, in turn, are woven into the broader network that manages to store all the information in your memory, and that network influences how you categorize items and also how you reason about the objects in your world.
Rational Decision- Making Model
-Follows a specific process and is especially effective in situations where the goal is the maximize the quality of outcomes. -Most successful when objectives and foals are clearly outlined.
Which feature is the most important in terms of image segmentation and edge detection?
A point in the image where there is a sudden change from dark to light
36. The scene of a human sitting at a computer terminal, responding to stimuli flashed on the computer screen, would most likely be described as depicting a(n) _________ experiment. A. information processing B. analytic introspection C. operant conditioning D. behaviorist
A. information processing
___________is a "typical" member of a category.
A prototype
Attenuator
Analyzes incoming message in terms of physical characteristics, language, and meaning
Chapter 4 discusses characteristics of individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). According to this discussion, people with ADHD are especially likely to have difficulty with which of the following components of working memory? a. The phonological loop b. The visuospatial sketchpad c. The episodic buffer d. The central executive
Answer: d
Carry is trying to memorize her PantherID number. She is having trouble because the number is 9 digits long. _____________ would BEST help Carry learn the number.
Chunking the digits
Donker Blegdav study
Donker: has thick windows, is red, divers live there, is underwater Blegdav: Has steel windows, is purple, farmers live there, is in the desert Donker features fit together, Blegdav features don't fit together *Shows that we use our knowledge to see what goes together, Blegdav contradicts our knowledge
Which psychologist extensively tested his own memory to develop theories of cognition?
Ebbinghaus
Plotted functions that described the operation of the mind.
Ebbinghaus' "memory" experiments were important because they:
Speech perception: single reliable cue
Ex: different "p" in pool and pill. -doesn't have to be same frequency- need to use context
When the neurotransmitters released by the sending neuron case the receiving neuron to fire more frequently we call this an ___________ effect.
Excitatory
The idea that we categorize objects based on their similarity to previously stored instances is known as
Exemplar theory
Sound waves are to ______ as light waves are to _______
Hearing; Vision
Which of the following is NOT an example of semantic memory?
I remember the day we learned about how talking on cell phones can impair driving ability.
once processing had become automatic.
In Schneider and Shiffrin's experiment, in which participants were asked to indicate whether a target stimulus was present in a series of rapidly presented "frames," divided attention was easier
The primacy effect could be considered to be in _________ memory.
LTM
Research shows which of the following is true regarding autobiographical memories and depression
Negative memories are associated with increased levels of physiological arousal in individuals with higher rates of depression
MaryAnn is studying for her cognition class. She decides to re-write her notes. MaryAnn is using which of the following to help her study?
Shallow levels of processing
If Shirley and Marla's environmental science test is an essay test, which student will most likely perform better and have better recall?
Shirley
Which proteins are found in plaques and tangles?
Tangles are formed when protein Tau
According to the ________________ model of recognition, we match an object to an image stored in memory.
Template
Spatial/covert attention without eye movements
The Posner cueing task we did in class provides evidence for what kind of attention?
It is suggested that the brain activity seen approximately half a second before initiating a behavior is indicative of what?
The brains readiness to carry out the behavior
Chapter 4 discusses characteristics of individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). According to this discussion, people with ADHD are especially likely to have difficulty with which of the following components of working memory?
The central executive
Operant Conditioning
The investigation of how behavior is strengthened by presentation of positive reinforcers (i.e., food) or withdrawal of negative reinforcers (i.e., shock) is best known as:
Which of the following would be in a basic level category?
Truck
Basic-level categories: basic
What we use most often Ex: Deer, dog, trout, shark
1956
What year is usually cited as the "birthday" of cognitive science? (Pick the closest year.)
Patient S.M. had congenital damage to her _________ and could not learn fear conditioning.
amygdala
6. Information is retained to sensory memory for _________ seconds. a. Sixty b. Less than two c. Twenty d. Thirty
b. Less than two
Which part of the working memory system is responsible for regulating the flow of information?
central executive
In Baddeley's (2000, 2006) working-memory model, the component that plays a major role in attending to stimuli, planning one's strategies, and coordinating one's behavior is the:
central executive.
Acquiring information and transforming it into long-term memory is
encoding.
method of loci
if you are imagining taking a walk around an area with distinctive landmarks, matching up a landmark with a specific item you need to remember, you are using the what technique
According to your text, imagery enhances memory because A. research shows people like pictures better than words, so there is an enhanced emotional response. B. the brain processes images more easily than the meanings of words. C. imagery can be used to create connections between items to be remembered. D. pictures fit better with our basic instincts because children learn pictures before reading words.
imagery can be used to create connections between items to be remembered.
The maintenance rehearsal task of learning a word by repeating it over and over again is most likely to
produce some short-term remembering, but fail to produce longer-term memories.
Light enters the eye through a hole in the center of the iris called the:
pupil
The right hemisphere of the brain is dominant for what kind of processing?
spatial
At the highest levels of the information stream, you will be most likely to encounter neurons selective for ______________.
specific object and faces
The dramatic case of patient H.M. clearly illustrates that ____ is crucial for the formation of LTMs.
the hippocampus
Shallow processing of a word is encouraged when attention is focused on A. the number of vowels in a word. B. the meaning of a word. C. the pleasantness of a word. D. the category of a word.
the number of vowels in a word
Transfer-appropriate processing is likely to occur if
the type of encoding task matches the type of retrieval task.
Tactical Decisions
-Decisions on how things will be implemented and completed. -Generally made by managers.
Intuitive Decision Making
-Making decisions without conscious reasoning. -Scan the environment in a situation and look for a pattern. -Once pattern is recognized, use prior experience, knowledge and training to develop a solution. -Solutions tested in a mental model to understand how well it might work. -Once a suitable solution identified, put into action.
Broadbent's Filter Model - SUPPORT: In a shadowing task...
1. Participants successfully shadowed. 2. They also noticed the physical features of the unattended message. 3. But they did NOT notice or remember the content of the unattended message
16. The word-length effect is when one can remember more _____ words than _____ words. A. short; long B. long; short C. medium-length; short D. long; medium-length
A
As discussed in class, treatment of PTSD has benefitted from recent research on A. reconsolidation B. depth of processing C. levels of encoding D. transfer-appropriate processing
A
38. Who introduced the flow diagram to represent what is happening in the mind? A. Donald Broadbent B. Colin Cherry C. Newell and Simon D. Wilhelm Wundt
A. Donald Broadbent
making a connections between each word and something you have previously learned
According to the levels of processing theory, which of the following tasks will produce the best long-term memory for a set of words?
task cueing.
According to your text, the ability to divide attention depends on all of the following EXCEPT
Which example below best demonstrates state-dependent learning?
Although Emily doesn't very often think about her first love, Steve, she can't help getting caught up in happy memories when "their song" (the first song they danced to) plays on the radio.
Process
An early model of memory indicates that incoming information is first handled by "sensory" memory, is then moved to "short term" memory, and finally is pushed into "long-term" memory. This model, proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968, is an example of a(n) ________ model.
whether the perceptual load is low or high.
Anne Treisman's attenuator analyzes the incoming message in terms of all of the following EXCEPT
Suppose that you are listening to an announcer read the names of the winners in an athletic event. You recall the last four names accurately, but you can't recall the names that appeared earlier in the list. This phenomenon is called as a. the primacy effect. b. proactive interference. c. chunking. d. the recency effect.
Answer: d
You have set aside 2 hours to study for an exam in this course, and you are currently deciding to review the new terms, writing down any terms that you cannot define. Which feature of Baddeley's theory handles this planning activity? a. The phonological loop b. The visuospatial sketchpad c. The episodic buffer d. The central executive
Answer: d
salience; fixation; increase
As the ________ of a stimulus increases, ________ tends to ________.
Cognition
Attention, perception, memory, and decision making are all different types of mental processes in which the mind engages. These are known as different types of:
What refers to the ability to focus on one stimulus among the many that our in our environment?
Attentional process
The long projection that protrudes from the cell body of a neuron that transmit information are called __________________.
Axons
Transfer-appropriate processing is likely to occur if A. the rememberer generates his own retrieval cues. B. the type of encoding task matches the type of retrieval task. C. there is deep processing during acquisition of the new material. D. imagery is used to create connections among items to be transferred into LTM.
B
What type of inference provides a mathematical model for incorporating existing beliefs with new data in order to make an educated guess?
Bayesian
Consider the following scenario. An intergalactic team of psychologists discovers a planet with robot-like androids and is trying to understand them. Which school of psychology does a researcher probably belong to if he/she uses the following research method? Method 1: Determine the action responses of the robots in response to specific kinds of stimulation
Behaviorist
Positive Reinforcers
Behaviorists believe that the presentation of_______ increases the frequency of behavior.
Some investigators are interested in how cognition is associated with brain activity. This interest represents what?
Biological Perspective
an organizational context during learning
Bransford and Johnson's study had participants hear a passage which turned out to be about a man on the street serenading his girlfriend in a tall The wording of the passage made it difficult to understand, but looking at a picture made it easier to understand. The results of this study illustrated the importance of in forming reliable long-term memories.
_______ cues help us remember information that has been stored in memory. A. Retrograde B. Encoding C. Retrieval D. Processing
C
22. Which of the following is a criticism of analytic introspection? A. It infers mental processes based on objective data. B. It produces results that are too easy to verify. C. It produces variable results from person to person. D. It requires no training.
C. It produces variable results from person to person.
The main reason why Biederman used Geons for recognition is that the Geons:
Can be identified from different viewpoints
What kind of research methodology focuses on intensive analyses of a single individual?
Case studies
What field of science served as an inspiration to the Structuralist school?
Chemistry
Decision making is:
Choosing a specific course of behavioral actions from among many possibilities
Which of these is NOT an offered reason as to why studying the physical brain alone might be insufficient to understand cognition?
Cognition depends on non-physical mechanisms
Consider the following scenario. An intergalactic team of psychologists discovers a planet with robot-like androids and is trying to understand them. Which school of psychology does a researcher probably belong to if he/she uses the following research method? Method 3: Using the response of the robot to specific kinds of stimulation in order to infer its internal mental processes
Cognitive
Which of the following terms is most closely associated with semantic networks?
Cognitive economy
The investigation of the neural processes underlying cognition in active, healthy brains.
Cognitive neuroscience
People can focus on one message and ignore the other one.
Colin Cherry's experiment in which participants listen to two messages simultaneously, one in each ear, found all but which of the following?
could focus on one message and ignore the other one at the same time.
Colin Cherry's experiment in which participants listened to two different messages, one presented to each ear, found that people
People are generally worse at correctly identifying a syllogism as invalid than they are at establishing that they are valid. This suggests that there is a type of _________________ when evaluating syllogisms.
Confirmation bias
What do researches use to study the way in which neurons are connected in networks in the brain and to understand how different cognitive processes work?
Connectionist models
15. Which of the following stimuli were used in Ebbinghaus' "memory" experiment discussed in your text? A. Common words B. Light illuminated on the left or the right of a computer screen C. Grey rectangles in front of light rectangles D. Three-letter nonsense words
D. Three-letter nonsense words
29. Who developed the concept of the cognitive map? A. Watson B. Ebbinghaus C. Wundt D. Tolman
D. Tolman
10. Donders' reaction time experiment was performed using stimuli in which of the following sensory modalities? A. Touch B. Hearing C. Smell D. Vision
D. Vision
Researchers presented a list of words such as glove, finger, shake, and thumb to participants without ever showing them the word "hand." Nonetheless, many subjects report seeing the word "hand." This paradigm used to demonstrate the suggestibility of memory is referred to as the:
DRM Paradigm
In the lexical decision task, participants:
Decide if a string of letters is a real word or not
What is the difference between declarative and procedural memory?
Declarative memory: explicit and accessible to conscious awareness. Things you know that you can tell others Semantic, and episodic Procedural: Things you know that you can show by doing, memory of how to do things
Craig is preparing to study for his lifespan development course and decides that he will generate examples for each of the terms so that he can better remember them. He is using:
Deep levels of processing
The Ponzo illusion happens when there is a discrepancy between what?
Distal stimuli and proximal stimuli
A diagram depicting the mind as processing information in a sequence of stages.
Donald Broadbent was the first person to develop which of the following?
nerotransmitters
Donald Hebb proposed that memory is represented in the brain by structural changes in all of the following EXCEPT the...
Decision Making
Donders' main reason for doing his choice reaction time experiment was to study:
Less than one second
Donders' measurement of reaction time is particularly important because it demonstrated the "time course" on which the mind operates. Donders found that it took ______ to decide which of two buttons to push in response to a stimulus.
Structural
Douglas is working on a project for his cognitive psychology class. He builds a plastic model of the human brain, paints each major structure a different color, and constructs a "map" that shows which functions are controlled by which brain component. Douglas's project is working from a(n) ________ model of cognitive psychology.
How would you describe the relationship between elaborative rehearsal and maintenance rehearsal in terms of establishing long-term memories?
Elaborative is more effective than maintenance.
How would you describe the relationship between elaborative rehearsal and maintenance rehearsal in terms of establishing long-term memories? A. Elaborative is more effective than maintenance. B. Maintenance is more effective than elaborative. C. Both are equally effective in all learning circumstances. D. Each one is sometimes more effective, depending on the learning circumstances.
Elaborative is more effective than maintenance.
Sam is participating is a sleep study. Researchers place electrodes to Sam's scalp which are connected to an EEG. What kind of information will be provided by the EEG?
Electrical activity of the brain during sleep
This tool measures the electrical activity of the active brain that travels through the scalp.
Electroencephalography
Which of the following is the most accurate statement regarding post-event information and the misinformation effect?
Even when participants are told that the post-event information is incorrect, the misinformation effect can still occur.
Whenever Mary is asked how she and John met, she instantly remembers how John bumped into her while she was leaving a store. The collision caused her to drop her bags, and he felt so bad that he offered to help her carry her bags. They started talking and eventually got dinner! Her ability to relive that memory and vividly remember her feelings and the conversation is which type of memory?
Event-specific knowledge
True or false: Conducting a case study on a patient with damage to his frontal lobe has the potential to reveal a great deal of information about our brain's role in vision
False
The idea that specific parts of the cortex do different jobs is known as:
Functional localization
Which part of the brain shows greater activity when people engage in a facial recognition task than when they perform other kinds of recognition tasks?
Fusiform Face Area (FFA)
episodic
Grace steps up the the golf ball and hits it down the fairway. She sees that the ball is heading towards someone, so she yells "Fore!" After her two friends hit their balls, they pick up their bags and start walking to the next hole. But Grace says, "Wait, I haven't teed off yet." This behavior shows that Grace has a problem with _____ memory.
The most fundamental difference between human and animal language is the presence or absence of a(n) ___
Grammar
What are grandmother cells?
Hippocampus neurons that allow us to recognize specific faces that we have seen before
John suffered brain damage that caused deficits to his ability to recognize people he knows. what is likely damaged?
His bottom-up processing
Denying the antecedent
If the antecedent is not true then the consequent is not true.
Affirming the consequent
If the antecedent is true then the consequent is true.
How are scientists using new techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging and electroencephalography?
In conduction with old methods
Which of the following is NOT true about Rosch's prototype theory of category memberships?
In this theory, the boundaries of the category are specified, rather than the center of the category.
The 'reminiscence bump' refers to:
Increased episodic memories for memories from mid-adulthood to late adulthood
Broca's area is located in the _______________.
Inferior frontal gyrus
A patient is unable to distinguish between living and nonliving things. This is most likely because the patient has damage to what?
Inferior temporal cortex
Speech perception: Incrementality
Information about speech sounds unfolds over time- it passes by quickly and cannot be revisited. Speech perception is incremental
When the neurotransmitters released produce less frequent action potentials we call this an __________________ effect.
Inhibitory
Which of these methods is NOT currently considered a scientifically valid form of data for the study of cognition?
Introspection
The results of the "Mental Rotation" experiments suggest to some researchers that this cognitive task:
Involves mental operations that are similar to rotating real objects
Katie and Inez are roommates taking the same psychology class. They have a test in four days during a 10:00 - 11:00 AM class period. Both women intend to study for three hours, but because of different work schedules, Katie will study one hour for each of the next three days, while Inez will study three hours the day before the exam. What could you predict about their performances?
Katie should perform better because of the spacing effect.
Katie and Inez are roommates taking the same psychology class. They have a test in four days during a 10:00 - 11:00 AM class period. Both women intend to study for three hours, but because of different work schedules, Katie will study one hour for each of the next three days, while Inez will study three hours the day before the exam. What could you predict about their performances? A. Katie and Inez should perform equally well, because each studied the same time overall (supporting the equal-time hypothesis). B. Inez will perform better because of a long-term memory recency effect. C. Katie should perform better because of the spacing effect. D. State-dependent learning predicts that Katie should perform better, because the exam takes place during a one-hour class period.
Katie should perform better because of the spacing effect.
Lourdes and Kim have been studying for two hours for their chemistry exam. Both girls are tired of studying. Lourdes decides to watch a two-hour movie on DVD, while Kim decides to go to bed. What would you predict about their performance on the chemistry exam?
Kim performs better because of reactivation.
Sally begins to prepare her lunch at 12:00 pm and realizes that she can't remember what she had for breakfast. This highlights a retrieval failure from:
LTM
The primacy effect (from the serial position curve experiment), is often attributed to:
LTM
The process of imagining the future uses which of the following?
LTM to predict what is probable of the future
Which of the following is NOT a conclusion from the case of H.M., who had an operation to help alleviate his epileptic seizures?
LTMs are stored in the hippocampus
People with damage to their left hemisphere are likely to have trouble with:
Language
The ability to communicate complex ideas, share our internal thoughts, emotions, and plans for the future.
Language
Which of the following lies at the foundation of a connectionist network?
Learning
The frontal lobe has an important role in reasoning, while the temporal lobe has a role in language. This structure illustrates which principle?
Localization
The four lobes of the brain have all different functions. This structure exhibits which principles?
Localization and lateralization
According to the levels of processing theory, which of the following tasks will produce the best long-term memory for a set of words? A. Making a connection between each word and something you've previously learned B. Deciding how many vowels each word has C. Generating a rhyming word for each word to be remembered D. Repeating the words over and over in your mind
Making a connection between each word and something you've previously learned
Elizabeth Loftus found that:
Memories can be altered by information after the original coding, and completely novel false memories can be created
creates more connections
Memory for a word will tend to be better if the word is used in a complex sentence (like "the bicycle was blue, with high handlebars and a racing seat") rather than a simple sentence (like "he rode the bicycle"). This probably occurs because the complex sentence...
transfer - appropriate processing
Memory performance is enhanced if the type of task at encoding matches the type of task at retrieval. This is called...
One function of autobiographical memory is theorized to be allowing us to reminisce about the past or imagine future events. This is referred to as which of the following?
Mental time traveling
A neuropsychological discovery that provided support for the link between perception and action was the discovery of what?
Mirror Neurons
Incorrect information changing a memory is referred to as the
Misinformation Effect
Broadbent's Filter Model - EVIDENCE AGAINST IT
Moray, 1959 Treisman, 1959
The study or observation of brain function and impairment due to brain pathology.
Neuropsychology
______ is the inability to correctly recognize tangible things, and is associated with damage _______ cortex
Object agnosia; Inferior temporal
Modus tollens or denying the consequent
Observe that the consequent is false and conclude that the antecedent must be false.
The process of reconsolidation has been explored in regards to therapeutic techniques in order to help patients suffering from:
PTSD
Which of the following is a connectionist model proposing that concepts are represented by activity that is spread across a network?
Parallel distributed processing theory
Elizabeth's sister, Meredith, isn't answering her phone. Elizabeth thinks it either died or has been stolen. Concluding that her battery died and that her phone wasn't stolen would best illustrate what?
Parsimony
Tenehaus et al. (1995) tracked eye movements while participants listened to sentences about apples and towels. It was found that _________________ ambiguity can be overcome by the contextual environment in which the sentence is heard.
Parsing
Egly et al. (1994)
Participants saw two side-by-side rectangles, followed by a target cue -Reaction time (RT) fastest when target appeared where indicated -RT was faster when target appeared in same rectangle
Treisman, 1959
Participants shadowed a story that was continued in the unattended ear -Dear Aunt Jane (Gray and Weddeburn, 1960)
Review the parts of the brain affected by Alzheimer's disease (AD).
Parts of the brain affected by AD (also order of cell loss) a.Entorhinal cortex b.Hippocampus c.Amygdala d.Prefrontal cortex e.Inferior temporal cortex f.Posterior parietal cortex
Review the types of memory impaired in patient HM and what types of memory are intact
Patient HM lost his ability to form Long Term memories. He could only remember memories from before his surgery. Although he could not form long term memories he was still able to form short term memories. He was able to perform tasks such as the digit span task, as well as the match to sample task. Although his short term memory was still intact, distractions were a limiting factor. He could only memorize as long as he had no distractions. Even simple distractions such as a loud noise would disturb patient HM. While he could not form new memories (both episodic and semantic), he was able to retain some information in short term memory, so long as he was not distracted. This information would never be consolidated into long term memory.
The smallest unit of speech that can change the meaning of a word
Phoneme
Covert Attention
Pre-cueing
What are the primacy and recency effects?
Primacy effect: Remembering words at the beginning of a list Recency effect: Remembering words at the end of a list
Which type of memory is least prone to forgetting?
Procedural
Vowels
Produced with open vocal tract
The ability to combine words in novel ways.
Productivity
attentional capture; divided attention
Proponents of multitasking would note ________ to support their opinion, whereas opponents of multitasking would point to ________ to justify their perspective.
If Oliver does not recognize his own face in the mirror, he is likely experiencing ______________.
Prosopagnosia
Rosch found that participants respond more rapidly in a same-different task when presented with "good" examples of colors such as "red" and "green" than when they are presented with "poor" examples such as "pink" or "light green." The result of this experiment was interpreted as supporting the _____ approach to categorization.
Prototype If the stated color is more like the prototype for that color, and the subsequent perceptual experience matches the prototype, the task is easier to perform
Presentation
Reaction time refers to the time between the ______ of a stimulus and person's response to it.
Problems with semantic network: Association effects
Results: A peacock has feathers < a robin has feathers -Model would've predicted: They are both equal because they're both birds. (1 level for both)
Problems with semantic network: Hierarchical structure
Results: A pig is an animal < A pig is a mammal -Model would've predicted: A pig is a mammal would take less time. 1 level (animal has 2 levels)
People learn which objects tend to appear in particular contexts, this is called a ______________.
Scene schema
What refers to the marked difficulty in recognizing everyday objects?
Semantic agnosia
Which of the following is NOT an example of an implicit memory?
Semantic memory (explicit memory)
What is the difference between semantic and episodic memory?
Semantic: general knowledge, stored and undated; memory for info and facts (example: The capital of France) Episodic: refers to individual episodes, dated recollections of personal experiences. remembering specific things of life (example: your first day of school.)
This type of neuron receives input from the external world.
Sensory
Sensation takes place in the ______________.
Sensory organs
We tend to remember the first and last thing we are introduced to; this is referred to as the
Serial position effect
Fixations
Short pauses on points of interest
A researcher is interested in determining the function of mirror neurons in nonhuman subjects. Which technique might he use?
Single-cell recording
In sparse coding, which of these is true in terms of the response to two people, Alan and Brittany?
Some of the same neurons will be active for both Alan and Brittany as well as some different neurons.
Sparse encoding
Some of the same neurons will be active for both Alan and Brittany as well as some different neurons.
What is the current status of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory?
Some studies support the distinction between short-term memory and long-term memory, but other studies suggest that these two forms of memory are actually similar.
Judy is at a party and she sees a woman she swears she knows, but cannot think of where they would have met. This is an example of:
Source monitoring
John has sustained damage to an area of the brain known as Wernicke's area. Which task is he likely to have difficulty with?
Speech comprehension
During language processing, the task of figuring out where one morpheme begins and the other ends is called:
Speech segmentation
Late selection
Suppose you are in your kitchen writing a grocery list, while your roommate is watching TV in the next room. A commercial for spaghetti sauce comes on TV. Although you are not paying attention to the TV, you "suddenly" remember that you need to pick up spaghetti sauce and add it to the list. Your behavior is best predicted by which of the following models of attention?
Patients with which area of damage have the highest level of forgetting of flashbulb memories?
Temporal lobe damage
Classical Conditioning
The "Little Albert" experiment involving the rat and the loud noise is an example of which of the following types of experiments?
meaning
The Stroop effect demonstrates people's inability to ignore the __________ of words.
cocktail party effect.
The ability to focus on one stimulus while filtering out other stimuli is called
B.F. Skinner thought that language is learned through:
Trial and error with reinforcement
The encephalization quotient measures the intelligence of animals.
True
True or False: Modern psychologists accept the study of both behavior and cognition
True
True or false: A karate expert observing a karate demonstration would most likely activate the subjects' mirror neurons
True
True or false: Dualists believe that the human mind is more than mere neural activity
True
True or false: How cats catch mice would help perception/action researchers
True
True or false: Patient HM list the ability to form new memories but his long term memory remained intact
True
According to the model of working memory, which of the following mental tasks should LEAST adversely affect people's driving performance while operating a car along an unfamiliar, winding road?
Trying to remember the definition of a word they just learned This has to do with the phonological loop, not the visual-spatial
__________ predict that you should be best at recognizing the object from the specific viewpoint you have seen and other viewpoints should be more difficult.
View-based models
______________ predict that you should be best at recognizing the object from the specific viewpoint you have seen and other viewpoints should be more difficult.
View-based models
Why does the Ponzo illusion work?
Viewers misunderstand cues related to linear perspective
How is face perception different from object perception?
We are more sensitive to global configurations of faces, but more sensitive to features of objects
Generalization
We extrapolate from a limited number of observations to draw a conclusion about the broader population or category.
Statistical Syllogism
We go from observations about a group to an inference about an individual.
Generativity
We have discrete linguistic units & string them together to make an infinite # of messages
One-shot learning
We learn a concept from a single example.
Shane tells someone "Hen green the hey one." His speech is fluent but makes no sense to the listener. What does Shane have?
Wernicke's aphasia
Dictionary unit
What contains the words, stored in memory, each of which has a threshold for being activated?
All of the Above: Conflict between a thought and a behavior. Conflict between two thoughts. Conflict between two behaviors.
What is cognitive dissonance?
multitask
When I texted my research students during my exercise class, I felt like I could listen to the instruction and text at the same time. However, I found myself doing different exercises than the rest of the class. This was an example of my failing to ______ effectively.
selective
When Sam listens to his girlfriend Susan in the restaurant and ignores other people's conversations, he is engaged in the process of __________ attention.
Which of these is a property of perspective projection?
When an object is closer to you the image on your retina increases in size
Moray, 1959
When participant's name was presented in unattended message, attention often switched to that (previously unattended) message -Cocktail party phenomenon
All of these Options Often unaware of it. Uncomfortable. Motivated to change.
When we experience cognitive dissonance in our personal lives, we are:
What is an example of an unconscious inference we make about the world?
When we see an image of pencils in an opaque jar, we understand that parts of the pencils are inside the jar even though we cannot see those parts
Structural models and process models.
Which of the following are the two primary categories of models in cognitive psychology?
Treisman's attenuator
Which of the following attention model components produces two levels of output?
enhancement
Which of the following best describes the result of attention in the context of perception?
Skinner's publication of the book, Verbal Behavior.
Which of the following events is most closely associated with a resurgence in interest in the mind within the study of psychology?
Inattentional blindness
Which of the following illustrates how we can miss things even if they are clearly visible?
LTMs are unaffected by damage to the hippocampus
Which of the following is NOT a conclusion from the case of H.M., who had an operation to help alleviate his epileptic seizures?
It produces variable results from person to person.
Which of the following is a criticism of analytic introspection?
Dictionary Unit
Which of the following is most closely associated with Treisman's attenuation theory of selective attention?
Binding
Which of the following is the process by which features such as color, form motion, and location are combined to create our perception of a coherent object?
Three-letter nonsense words
Which of the following stimuli were used in Ebbinghaus's "memory" experiment discussed in your text?
The dictionary unit
Which stage in Treisman's attenuation model has a threshold component?
Who was one of the first psychologists to study cognition?
Wilhelm Wundt
Loftus and Palmer (1974) used different verbs when interviewing subjects about a car accident. Which best describes their results?
Words used on the questioning influenced participants' speed estimates
Choose the item that you think would most likely cause a belief bias. A) Taking your time to consider whether you believe a syllogism B) Working too quickly through a syllogism C) Having beliefs that are considered outside of the norm D) Having a clear and logical thought pterm-21attern
Working too quickly through a syllogism
Which of the following is NOT one of the types of units found within a parallel distributed processing model?
Working units
Which of these is not a viable possible explanation for infantile amnesia?
Young children never encode the information in memory in the first place
the knowledge that makes up semantic memories is initially attained through a personal experience based on episodic memory
Your book discusses how episodic and semantic memories are interconnected. This discussion revealed that when we experience events,
Computers
Your text describes the occurrence of a "cognitive revolution" during which dramatic changes took place in the way psychology was studied. This so-called "revolution" occurred parallel to (and, in part, because of) the introduction of:
Episodic ; semantic
______ memories are to experiences as ______ memories are to facts.
Selective; divided
__________ refers to attending to one thing while ignoring others; whereas _______ attention refers to paying attention to more than one thing at a time.
18. A person with a reduced digit span would most likely have a problem with memory. a. short-term b. long-term c. sensory d. autobiographical
a
49. Physiological studies indicate that damage to the area of the brain known as the can disrupt behaviors that depend on working memory. a. prefrontal cortex b. amygdala c. hippocampus d. occipital lobe
a
6. Information remains in sensory memory for a. seconds or a fraction of a second. b. 15-30 seconds. c. 1-3 minutes. d. as long as it is rehearsed.
a
The misinformation effect occurs when a person's memory for an event is modified by misleading information presented
after the event.
A technique for computing a function is called:
an algorithm
16. During a psychology lecture, you instructor uses the word college as a metaphor for social life. When he says the word college, lots of information comes to mind: dorm rooms, students, tests, professors, textbooks, pencils, and sporting events. The word as activated a. Script b. Schema c. Sensory register d. Semantic memory
b. Schema
Learning takes place in a connectionist network through a process of ___________ in which an error signal is transmitted starting from the property units.
back propagation
The Little Albert experiment was an example of _______________ conditioning
classical
Acquiring and processing information about the world in order to make behavioral decisions.
cognition
Schrauf and Rubin's "two groups of immigrants" study found that the reminiscence bump coincided with periods of rapid change, occurring at a normal age for people emigrating early in life but shifting to 15 years later for those who emigrated later. These results support the
cognitive hypothesis this is the idea that we remember best the periods of rapid change followed by rapid stability, which is the case described.
The elaborative rehearsal task of learning a word by using it in a sentence is generally most effective if the generated sentence is A. simple. B. complex. C. neutral. D. vague.
complex
35. The word-length effect reveals that a. STM digit span remains constant across native speakers of different languages. b. longer words are typically more distinctive and easier to retrieve from LTM than shorter words. c. working memory's central executive processes verbal information differently than visual/image information. d. the phonological loop of the working memory model has a limited capacity.
d
45. One function of is to pull information out of long-term memory. a. sensory memory b. the phonological loop c. articulatory suppression d. the central executive
d
50. Research on monkeys has shown that the part of the brain most closely associated with working memory is the a. hippocampus. b. amygdala. c. occipital cortex. d. prefrontal cortex.
d
17. According to Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve, you should review you lecture notes within the first ________ after class. a. Week b. Three days c. Twenty-four hours d. Nine hours
d. Nine hours
Not all of the members of everyday categories have the same features. Most fish have gills, fins, and scales. Sharks lack the feature of scales, yet they are still categorized as fish. This poses a problem for the ___________ approach to categorization.
definitional
Feature-based recognition ______________________
demonstrates that we use features that remain stable across viewpoints
Pre-cueing
directing attention without moving the eyes -Participants respond faster to a light at an expected location than at an unexpected location -Even when eyes kept fixed
The four proposals addressing the representation of concepts in the brain all agree that the information is ________.
distributed
The definitional approach to categorization
doesn't work well for most natural objects like birds, trees, and plants.
If your present an object to a split brain patient in their left visual field ,they will be able to:
draw it with their left hand but not name it verbally.
Specific object
dynamic events (changing events)
Graded amnesia occurs because
emotional memories are more connected to the amygdala than nonemotional memories.
According to the levels of processing theory, memory durability depends on how information is A. encoded. B. stored. C. retrieved. D. all of the above
encoded
According to the levels of processing theory, memory durability depends on the depth at which information is
encoded
Acquiring information and transforming it into memory is A. state-dependant learning B. encoding C. memory consolidation D. transfer-appropriate
encoding
Selective attention requires...
filtering out some info and promoting other info for further processing
According to the syntax _____ approach, the parsing of a sentence is first derived based on principles of grammar alone, without regard to the meaning of the words.
first
Historically, Artificial Intelligence has been least successful at tasks that require:
flexible thinking
Broca's area is located in the ___ lobe of the cortex.
frontal
The emphasis of the concept of working memory is on how information is
manipulated
Donald Hebb proposed that memory is represented in the brain by structural changes in all of the following EXCEPT the A. presynaptic neuron. B. postsynaptic neuron. C. neurotransmitters. D. synapse.
neurotransmitters
Donald Hebb proposed that memory is represented in the brain by structural changes in all of the following EXCEPT the
neurotransmitters everything involving the synapse is involved in memory, and undergoes structural changes.
Donald Hebb proposed that memory is represented in the brain by structural changes in all of the following EXCEPT the
neurotransmitters.
Information remains in sensory memory for
seconds or a fraction of a second.
The first electrical computers encoded information based on the state of:
vacuum tubes
Working memory differs from short-term memory in that
working memory is concerned with both holding and processing information.
22. Larissa is visiting an amusement park. She moves from ride to ride skipping the ones with very long lines with the intent of returning later on. To make sure she gets on all the rides she wants to go on, she needs to keep track of which rides she's already been on and which ones she hasn't. The task her central executive is most concerned with in this example is: A. controlled updating of short-term memory buffers. B. setting goals and planning. C. task switching. D. stimulus selection and response inhibition.
A
Capacity theory of attention
(Kahneman, 1973): Humans possess only a limited amount of processing capacity, and the extent to which tasks can be performed successfully depends on how much demand they make on the limited capacity processor. -Attention can be divided between tasks as long as the total available capacity is not exceeded. Example: Talking = 50% Listening = 35% Walking = 30% Chewing gum = 25% Can you walk and chew gum at the same time? Can you walk, listen, and chew gum? Can you walk, talk, and chew gum? Can you drive and talk on the cell phone?
Broca's aphasia
(Non-fluent/expressive) -Left inferior temporal cortex -Dysfluent agrammatical speech -Good comprehension but troubles with grammar
Wernicke's aphasia
(fluent/receptive) -Posterior left temporal lobe -Poor comprehension -Speech production is fluent but often meaningless speech with word-finding problems
Corteen & Wood, 1972
-First they conditioned participants by pairing an electric shock with city names (e.g., New York), so that when they heard another city name (e.g., Chicago), their body responded with the fear of a shock (i.e., Galvanic Skin Response). -Then when they presented city names in unattended message, same GSR occured
Anti-nativism
-General-purpoe learning device -Thought that we receive enough information in our language input to acquire language if we are actively engaged in our environment -Language and cognition are interlinked
William's syndrome
-Genetic -Prevalence: 1 in 7,500-20,000 births -Cognitive disability (IQ 50-70) -Hypersociability (overly friendly) -Compared to mental age controls: better vocal, poorer syntactic processing
Intuitive
-Goals are unclear. -There is time pressure and analysis paralysis would be costly. -You have experience with the problem.
Typicality
-Has the same basis as category membership (i.e., resemblance). -Membership and typicality judgments should go hand-in-hand, but they don't always -Resemblance determines typicality and membership -Typicality and category membership dont always go hand in hand
Sensory memory
-Holds all incoming information for a fraction of a second -Transfers all info to next stage
Operational Decision Examples
-How often should I communicate with my new coworkers? -What should I say to customers about our new product? -How will I balance my new work demands?
Language in humans
-Humans can create an infinite # of words and sentences (generativity) -They can talk about anything (things that are not present, lies, about language) -Are not hard-wired to just learn the language of their biological parents
Exemplar-based reasoning
-Individual instances (exemplars) are stored in memory, rather than a prototype or rule -To categorize a new instance, you match it to the store exemplars -Ex: Store an exemplar of a bird, match new ones to that -Match exemplars much more easily if they are typical
Kanzi
-Learned language through exposure- sign language not speech. -Listen to words and look at lexigrams, picks the picture 1. He has a big vocabulary 2. He knows novel sentences, new sentences Ex: Can you cut the onion w/ your knife? (does it) 3. Can understand word order
Posner and Keele (1968)
-Learning phase: exemplars w/feedback. floop, floop and lori Test phase old: exemplars new: exemplars and prototypes without feedback 2 sets of dots -Correct classifications: old (87% correct)= (new) prototype (15% correct) New: 67% correct (still above chance) -Did not generate all types, only generated what they were given and recognize it -Only good at recognizing prototype we're given
Bounded Rationality Model
-Making a "good enough" choice. -Acknowledges limitations in decision-making. -Prone to harbor satisficing behavior. -Accepting the first solution that meets minimum criteria.
Family resemblance
-Members of a category have a family resemblance to each other -Membership is a matter of degree -The Smith family: share certain features. Determined by the # of features shared in that category but also how central they are. Ex: dark hair (ideal) Atypical member: blonde, but same face shape
Recommendations to Avoid Groupthink- Individuals Should:
-Monitor their own behavior for signs of groupthink and modify behavior if needed. -Check themselves for self-censorship. -Carefully avoid mindguard behaviors. -Avoid putting pressure on other group members to conform. -Remind members of the ground rules for avoiding groupthink if they get off track.
Concepts as theories
-Organization of concepts is knowledge-based as opposed to similarity-based -Concepts are theories, i.e., bodies of knowledge about a particular domain Ex: What's the category? Children, pets, photo albums, cash Hard. So background knowledge: "What to be saved in a fire?"
Knowledge-based approach
-Our knowledge of the world is used in learning and thinking about concepts -When we learn about new concepts, we try to connect them to the knowledge we already have
Potential Challenges to Decision Making
-Overconfidence Bias -Hindsight Bias -Anchoring -Framing Bias -Escalating Commitment
Prototype theory
-Prototype: average of members of a category that are commonly experienced. It is a summary description- a set of weighted features. *ideal -Potential members of the category are identified by how closely they resemble the prototype -Score high enough on these features to make the category Ex: More important to have wings and feathers than living in the antarctic for birds -Membership is # of degree and how close it fits the category
Armstrong et al
-Rate each number on list for how good of an example it is for the category "even number." Some numbers were rated as better examples of the category than others- even though participants knew that this is absurd -TYPICALITY IS NOT THE BASIS FOR CATEGORY MEMBERSHIP
Decision Making Approaches (4)
-Rational Decision-Making Model -Bounded Rationality Model -Intuitive Decision- Making Model -Creative Decision- Making Model
Short-term memory
-Receives output of detector -Holds info for 10-15 seconds and may transfer it to long-term memory
Developing Your Own Personal Decision-Making Skills
-Review your new learning, look for opportunities to practice making good decisions (and avoid making poor decisions). -Conduct project "premortems". -Delve into "what if" scenarios. -Discussion: Consider how you might use the premortem technique on class project.
Decision Making
-Selecting choices among alternative courses of action. -Decisions have consequences of varying degrees. Ask yourself: 1.Is the decision fair? 2.Will this decision make me feel better or worse? 3.Are any rules broken when making this decision? 4.Are any laws broken when making this decision? 5.What feelings would I have if this were broadcast publicly?
Knowledge networks
-Semantic network model by Collins and Quillian -Principle of cognitive economy: the way our mind is organized -Properties are stored at the highest possible level -Concepts below inherit these properties -Avoids redundant storage and makes network more efficient -Has categories with properties *the longer you have to travel along the lace, the longer it will take you to receive it. *a false statement takes a lot of searching, search and find nothing, take longer
Statistical learning
-Sequences of syllables occur more often together within words than across words, i.e., they have a higher transitional probability within than across words -Newborns already can pick up statistical patterns in language -It is domain general and also works for sequences of tones and visual patterns -It is NOT unique to humans
Strategic Decision Examples
-Should we merge with another company? -Should we pursue a new product line? -Should we downsize our organization?
Creative
-Solutions to the problem are not clear. -New solutions need to be generated. -You have time to immerse yourself in the issues.
Speech perception: Coarticulation
-Stringing sounds together Ex: we don't say k-a-t, we say cat. -Information for speech sounds overlap -The same speech sound is produced differently due to many factors (including this one)
Improving Creativity
-Team Composition -Team Process -Leadership -Culture
Psychological essentialism
-The belief that members in a category have an unseen property that causes them to be in the category and to have the properties associated with it Ex: lemon stays a lemon even if you make it more sweet, etc. -It is not applied to all properties of a category Ex: We can be a doctor without having doctor parents -It is not our only belief that plays a role, but our knowledge in general matters -Might be helpful in dealing with much of the world, but less so when applied to humans
Place of articulation
-Where /b/ vs /d/ /d/ vs /g/
Stroop Effect
-Words of name of colors are different than the color of the word. -Overcoming automatic tendency to follow a stimulus
Problems with classical view
1. Categories do not have clearly defined boundaries (borderline members) 2. Some categories are difficult to define (e.g., "game") Ex: Rock formation that looks like a chair, it's not a chair Ex: Dog loses its tail, it's still a dog 3. Category membership is not all-or-none Ex: Robin is more typical than outrage, but why? B/c both are birds
Problems of prototype theory
1. Fails to capture boundaries of concepts 2. Typicality is context-dependent 3. Typicality and category membership do not always go together
31. Which area of the brain seems to play an especially important role in working memory? A. the prefrontal cortex B. the cerebellum C. the sensory cortices D. the basal ganglia
A
33. One noted characteristic of frontal-lobe damage is: A. loss of ability to plan and organize. B. loss of conceptual understanding. C. decrease in speed. D. decrease in interconnections.
A
38. Research suggests that phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad processes take place in the _____ prefrontal cortex, while central executive functions take place in the _____ prefrontal cortex. A. ventrolateral; dorsolateral B. dorsolateral; ventrolateral C. orbital; ventrolateral D. ventrolateral; orbital
A
42. Which part of the brain is activated when a person tries to remember past events? A. the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex B. the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex C. the orbital prefrontal cortex D. the medial prefrontal cortex
A
5. In Atkinson and Shiffrin's model of memory, information flows from: A. sensory memory, to short-term memory, to long-term memory. B. short-term memory, to sensory memory, to long-term memory. C. long-term memory, to sensory memory, to short-term memory. D. sensory memory, to long-term memory, to short-term memory.
A
50. It has been suggested that, in ADHD, the basal ganglia: A. send inappropriate signals to the prefrontal cortex. B. do not seem to communicate with the prefrontal cortex at all. C. suppress genes that normally regulate attention. D. do not send enough information to the cerebellum.
A
Characteristics of Groupthink
1.Illusion of invulnerability. 2.Collective rationalizations. 3.An unquestioned belief in the groups' inherent morality. 4.Stereotyped views of out-groups. 5.Direct pressure on members who go against any of the group's stereotypes. 6.Self-censorship. 7.Illusions of unanimity. 8.Emergence of self-appointed mindguards.
The effective duration of short-term memory, when rehearsal is prevented, is
15-20 Seconds
According to a famous article by Miller (1956), short-term memory (or workingmemory) has a capacity limitation of about:
7 ± 2 chunks of information.
Lamar has just gotten a new job and is attending a company party where he will meet his colleagues for the first time. His boss escorts him around to small groups to introduce him. At the first group, Lamar meets four people and is told only their first names. The same thing happens with a second group and a third group. At the fourth group, Lamar is told their names and that one of the women in the group is the company accountant. A little while later, Lamar realizes that he only remembers the names of the people in the first group, though he also remembers the profession of the last woman he met (the accountant). Lamar's experience demonstrates
A build-up and release of proactive interference
Deduction can be thought of as:
A kind of reasoning process where the conclusion follows directly from the initial premise
identifying a photograph of his childhood home
A patient suffering from Korsakoff's syndrome (chronic memory disorder), such as "Jimmy G", would be able to perform which of the following activities without difficulty?
37. Donald Broadbent was the first person to develop which of the following? A. A diagram depicting the mind as processing information in a sequence of stages B. A computer program for solving logic problems C. An experimental procedure for studying the way people process information D. The first textbook of cognitive psychology
A. A diagram depicting the mind as processing information in a sequence of stages
19. Which of the following methods, often associated with structuralism, was used in the psychology laboratory established by Wilhelm Wundt? A. Analytic introspection B. Measuring reaction times C. Conditioning D. All of these were used in Wundt's laboratory
A. Analytic introspection
In a hierarchical semantic network of animals, the property "moves" would A. Be stored with "animal" B. Be stored at each level of the network C. Be stored at the lowest level of the network D. Not be stored as the network only stores information about membership, not about properties of the members
A. Be stored with "animal"
The first formal laboratory of psychology, where the approach of structuralism was created, was founded in which city? A. Leipzig, Germany B. Paris, France C. Baltimore, Maryland, USA D. Madrid, Spain
A. Leipzig, Germany
Which of the following is true about prototype theory? A. Posner & Keele's study on learning categories of dot patterns provides support for the prototype theory as the study showed that a prototype is formed during the learning of novel categories B. Prototype theory predicts that typicality ratings and category membership do not always go hand in hand C. It focuses on explaining where the boundaries between categories are D. It assumes that category membership is all-or-none
A. Posner & Keele's study on learning categories of dot patterns provides support for the prototype theory as the study showed that a prototype is formed during the learning of novel categories
31. Regarding children's language development, Noam Chomsky noted that children generate many sentences they have never heard before. From this, he concluded that language development is driven largely by A. inborn programming. B. cultural influences. C. classical conditioning. D. operant conditioning.
A. inborn programming.
40. Broadbent's notion that the mind could be represented as operating in a sequence of stages, often represented by boxes, allows cognitive psychologists to develop _____that can be tested by further experiments. A. models B. approaches C. memories D. cognitive maps
A. models
An early model of memory indicates that incoming information is first handled by "sensory" memory, is then moved to "short term" memory, and finally is pushed into "long-term" memory. This model, proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968, is an example of a(n) ________ model. A. process B. structural C. nomothetic D. idiographic
A. process
A study participant is given a list of words to remember. One week later, he recalls the list. Let's say that one of the list words was PEAR. Which of the following, none of which actually appeared on the list, would be most likely incorrectly recalled if the participant doesn't remember PEAR?
APPLE
Which example below best demonstrates state-dependent learning? A. Last night, at the grocery store, Cole ran into a psychology professor he took a class with three semesters ago. He recognized her right away. B. Even though Walt hasn't been to the beach cottage his parents owned since he was a child, he still has many fond memories of time spent there as a family. C. Although Emily doesn't very often think about her first love, Steve, she can't help getting caught up in happy memories when "their song" (the first song they danced to) plays on the radio. D. Alexis always suffers test anxiety in her classes. To combat this, she tries to relax when she studies. She thinks it's best to study while lying in bed, reading by candlelight with soft music playing.
Although Emily doesn't very often think about her first love, Steve, she can't help getting caught up in happy memories when "their song" (the first song they danced to) plays on the radio.
What types of memory task could HM learn?
Although Patient H.M. had an extreme inability to form new declarative memories, he had NOT entirely lost long term memory, because his procedural, nondeclarative, memory was intact. He could learn new skills, evidenced by his performance on perceptual motor tasks, such as the pursuit rotor and the reverse mirror reading task. His skill level increased and his number of errors decreased every day he practiced, but he had no memory of having practiced it before. HM had his long term memory impaired and suffered from retrograde and anterograde amnesia. His short term memory was intact as well as his procedural memory. He could learn the Match to sample task, the Mirror-Drawing task and the Incomplete-drawing test.
According to Baddeley's approach to working memory, the visuospatial sketchpad a. is similar to the phonological loop because each has a limited capacity. b. is similar to the phonological loop because each is primarily handled by the left hemisphere of the brain. c. is different from the phonological loop, because the visuospatial sketchpad does not have a limited capacity. d. is different from the phonological loop, because the phonological loop does not have a limited capacity.
Answer: a
According to the discussion of working memory, the phonological loop a. is useful when you learn a foreign language. b. primarily activates the right hemisphere of the brain. c. primarily receives information from the episodic buffer. d. has a large capacity when you are learning new vocabulary words.
Answer: a
Baddeley's model of working memory points out that a. the capacity of the visuospatial sketchpad is limited. b. the limits of the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad depend upon one another; if one process is active, the other cannot handle new material. c. all material must pass from the phonological loop into the visuospatial sketchpad. d. the phonological loop simply stores material, whereas the visuospatial sketchpad actively reinterprets that information.
Answer: a
Chapter 4 discussed research on the recency effect. How is this research related to short-term memory? a. The final words in a list are recalled accurately because they are still in short-term memory. b. There is a clear-cut difference between pattern perception and short-term memory. c. The material can pass directly into long-term memory, without first entering short-term memory. d. The recency effect showed that the capacity of short-term memory is extremely large.
Answer: a
Imagine that you are tutoring high school students, and you have quickly presented 12 new terms to them. They are likely to recall the first few terms most accurately because of a. the primacy effect. b. the rehearsal effect. c. the chunking effect. d. the recency effect.
Answer: a
Researchers in neuroscience, over the past two decades, have spent a great deal of time working on the a. executive attention network. b. central executive processor. c. phonological loop. d. visuospatial sketch pad.
Answer: a
Suppose that you are calculating your recent expenses, and you are adding up five 2-digit numbers in your head. As you begin to calculate the final sum, you feel that you've reached the limits of your memory. This strain can be traced to a. the difficulty of keeping all this material in your working memory. b. the difficulty of transferring material from working memory to long-term memory. c. a conflict between top-down and bottom-up processing. d. material that is larger than the span of sensory memory.
Answer: a
Suppose that you are having trouble recalling the information for a question about Baddeley's theory because the information about Atkinson and Shiffrin's theory (which you learned earlier) keeps interfering. This phenomenon is called a. proactive interference. b. the recency effect. c. the primacy effect. d. chunking.
Answer: a
Suppose that your professor makes a graph that shows the relationship between the order in which a topic was covered in the course and the class's accuracy on test items for that topic. This graph would be called as a a. serial position curve. b. free recall curve. c. memory span curve. d. Brown/Peterson & Peterson curve.
Answer: a
Suppose you are accustomed to driving a car in which the switch for the windshield wipers is located to the left of the steering wheel. Then you borrow a friend's car. To use the wipers on this car, you must activate the switch to the right of the steering wheel, but you keep reaching toward the left. You are demonstrating a. proactive interference. b. the phonological loop. c. the effects of "magical number seven." d. a real-life version of the Brown/Peterson & Peterson test of memory.
Answer: a
The discussion of working memory examines research on "acoustic confusions." How are acoustic confusions relevant to working memory? a. When material is processed in the phonological loop, similar-sounding items can be confused with one another. b. When material is processed in the visuospatial sketchpad, similar-sounding items can be confused with one another. c. The central executive has several component processes, including the task of resolving acoustic confusions. d. This research suggests that the phonological loop plays a relatively minor role in working memory.
Answer: a
Which of the following students provides the best information about short-term memory in the Atkinson-Shiffrin model? a. Albena: "Items in your short-term memory are often lost within 30 seconds." b. Martin: "The information in short-term memory is automatically transferred to long-term memory." c. Candace: "Short-term memory serves as a large storage area for all sensory memories." d. Peter: "Short-term memory emphasizes only the visual characteristics of the stimulus."
Answer: a
Which of the following students' statements best characterizes Baddeley's view of working memory? a. Sam: "Working memory has four separate components, each with its own specialized kind of cognitive activity." b. Lois: "Working memory consists of two components, short-term working memory and long-term working memory." c. Kyung: "Working memory is an activated state of the more general long-term memory store." d. Manuel: "Current research shows that there really is no important difference between working memory and long-term memory."
Answer: a
Working memory is useful in our daily lives because a. it is flexible, so that you can work on a variety of tasks within a short time period. b. it has a strict limit; you, therefore, cannot confuse one task with another task. c. it accurately stores items for up to 10 minutes, even when you are working on another task. d. it has no upper limit
Answer: a
You are trying to retain—in your working memory—a mental picture of a stranger's face. According to Baddeley, you are using your a. visuospatial sketchpad. b. episodic buffer. c. phonological loop. d. central executive.
Answer: a
You will have difficulty reading your textbook if you are simultaneously singing the words to your favorite song. How would Baddeley explain this phenomenon? a. The words from the textbook and the words from the song will interfere with each other in the phonological loop. b. The visuospatial sketchpad is overcrowded, because both of these tasks have a strong visual component. c. The central executive cannot handle two verbal tasks at the same time. d. The singing prevents the words in your textbook from passing directly from semantic memory into long-term memory.
Answer: a
Your textbook discusses research about the relationship between depression and performance on tasks involving the phonological loop. This research showed that a. people with depression performed significantly worse than people without depression. b. people with depression actually performed significantly better than people with depression. c. there was no difference in the performance of the two groups, once the researchers corrected for the fact that the depressed group had lower vocabulary skills. d. people with depression tended to transform the stimuli into visual patterns that activated the visuospatial sketchpad
Answer: a
According to the discussion at the beginning of the chapter on working memory a. most psychologists now believe that working memory has an unlimited capacity. b. working memory allows you to keep information accessible so that you can use it on a variety of current tasks. c. psychologists now agree that working memory and long-term memory have very different functions. d. working memory is the brief storage period prior to short-term memory in the classical information-processing models.
Answer: b
According to the neuroscience research on the phonological loop, a. studies using the single-cell recording technique in humans have located the phonological loop in the auditory cortex. b. the left temporal lobe and the frontal lobe are activated by auditory tasks. c. the right temporal lobe and the frontal lobe are activated by auditory tasks. d. no systematic activation patterns have yet been discovered.
Answer: b
Amy recently saw a Broadway musical. As she listens to the soundtrack in her car a few days later, she forms clear visual images of the scenes from the show. The part of the brain that is most activated while she does this is the a. left cerebral hemisphere, especially the frontal and occipital lobes. b. right cerebral hemisphere, especially the frontal and parietal lobes. c. cerebellum. d. lateral hypothalamus.
Answer: b
Amy recently saw a Broadway musical. As she listens to the soundtrack in her car a few days later, she forms clear visual images of the scenes from the show. This may cause her to experience difficulty driving, because of the limited capacity of her a. central executive. b. visuospatial sketchpad c. phonological loop. d. episodic buffer.
Answer: b
Baddeley proposed that his approach to working memory differed from earlier approaches because a. it emphasizes the differences between working memory and long-term memory. b. it emphasizes that working memory is an essential component for numerous cognitive tasks. c. it focuses on hearing, rather than vision. d. it focuses on the differences between human memory and the memory of other primates.
Answer: b
Baddeley's model of working memory proposes a feature called the "phonological loop." This feature allows you to a. solve geometric problems. b. store the sound of someone's name. c. rotate mental images. d. determine whether one number is larger or smaller than another.
Answer: b
Chapter 4 described research by LJRomero Lauro and her colleagues, which used a method called "Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation." These authors concluded that a. working memory really is a storehouse that has a limit of 5-9 items. b. the left parietal lobe and the left frontal lobe are both relevant when you are reading long sentences with complex grammar. c. the right hemisphere and the left hemisphere are equally involved in language comprehension. d. the left hemisphere is relevant for long sentences, whereas the right hemisphere is relevant for complex sentences.
Answer: b
George Miller's (1956) classic article, on the magical number seven, introduced the concept of a chunk. According to Miller's terminology, a chunk a. should be measured in terms of the number of items that can be spoken within a 30-second interval. b. is the basic unit in short-term memory. c. is the portion of the brain in which short-term memories are stored. d. is the maximum limit of your short-term memory.
Answer: b
In a study on working memory, one group of participants repeated a sound, thereby blocking acoustic coding for other material. This research showed that a. working memory disappeared completely. b. when acoustic coding was blocked, people often used visual coding. c. acoustic coding was even more likely in long-term memory than in working memory. d. semantic coding was the dominant mode in working memory, whereas acoustic coding was more likely in long-term memory.
Answer: b
In the working-memory model, which of the following cognitive activities would the central executive be most likely to perform? a. Representing the information from a geometry problem b. Deciding which items on a list should be remembered and which should be forgotten. c. Actively transferring the information from working memory into sensory memory d. Listening to a series of words in random order.
Answer: b
Neuroscientists who have examined the visuospatial sketchpad have discovered that a. visual tasks typically activate the right hemisphere, whereas spatial tasks typically activate the left hemisphere. b. visual and spatial tasks typically activate the right hemisphere of the brain. c. visual and spatial tasks are apparently converted into a verbal code, because they primarily activate the left hemisphere of the brain. d. there is no clear correspondence between visuospatial tasks and the patterns of brain activation.
Answer: b
People with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder often have problems because they are impulsive and inattentive. The component of working memory that is most likely to be relevant in these problems is a. the episodic buffer. b. the central executive. c. the visuospatial sketchpad. d. the phonological loop.
Answer: b
Suppose that a friend asks you what movies you have seen within the past year. Your recall is especially accurate for the movies you saw during the last 2 weeks. This phenomenon is called a. chunking. b. the recency effect. c. the primacy effect. d. proactive interference
Answer: b
Suppose that a study examines whether people have trouble creating a mental image of a famous painting while they are watching a cartoon on television. You would expect to find that a. contrary to Baddeley's theory, the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad clearly work together on most tasks. b. people have trouble on a task that employs the visuospatial sketchpad, if they are simultaneously performing another visual task. c. watching the cartoon actually enhances your accuracy when you use your visuospatial sketchpad to create a mental image of a painting. d. people have trouble on this task unless they transfer all information to the episodic buffer.
Answer: b
Suppose that you are trying to improve your pronunciation of French by listening to French popular songs. You try to imitate the French pronunciation at the same time that you translate the words into English. According to Baddeley's model, a. you can manage both tasks simultaneously without a decrease in accuracy. b. you'll probably have a difficult time on these tasks, because both tasks involve the phonological loop. c. you'll probably have a difficult time, because the pronunciation involves the visuospatial sketchpad, and the translation involves the phonological loop. d. you will have an easy time if you ignore the central executive, but a difficult time if you use the central executive.
Answer: b
Suppose that you have been watching a figure skating competition. You close your eyes and you try to remember how the last skater performed her final jump, then glided to the center of the rink and finished with a spin. The component of your working memory that is now most active is a. the phonological loop. b. the visuospatial sketchpad. c. the episodic buffer. d. the central executive
Answer: b
The chapter on working memory discussed several studies about individual differences in working memory. Which of the following students provides the best information about how working memory is related to academic skills? a. Samantha: "People who have an unusually large capacity in their episodic buffer are likely to earn poor grades in school." b. Aroona: "People who are especially skilled on a task that uses the central executive are likely to score high in reading comprehension." c. Sanjay: "The research failed to support Baddeley's model; most academic tasks require the equal participation of all four components of working memory." d. James: "The research failed to support Baddeley's model; there is no relationship between central-executive skills and a wide variety of other measures that should be related to the central executive and a wide variety of academic skills."
Answer: b
According to Baddeley and his colleagues, a. short-term memory is a more useful concept than working memory because it emphasizes the short duration of this stage in a memory model. b. working memory is much more rigid and inflexible than previous theorists had suggested. c. the purpose of working memory is to hold information briefly, and then process and use this information. d. working memory is the verbal, activated component of long-term memory.
Answer: c
According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, a. almost all the stimuli that pass through sensory memory will end up in long-term memory. b. we need to identify the biological correlates of memory. c. memory can be represented as a series of stages in which information is passed between separate storage areas. d. an item is more likely to be stored in memory if it is accompanied by insight.
Answer: c
According to the research about factors that affect the capacity of working memory, a. the fact that people tend to substitute acoustically similar items during recall illustrates that acoustic factors are more important than semantic factors. b. there is no evidence for the influence of semantic information on working memory. c. the studies on release from proactive interference demonstrate that semantic factors can influence working memory. d. many studies have demonstrated that the information in working memory does not have acoustic properties.-
Answer: c
Baddeley's current model of working memory includes a feature called the episodic buffer. According to Baddeley's description, the episodic buffer a. contains material that has not yet reached our conscious awareness. b. has a smaller capacity than any of the other components of working memory. c. briefly holds material from the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory. d. stores our very earliest memories from early childhood, which have an important effect on other components of working memory.
Answer: c
Baddeley's model of working memory now includes a feature called the "episodic buffer." According to Baddeley, this feature a. is an important component of the central executive. b. keeps a permanent record of the associations between the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop. c. allows you to make connections among the visuospatial sketchpad, the phonological loop, and information from long-term memory. d. preserves emotional characteristics that are connected with earlier events.
Answer: c
Chapter 4 discusses neuroscience research on the central executive. According to this discussion, the central executive a. is primarily controlled by brain structures located below the cortex. b. is primarily controlled by brain structures at the back of the cortex. c. is primarily controlled by portions of the frontal lobe. d. apparently does not have a consistent connection with any part of the brain, at least according to the current research.
Answer: c
Compared to the earlier view of short-term memory, the current view of working memory a. argues that memory is much more fragile. b. proposes that working memory is simply an early stage of long-term memory. c. states that information is continuously being manipulated and changed. d. suggests that the Atkinson-Shiffrin model should be supplemented by at least five additional kinds of brief memory.
Answer: c
How would you characterize Alan Baddeley's description of working memory? a. It is a large storehouse of information, much like a huge university library. b. It is a solid, stable, industrious machine that systematically processes information. c. It is a highly active area in which information is being manipulated and changed. d. It is a movie screen, continuously registering a stream of complex, colorful images.
Answer: c
Imagine that you are trying to remember a reservation code that someone told you a minute ago. The number was 5834DM, but you remember it as 5834BN. This kind of error is called a. subvocalization. b. an episodic buffer. c. an acoustic confusion. d. release from proactive interference.
Answer: c
Imagine that you have volunteered to participate in some psychology research. The researcher tells you to look at several words briefly and then count backwards for about half a minute before recalling those words. The researcher is probably measuring a. sensory memory. b. long-term memory. c. short-term memory. d. semantic memory.
Answer: c
In the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of short-term memory, the concept called "control processes" a. emphasizes iconic memory. b. emphasizes information that is presented too quickly to be remembered. c. is a strategy that helps you remember items more accurately. d. is a strategy that involves vision, instead of hearing.
Answer: c
In the discussion of working memory, why did Teasdale and his colleagues (1995) conclude that daydreaming is processed by the central executive? a. People daydreamed more creatively when they were instructed to use their central executive. b. People typically used their sensory receptors for this task, so the central executive was automatically activated. c. People could generate a sequence of random numbers more successfully if they were not daydreaming. d. People reported that they could not daydream in vivid detail if they were simultaneously engaged in another task that required the central executive.
Answer: c
One of the most widely cited articles in psychology is George Miller's (1956) article on the size of short-term memory. According to your text, this article was important in cognitive psychology because a. it clearly established the rigid limits of short-term memory's size. b. it demonstrated that short-term memory was distinctly different from long-term memory. c. it focused on a cognitive process—mentally converting the stimulus—at a time when most psychologists focused on people's external behavior. d. it showed that the key to the limits of short-term memory was the amount of time required to pronounce the stimuli.
Answer: c
One reason that the visuospatial sketchpad is more challenging to study than the phonological loop is that a. it's difficult to find ecologically valid situations in which the visuospatial sketchpad is relevant. b. participants are more likely to guess the correct answer, compared to studies that focus on the phonological loop. c. participants may spontaneously provide a verbal label for a shape, so the task may actually use the phonological loop. d. visual information must be presented more slowly than phonological information.
Answer: c
Solange is trying to recall her friend's new zip code, which is 14454. She remembers it by saying, "My birthday is September 14th; my father is 45 years old, and my nephew is 4 years old." Apparently, Solange a. has arranged her friend's zip code so that it can best be stored in the phonological loop. b. has arranged her friend's zip code so that it can best be stored in the visuospatial sketchpad. c. has created chunks out of the zip code. d. is trying to avoid acoustic confusions.
Answer: c
Suppose that you are looking at a complex, detailed painting of a dog. Which of the following working-memory tasks would interfere most with your ability to form a clear image of this painting? a. hearing the sound of a barking dog b. creating an auditory image of a favorite song c. creating a mental image of a dog that you actually see every day d. adding three single-digit numbers together
Answer: c
Suppose that you have been studying your French vocabulary words for several hours, and you are making an increasing number of mistakes. Then you switch to reviewing the new terms for your upcoming biology test, and your performance is noticeably better. You are experiencing a. the serial-position effect b. thought suppression. c. release from proactive interference. d. the recency effect.
Answer: c
Which of the following students provides the best overview of the current status of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model? a. Flora: "It lost popularity after Miller's article on the 'magical number seven' failed to support the concept of short-term memory." b. Nicola: "This model continues to be important because recent research clearly supports the distinction between short-term memory and long-term memory." c. Bruce: "The research has not clearly demonstrated that short-term memory is different from long-term memory." d. Miguel: "The model now plays a major role in the parallel distributed processing (PDP) approach."
Answer: c
Your textbook discussed the research on release from proactive interference in working memory. One study used five different categories of words, such as fruits and occupations. The results of this study indicated that a. encoding in working memory is almost exclusively acoustic. b. long-term memory can supplement the acoustic basis of working memory. c. material in working memory can be stored in terms of meaning. d. material in working memory that has been stored in terms of sound is easier to recall after a brief delay, compared to material that has been stored in terms of meaning.-
Answer: c
According to Chapter 4, working memory is especially important because a. it provides a perfect copy of the physical stimulus, for example, a visual image that accurately represents the words on a page. b. it demonstrates that there is a clear-cut limit to the number of items we can store for a short time. c. it is the first process that occurs after the stimulus has entered long-term memory. d. it keeps some items active, so that we can use these items when we are working on a relevant task.
Answer: d
According to the Baddeley's revized model of working memory, one major purpose of the episodic buffer is to a. store musical information (such as pitch and tones) for brief periods of time. b. manage the decisions that are too complicated for the central executive. c. coordinate the meaning and the visual appearance of written text. d. provide temporary storage for information from long-term memory, the phonological loop, and the visuospatial sketchpad.
Answer: d
According to the chapter on working memory, what was nontraditional about George Miller's article on the "magical number seven"? a. Research in a wide variety of cross-cultural settings continues to confirm that working memory is limited to seven items. b. Researchers had previously thought that the capacity of visual memory had no strict limits. c. Miller's research helped to persuade psychologists that the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory was inadequate. d. Miller's article emphasized active mental processes, rather than simply focusing on the stimulus and the response
Answer: d
According to the introduction of Chapter 4, one important function of working memory is a. to provide a template that makes it easier to recognize objects. b. to store knowledge about a wide variety of topics. c. to provide a large storage space for all your current sights, sounds, and other perceptual experiences. d. to coordinate your current mental activities
Answer: d
As Chapter 4 discusses, John Brown, Lloyd Peterson, and Margaret Peterson created a classic technique for assessing short-term memory. In this technique, people saw some stimuli, counted backwards by threes during the delay period, and then tried to recall the original stimuli. The results of their research showed that a. people could recall up to 10 stimuli, after a delay period of 3 minutes. b. people systematically recalled only 10% of the stimuli, on each trial in the study. c. at the beginning of the session, people could recall only 20% of the items; by the end of the session, they recalled about 40% of the items. d. after many previous trials, people had difficulty recalling the stimuli, even with only a short delay.
Answer: d
Baddeley chose the metaphor of a "workbench" to represent his model of working memory because a. his model was straightforward, just like all the components of an actual workbench. b. his model emphasizes the spatial components of working memory, and a workbench emphasizes spatial projects, rather than verbal projects. c. rehearsal is important in memory, and rehearsal is also important when you think about projects that would require a workbench. d. working memory focuses on a wide variety of projects, and a workbench can also handle a wide variety of projects.
Answer: d
Based on Chapter 4's discussion of depression and working memory, a clinical psychologist should know that people with depression a. have trouble on a wide variety of tasks involving the central executive. b. seldom report any cognitive problems. c. have much more trouble on tasks involving the visuospatial sketchpad than on tasks involving the phonological loop. d. have trouble when the phonological loop is involved in two simultaneous tasks.
Answer: d
Chapter 4 discussed a classic study by Wickens and his colleagues (1976) in which each of five groups of participants learned a series of words belonging to one category (e.g., "occupations" or "meats"). On the final trial, they all switched to words belonging to a new category ("fruits"). What did the results of this study show about the recall for this final set of words? a. Contrary to expectations, semantic similarity had no influence on recall. b. Contrary to expectations, participants explained that they stored these final words in terms of visual images. c. Participants in all five groups showed no release from proactive interference. d. Recall on the final set of words was most accurate when the previous items had belonged to a different semantic category.
Answer: d
Christopher and MacDonald compared the working memory capacities of people with and without major depression. They found that, in general, depressed people performed a. better on tasks involving the phonological loop. b. better on tasks involving the visuospatial sketchpad. c. worse on tasks involving the phonological loop, but better on tasks involving the central executive. d. worse on tasks involving either the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, or central executive.
Answer: d
Suppose that a professor asks the students in her class to say their names out loud (one at a time) on the first day of class. Then she asks them to write down as many of their classmates' names as they can recall. Then she constructs a graph that shows "Number of correct responses" on the Y-axis and "Serial position of the name" on the X-axis. The shape of the graph a. will be a straight line, with the greatest accuracy on the first items. b. will be a straight line, with the greatest accuracy on the last items. c. will be an upside-down U-shaped line, with the greatest accuracy on the middle items. d. will be a U-shaped line, with the greatest accuracy on the first and last items.
Answer: d
Suppose that you are trying to perfect your accent in Spanish. Your teacher just pronounced the word "ferrocarril," and you are trying to keep the "rolling r" sound in your memory long enough to pronounce it yourself. In Baddeley's model, you are most likely to use your a. visuospatial sketchpad. b. long-term memory. c. central executive. d. phonological loop.
Answer: d
Suppose that you are trying to read the name of a psychologist who studies creativity, "Csikszentmihalyi." You find that you are silently pronouncing his name as you read it, because a. your visuospatial sketchpad can maintain only a limited amount of information. b. challenging words are automatically shunted off to the central executive. c. the visuospatial sketchpad and the phonological loop are both activated, because of the spatial nature of the unfamiliar letter sequence d. the phonological loop plays a role in reading, as well as in memory.
Answer: d
Suppose that you have been studying some terms related to your course in biopsychology. After you have been studying for about 15 minutes, you find that you are having more trouble learning and remembering new terms. This problem is an example of a. the episodic buffer. b. the chunking phenomenon. c. subvocalization. d. proactive interference.
Answer: d
What evidence suggested to Baddeley that working memory has several components? a. The research on release from proactive interference b. Complex computer simulations c. Modeling using the parallel distributed processing approach d. Research showing that people can rehearse words and make spatial judgments at the same time
Answer: d
What is the current status of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory? a. Almost all of the recent research supports the model. b. Only the concept of sensory memory is still of interest to researchers. c. The theory has been completely abandoned, because there is no research support for the distinction between short-term memory and long-term memory. d. Some studies support the distinction between short-term memory and long-term memory, but other studies suggest that these two forms of memory are actually similar
Answer: d
Which of the following students has the best understanding of the concept "release from proactive interference"? a. Maura: "Students are likely to use simple repetition when learning new material; if you teach them a memory strategy, their memory improves." b. Ilya: "The phrase refers to the strategy people use to move a particular stimulus from working memory to long-term memory." c. Alessandro: "People are typically not conscious of their learning strategies; however, if they can focus their attention on their memory, they can avoid interference from other stimuli." d. Tara: "As you learn a series of stimuli from the same category, memory will become less accurate; if you switch to a new category, memory will improve."
Answer: d
Which of the following students provides the best statement about the difference between people's performance in laboratory research and their performance in everyday life, with respect to working memory? a. Phineas: "The tasks are much more difficult in the laboratory than they are in everyday life." b. Lizzy: "People try harder to perform well in the laboratory, compared to everyday life." c. Robert: "People are much more emotional in everyday life than in the laboratory." d. Glencora: "People work on a greater variety of tasks in everyday life, compared to the laboratory."
Answer: d
1. The active maintenance and manipulation of short-term memory is known as: A. cognitive control. B. working memory. C. sensory memory. D. short-term memory.
B
14. Suppose one's boss catches him in the hallway and asks him to attend a meeting the next day. In order to remember the time and location of the meeting, he repeats it over and over to himself until he gets back to his office and can write it down in his schedule. In his rehearsal, he is using the: A. visuospatial sketchpad. B. phonological loop. C. long-term memory. D. iconic memory.
B
15. Which statement is TRUE regarding the phonological loop? A. If the material is rehearsed, it can be held in the phonological loop for about 2 seconds. B. If the material is not rehearsed, it disappears from the phonological loop after about 2 seconds. C. If the material is rehearsed, it can be held in the phonological loop for about 10 seconds. D. If the material is not rehearsed, it disappears from the phonological loop after about 10 seconds.
B
18. The metaphor of memory as a computer compares RAM with _____ memory and a hard drive with _____ memory. A. long-term; working B. working; long-term C. sensory; iconic D. short-term; long-term
B
24. The Tower of Hanoi puzzle is often used to examine the: A. controlled updating of the memory buffers. B. ability to plan and set goals. C. ability to switch tasks. D. ability to select stimuli and inhibit responses.
B
28. Automatic processes: A. determine what cues should be attended to. B. occur with minimal conscious awareness. C. inhibit reflexive behaviors. D. require focused attention.
B
3. Permanent or near permanent storage of memory that last beyond a period of conscious attention is known as: A. sensory memory. B. long-term memory. C. cognitive control. D. short-term memory.
B
30. The research relating working memory to intelligence has shown that: A. speed of processing is an important determinant of one's score on an intelligence test. B. general intelligence is associated with a strong working memory. C. people with low scores on working memory tests tend to achieve high verbal SAT scores. D. the ability to use the phonological loop is an important determinant of intelligence level.
B
32. Cats and many other mammals get through life with a frontal lobe that occupies less than _____ percent of their cerebral cortex. A. 2 B. 4 C. 6 D. 8
B
34. Wilder Penfield described the changes in his sister after she had a brain tumor removed. She went from being an accomplished cook to losing all ability to organize her cooking, moving from one dish to another leaving some uncooked. The removal of the tumor caused damage to what area of her brain? A. the cerebellum B. the frontal lobe C. the occipital lobe D. the parietal lobe
B
39. Patients with damage to the _____ side of the frontal lobe are MOST likely to show specialized deficits in _____ tasks. A. left; visuospatial B. left; verbal C. right; verbal D. right; analytical
B
9. According to the findings of George Miller, the capacity of short-term memory is about _____ items. A. three B. seven C. fifteen D. five
B
_______ transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption. A. Amnesia B. Consolidation C. Encoding specificity D. Cued-recall
B
When saying a word, we do not pronounce speech sounds separately, like beads on a string. Rather, the production of speech sounds overlaps, so that while listening to speech, at any given moment in time listeners may hear information about multiple speech sounds. This phenomenon is called A. Voicing B. Coarticulation C. The invariance problem D. Generativity
B. Coarticulation
34. Which of the following does NOT characterize the information processing (IP) approach to the study of cognition? A. IP depicts the mind as processing information in a sequence of stages. B. IP supports the principle of behaviorism that behavior is a stimulus-response relationship. C. IP involves the use of computers as a metaphor to understand human cognition. D. IP has an interest in investigating unobservable mental events.
B. IP supports the principle of behaviorism that behavior is a stimulus-response relationship.
33. Which of the following events is most closely associated with the decline of behaviorism as an approach to psychology? A. Watson's "Little Albert" experiment B. Skinner's publication of the book, Verbal Behavior C. Development of the technique of analytic introspection D. The proposal of cognitive maps
B. Skinner's publication of the book, Verbal Behavior
Which of the following could the knowledge-based approach explain? A. Why people are slower at learning concepts that make sense than concepts that don't make sense B. Why people believe that a mutilated (striped, sweetened, flattened) lemon is still a lemon C. Why people infer newly learned facts about enzymes in the blood of lions to gazelle but not vice versa D. Why raccoons can be changed into skunks and are then perceived and categorized into skunks
B. Why people believe that a mutilated (striped, sweetened, flattened) lemon is still a lemon
20. The procedure in which trained participants describe their experiences and thought processes in response to stimuli presented under controlled conditions is known as A. information processing. B. analytic introspection. C. functional analysis. D. behavioral analysis.
B. analytic introspection.
3. Attention, perception, memory, and decision making are all different types of mental processes in which the mind engages. These are known as different types of A. models. B. cognition. C. reaction times. D. savings.
B. cognition.
The example at the beginning of the book, in which Raphael talks to his friend on a cell phone on his way to class, was used to illustrate how A. cognitive psychologists study problem solving in adults. B. complex but seemingly effortless human cognition is. C. human cognition is affected by emotional events. D. both physiology and behavior is important to the study of cognition.
B. complex but seemingly effortless human cognition is. SEVERAL DIFFERENT COGNITIVE PROCESS CAN TAKE PLACE AT ONE TIME
13. The first experiments in cognitive psychology were based on the idea that mental responses can be A. measured directly. B. inferred from the participant's behavior. C. measured by comparing the presentation of the stimulus and the participant's response. D. measured by comparing responses among different participants
B. inferred from the participant's behavior.
6. The main point of the Donders' reaction time experiments was to A. show that reaction times can be measured accurately. B. measure the amount of time it takes to make a decision. C. determine differences in the way people react to stimuli. D. show that our cognitions are often based on unconscious inferences.
B. measure the amount of time it takes to make a decision
49. The process during which information is strengthened and transformed into a strong memory that is resistant to interference is known as A. savings. B. memory consolidation. C. introspection. D. cognition.
B. memory consolidation.
7. In Donders' experiment on decision making, when participants were asked to press a button upon presentation of a light, they were engaged in a A. reaction time task. B. simple reaction time task. C. choice reaction time task. D. presentation task.
B. simple reaction time task.
Which of the following learning techniques is LEAST likely to lead to deep processing of the information?
Bree has just bought a new car and is trying to learn her new license plate sequence. Every morning, for three weeks, she repeats the sequence out loud when she wakes up.
Early selection model
Broadbent's filter model
Jenelle is capable of fluid thought processes, but has trouble producing fluid speech. What does she have?
Broca's aphasia
Recently it has been found that damage to this region does not always lead to severe speech production problems and that patients can have such speech production deficits without damage to this region.
Broca's area
First, people are to attend to a to-be-remembered three-letter stimulus, and then they are shown a number. They are to count backwards by threes from the number. At the end of the variable length period of counting, the people were asked to report the original three-letter stimulus. Which test is this?
Brown-Peterson task
11. When short-term memory is used as a buffer for maintaining information briefly before it is manipulated, it is referred to as _____ memory. A. long-term B. sensory C. working D. transient
C
13. In Baddeley's working-memory model which system monitors and manipulates the working-memory buffers? A. the visuospatial sketchpad B. the phonological loop C. the central executive D. the iconic memory
C
19. Place models of memory are known as: A. executive control. B. cognitive control. C. multi-store. D. unitary-store.
C
25. Which task is used to study task shifting in working memory? A. an N-back task B. the Tower of Hanoi C. the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test D. the Stroop task
C
35. Which part of the prefrontal cortex seems to be particularly involved in working memory functions? A. orbital B. medial C. lateral D. posterior
C
37. In what way does the involvement of the prefrontal cortex during delays differ from the involvement of sensory and motor cortices? A. Only neurons in the prefrontal cortex show sustained activity during delay periods. B. Only neurons in the sensory and motor cortexes show sustained activity during delay periods. C. Only neurons in the prefrontal cortex maintain their activity despite distractions. D. Only neurons in the sensory and motor cortexes maintain their activity despite distractions.
C
4. The manipulation and application of working memory for planning, task switching, attention, stimulus selection, and the inhibition of inappropriate reflexive behaviors is known as: A. sensory memory. B. iconic memory. C. cognitive control. D. short-term memory.
C
41. Which statement is TRUE regarding goal abstraction in the frontal lobes? A. Activation of the frontal lobes during abstract goal-directed tasks that proceeds from the posterior to the anterior regions. B. Posterior regions are involved mainly in processing the most abstract goals. C. Frontal lobe development throughout childhood proceeds from the posterior regions to the anterior regions. D. Activation of the frontal lobes during highly-specific goal-directed tasks proceeds from the posterior to the anterior regions.
C
43. When one consciously tries to remember a fact or event for later retrieval, one is storing the information: A. executively. B. iconically. C. intentionally. D. incidentally.
C
48. Neuroimaging studies of children with ADHD have shown that these children have a(n) _____prefrontal cortex region. A. enlarged right B. enlarged left C. smaller right D. smaller left
C
6. Which type of memory is NOT considered to be a transient memory? A. sensory B. iconic C. long-term D. short-term
C
8. Suppose one's roommate asks him to pick up five items at the grocery store, but he has no place to write the items down. He keeps repeating the items over and over in his mind until he can get a pencil and piece of paper to write them down. In this example, he would be relying primarily on his _____ memory. A. sensory B. long-term C. short-term D. iconic
C
Jenkins and Russell (1952) presented a list of words like "chair, apple, dish, shoe, cherry, sofa" to participants. In a test, participants recalled the words in a different order than the order in which they were originally presented. This result occurred because of the A. way objects like dishes and shoes are encoded visually. B. effect of proactive interference. C. tendency of objects in the same category to become organized. D. way the phonological loop reorganizes information based on sound during rehearsal.
C
The standard model of consolidation proposes that the hippocampus is A. strongly active for both new memories as they are being consolidated and memories for events that occurred long ago and are already consolidated. B. strongly active for long-ago memories that are already consolidated but becomes less active when memories are first formed and being consolidated. C. strongly active when memories are first formed and being consolidated but becomes less active when retrieving older memories that are already consolidated. D. uninvolved in memory consolidation.
C
Which statement below is most closely associated with levels of processing theory? A. Information enters memory by passing through a number of levels, beginning with sensory memory, then short-term memory, then long-term memory. B. Events that are repeated enough can influence our behavior, even after we have forgotten the original events. C. Deep processing involves paying closer attention to a stimulus than shallow processing and results in better processing. D. People who were sad when they studied did better when they were sad during testing.
C
________ consolidation involves the gradual reorganization of circuits within brain regions and takes place on a fairly long time scale, lasting weeks, months, or even years. A. Standard B. Remote C. Systems D. Synaptic
C
45. What year is usually cited as the "birthday" of cognitive science (pick the closest year)? A. 1879 B. 1945 C. 1956 D. 1967
C. 1956
Patient A: "I... w-w-w... went... um... th." Patient B: "Then, the zoo did very wildly to him, and before all he then did again to her. It did too him and her and them and all from here." Patient A probably suffers from damage to _______ resulting in a ________ aphasia. Patient B probably suffers from damage to _______ resulting in a _______ aphasia. A. Broca's area, receptive; Wernicke's area, expressive B. Wernicke's area, receptive; Broca's area, expressive C. Broca's area, expressive; Wernicke's area, receptive D. Wernicke's area, expressive; Broca's area, receptive
C. Broca's area, expressive; Wernicke's area, receptive
Which of the following is true about the hierarchical semantic network? A. It stores all information about a member with the member B. It predicts a typicality effect for response times in the sentence verification task C. It has problems explaining association effects on response speed in the sentence verification task D. Information can be retrieved in parallel from all levels of the network
C. It has problems explaining association effects on response speed in the sentence verification task
Which of the following is true? A. Animals also have language B. Great apes can learn human language- not with the same ease, but they achieve eventually the level of a human adult C. Kanzi was able to master language so well that he has a rich vocabulary and is able to understand novel sentences D. Apes love to experiment with language. They babble and invent new words- just like human children
C. Kanzi was able to master language so well that he has a rich vocabulary and is able to understand novel sentences
Exemplar theory and prototype theory differ in that A. Only exemplar theory assumes that membership is graded B. Only prototype theory assumes that membership is based on a judgment of resemblance C. Only prototype theory assumes that we store an abstract representation of a category D. Only exemplar theory can explain typicality effects
C. Only prototype theory assumes that we store an abstract representation of a category
All of the following are problems for the prototype and exemplar accounts of categorization except that A. Participants know that the definition of an even number is absolute, but they still give even numbers different typicality ratings of evenness B. An orange that has been flattened, painted with brown and red stripes, and covered with coconut flakes is still identified as an orange C. Participants' ratings of membership in a novel category change with experience D. A counterfeit $20 bill can look identical to a real $20 bill but is not considered money.
C. Participants' ratings of membership in a novel category change with experience
50. Gais et al.'s research on the impact of sleep on memory consolidation illustrates which type of approach to the study of the operations of the mind? A. Behavioral B. Structural C. Physiological D. Mathematical
C. Physiological
18. The founder of the first laboratory of scientific psychology was A. Franciscus Donders. B. Hermann von Helmholtz. C. Wilhelm Wundt. D. Hermann Ebbinghaus.
C. Wilhelm Wundt.
41. The field that studies how to make machines behave in ways that are intelligent if a human were so behaving is known as A. cognitive psychology. B. behaviorism. C. artificial intelligence. D. flow diagramming.
C. artificial intelligence.
8. In Donders' experiment on decision making, when participants were asked to press one button if the light on the left was illuminated and another button if the light on the right was illuminated, they were engaged in a A. reaction time task. B. simple reaction time task. C. choice reaction time task. D. presentation task.
C. choice reaction time task.
47. Using behavior to infer mental processes is the basic principle of A. behaviorism. B. Donderism. C. cognitive psychology. D. operant conditioning.
C. cognitive psychology.
4. Donders' main reason for doing his choice reaction time experiment was to study A. perception. B. attention. C. decision making. D. memory.
C. decision making.
48. According to your text, the behavioral approach to the study of the mind involves A. measuring the relation between stimulation and brain processes. B. controlling behavior by presenting positive reinforcements. C. measuring the relation between stimuli and behavior. D. controlling behavior by presenting negative reinforcements.
C. measuring the relation between stimuli and behavior.
21. An important contribution to the field of psychology resulting from Wilhelm Wundt founding his laboratory at the University of Leipzig in 1879 was A. the rise of behaviorism's popularity. B. recognizing 1879 as "the birthday of cognitive science." C. producing Ph.D.s who later established psychology departments at many U.S. universities. D. the first demonstration of the forgetting curve.
C. producing Ph.D.s who later established psychology departments at many U.S. universities.
16. According to Ebbinghaus' savings curve, savings is a function of A. word familiarity. B. sensory modality. C. retention interval. D. reaction time.
C. retention interval., ELAPSED TIME
46. The "cognitive revolution" A. occurred rapidly, within a period of a few years, in response to the attacks on Skinner and the development of computers. B. extended over a long period of time, beginning in the early part of the century, in reaction to Wundt's introspection experiments. C. was a gradual process that occurred over a few decades. D. was not really necessary because the study of the mind has been a constant part of experimental psychology since the founding of the first psychology laboratory.
C. was a gradual process that occurred over a few decades.
2. Where does information automatically and rapidly decay? A. short-term memory B. working memory C. long-term memory D. sensory memory
D
20. State-based models of memory are known as: A. executive control. B. cognitive control. C. multi-store. D. unitary-store.
D
21. All of the functions of the central executive involve: A. maintaining verbal information. B. maintaining visuospatial information. C. manipulation of information in sensory memory. D. manipulation of information in short-term memory.
D
26. Jackie is trying to balance her checkbook while at the same time helping her son with his homework. She works on her checkbook when she can, while also watching for signals that her son has finished a particular assignment; then she can stop working on her checkbook for a moment and help her son. The task her central executive is MOST concerned with in this example is: A. controlled updating of short-term memory buffers. B. setting goals and planning. C. stimulus selection and response inhibition. D. task switching.
D
27. Rebecca takes a dance class in which the first exercise the class does is always the same. But one day, the dance instructor changed the first exercise. Out of habit, Rebecca persisted in doing the exercise she was used to, until she realized everyone else was doing something different. The task her central executive is MOST concerned with in this example is: A. controlled updating of short-term memory buffers. B. setting goals and planning. C. task switching. D. stimulus selection and response inhibition.
D
29. The Stroop task demonstrates that: A. working memory is enhanced when information is in conflict. B. working memory is impaired when information is in conflict. C. reading is an attentional process. D. reading is an automatic process.
D
36. In a task requiring monkeys to move their gaze to the former position of a visual cue, it was found that neurons in the prefrontal cortex fired during: A. presentation of the visual cue. B. the monkey's response. C. the delay between presentation of the cue and the response. D. All of the answers are correct.
D
44. EXTRA CREDIT: Functional imaging studies have shown that the _____ ventrolateral prefrontal cortex is activated during tasks that involve semantic processing, while the _____ ventrolateral prefrontal cortex is activated during tasks that involve phonological processing. A. right posterior; left anterior B. left anterior; right posterior C. left posterior; left anterior D. left anterior; left posterior
D
49. Medications for ADHD work by: A. decreasing the amount of glutamate. B. increasing the amount of glutamate. C. decreasing the amount of dopamine. D. increasing the amount of dopamine.
D
7. George Sperling's (1960) experiments on visual sensory memory demonstrated that: A. briefly presented information cannot be recalled. B. iconic memory lasts for a very long time. C. people could not learn to associate a tone with a visual stimulus. D. people have a very brief visual memory that decays rapidly.
D
Which would produce slowest response time? A. A robin can fly B. A robin is a bird C. A robin is an animal D. A bat is a bird
D. A bat is a bird
Which of the following facts does not fit with the claims of prototype theory? A. Pictures of items similar to the prototype are identified as category members more quickly than pictures of items less similar to the prototype B. Items close to the prototype are mentioned earlier (and more likely) in a production task C. In a sentence verification task, we verify statements about typical members more quickly than about atypical members D. Even when an item is quite different from a category's prototype, it should be very easy for people to decide whether it is inside or outside the boundaries of that category
D. Even when an item is quite different from a category's prototype, it should be very easy for people to decide whether it is inside or outside the boundaries of that category
Which of the following is not true about the basic level of categories? A. It's the "goldilocks" level of categories: Not too broad, not too specific, but just right B. It can vary across individuals and cultures C. Children first learn basic-level categories and their labels D. It's harder to identify commonalities between members at the basic level than at a higher level
D. It's harder to identify commonalities between members at the basic level than at a higher level
42. The use of the term "artificial intelligence" was coined by A. B.F. Skinner. B. Colin Cherry. C. Edward Tolman. D. John McCarthy
D. John McCarthy.
Nativists assume that A. We are born with a general-purpose learning device that enables us to learn language B. We are born with a language device specific to language, that stores information about the details of each and every language in the world C. Language and cognition are intrinsically linked. i.e., they are not independent capacities D. Language and cognition are independent
D. Language and cognition are independent
What is true about Williams syndrome? A. It most frequently caused by traumatic brain damage B. People with William's syndrome have generally typical cognitive abilities, but their language skills are impaired at all levels C. It provides strong evidence that language and cognition and independent D. People with Williams Syndrome often show a larger vocabulary but poorer syntactic processing
D. People with Williams Syndrome often show a larger vocabulary but poorer syntactic processing
39. Colin Cherry's experiment in which participants listen to two messages simultaneously, one in each ear, found that A. people can focus on one message and ignore the other one. B. people can focus on the message they were repeating. C. people take in very little information about the ignored message. D. all of these
D. all of these
5. By comparing reaction times across different tasks, Donders was able to conclude how long the mind needs to perform a certain cognitive task. Donders interpreted the difference in reaction time between the simple and choice conditions of his experiment as indicating how long it took to A. perceive the stimulus. B. process the stimulus. C. attend to the stimulus. D. make a decision about the stimulus.
D. make a decision about the stimulus.
28. The investigation of how behavior is strengthened by presentation of positive reinforcers (e.g., food) or withdrawal of negative reinforcers (e.g., shock) is best known as A. classical conditioning. B. the method of savings. C. choice reaction time. D. operant conditioning.
D. operant conditioning.
9. Reaction time refers to the time between the ________ of a stimulus and a person's response to it. A. perception B. mental awareness C. disappearance D. presentation
D. presentation
Which statement below is most closely associated with levels of processing theory?
Deep processing involves paying closer attention to a stimulus than shallow processing and results in better processing.
Review what is known about the genetics of AD. Which genes are related to sporadic AD and which are related to familial AD? What do we know about the ApoE E4 allele as a risk factor for AD?
Early onset of around 55 yrs. Of age. Rapid degeneration (familial AD) not typical AD If parent has it there is 50% risk for children Gene related to familial AD is chromosome 21, 14 and 1 Late onset starting at 65 yrs. Of age. gradual and slow degeneration (sporadic AD) slower disease progression: gene related to this type of AD is chromosome 19 What we know about the ApoE E4 allele: 15% risk of AD for E4 E4 is more common in AD patients, related to age of onset and rate of decline. Some E4 people don't develop AD and some who lack E4 do develop AD. Basically, if you have E4 you are more likely to have a bad outcome if something happens to your brain.
What changes in the brains of AD patients can you see on a MRI? Which changes cannot be seen on a MRI?
Evidence from neuroimaging- cannot see plaques and tangles in MRI, only by autopsy Clues: massive cell loss and enlarged ventricles, occipital lobe is not as affected.
What is the expected utility hypothesis? Give an example of a situation in which you or someone you know has proven this hypothesis wrong.
Expected utility hypothesis is generally the notation that given the correct information a person will more often then not choose the option that is likely to produce the highest expected value--which is based on a persons preferences, goals and values. An example of this would be my fiancee, he's quite selfish, in believing that people spend too much time and effort doing for others and not enough time focusing on theirselves and their own advances, yet in regards to the two of us most of is actions are for the greater value of me, our relationship and our future, he acts without hesitation. Yet his sisters house could burn down leaving his nieces and nephew homeless and he would feel it to be a learning and growing experience for them and never offer for them to stay with out. Another example would be with myself, I received an injury that resulted in a legal case, I was offered a fairly decent settlement amount, and was in a bit of debit, but declined the offer because my health was not where it needed to be and I would be left paying medical expenses out of pocket rather then through the insurance company.
True or false: During action potential, there is an exchange of positive and negative ions between the extracellular and intracellular fluid
False
True or false: Phineas Gage had damage to his temporal lobe
False
Visual information cannot be rehearsed in working memory without being transformed into a verbal code.
False
A computer that has true human-like language capabilities:
Is far out of reach
What is the name of the technique that involves placing the subjects head near an electrical scanner and measuring the activity of large groups of neurons?
Magnetoencephalography
According to the levels of processing theory, which of the following tasks will produce the best long-term memory for a set of words?
Making a connection between each word and something you've previously learned
When a patient has a head injury and begins to recover, what changes do you see in their retrograde memory impairment?
Patients with head injuries often exhibit post-traumatic amnesia, severity of which is a good indicator of how one will recover. Over time, retrograde amnesia tends to improve. However, memory from the time of coma, the time of injury, will never come back. There is also improvement in anterograde amnesia as the patient recovers. Patients always have some degree of lasting retrograde amnesia though.
Review the basic memory problems associated with Korsakoff's disease and the part of the brain affected by the disease.
Patients with this disease show anterograde and retrograde amnesia. Part of the brain affected with Korsakoff is the diencephalon. This disease occurs in chronic alcoholics due to vitamin deficiency (thiamine). Korsakoff's patients often exhibit
According to gestalt psycholgists, what is one organizing principle do people use as they perceive the world?
People group similar objects
Why do people rate tornadoes to be a greater cause of death than asthma when, in fact, asthma kills 20 times more people than tornadoes?
People have a tendency to rely on information that quickly comes to mind.
According to Jean Piaget people decide the truth of statements by evaluating them logically. However, it has been found that:
People make errors that are inconsistent with applying the rules of logic
Divided attention
The ability to pay attention to, or carry out, two or more different tasks simultaneously. -Practice enables people to simultaneously do two things that were difficult at first
You have set aside 2 hours to study for an exam in this course, and you are currently deciding to review the new terms, writing down any terms that you cannot define. Which feature of Baddeley's theory handles this planning activity?
The central executive
If a split-brain patient is presented with a triangle in their left visual field and a circle in their right visual field, which object will they verbally name?
The circle
Neurons in the "when" pathway become extremely active if they detect what?
The direction of a moving object
Which of the following theories on conceptual representation combines both sensory and motor experiences?
The embodied approach
Inferred from the participant's behavior.
The first experiments in cognitive psychology were based on the idea that mental responses can be:
Which region of the brain is important for short-term memory?
The frontal lobe is important for Short term memory
What is an example of a drawback of using brain recording techniques in scientific studies?
The machines and technology can be expensive and require extensive time from research subjects
What is the drawback to most methods that researchers use to measure cognitive processing?
The measures are indirect and based on assumptions
The puzzle of how the physical body is related to mental activity is called:
The mind-body problem
Between 1/3 and 1/2 of the cortex is involved in visual processing. The large number of neural processes that are devoted to vision suggests that:
The process of going from the sensory input to the perceptual output is complex
simply because we have been exposed to them before
The propaganda effect demonstrate that we evaluate familiar statements as being true...
have participants count backwards for 30 seconds after hearing the last word of the list
The recency effect occurs when participants are asked to recall a list of word. One way to get rid of the recency effect is to...
Cognitive task and the mental response
The relationship between the _____ is NOT measured directly by cognitive psychologists.
Distributed encoding
The same neurons will be active in response to Alan and Brittany at different rates.
What is the serial position curve?
The serial position curve is a distribution graph that shows the accuracy of recall. This curve shows that when people try to remember a list of numbers or words, we typically tend to remember words at the beginning and/or at the end of a list, but we do not usually remember middle numbers/words as well (the serial positioning effect).
You will have difficulty reading your textbook if you are simultaneously singing the words to your favorite song. How would Baddeley explain this phenomenon?
The words from the textbook and the words from the song will interfere with each other in the phonological loop.
Speech perception: Invariance problem
There are no reliable cues to identify speech sounds across contexts
In the study by Ross et al. (1975), people were given feedback about their ability to tell real from fake suicide notes apart and then told their results were manufactured. They found that once people believed something about their abilities:
They ignored or discounted new information
How do geons help us to perceive objects?
They make it easier to accurately perceive partly covered 3D objects
recognition
This multiple choice question is an example of a ____ test.
A key component of gestalt approaches are what?
Top-Down processing
When we use knowledge of objects to aid in our perception of them, we are using what?
Top-down processing
True or false: A variety of sophisticated cognitive tasks are a function of distributed processing in the brain
True
True or false: The eye is an example of a sense organ
True
True or false: The independent variable is the factor in an experiment that the researcher manipulates
True
Wernicke's aphasia is to _______ as Broca's aphasia is to _________.
Understanding; production or Comprehension; production
16. If Peyton Manning, a professional football player, wanted to remember his 16-digit credit card number, which of the following memory techniques would you recommend? a. He should think of the numbers as a sequence of football statistics. b. He should picture each of the numbers in his head printed in a bright color. c. He should first memorize a few other sequences of 16 digits to gain some practice. d. He should visualize the front of his credit card showing a picture of him dribbling a basketball.
a
2. Remembering that a tomato is actually a fruit rather than vegetable is an example of memory. a. semantic b. acoustic c. visual d. iconic
a
21. STM's capacity is best estimated as seven (plus or minus two) a. meaningful units. b. letters. c. words. d. sentences.
a
27. Suppose you (a student) are asked by a teacher to learn a poem you will recite in front of your class. Soon after, both you and a classmate, J.P., are asked by another teacher to learn the lyrics to an unfamiliar song. When you and J.P. are later asked to remember the song lyrics, you have a much more difficult time recalling them than J.P. does. This impairment of your performance is most likely attributable to a. proactive interference. b. your overloading the phonological loop. c. a release from proactive interference. d. a recency effect.
a
29. Given the different theoretical components of working memory, the code for these memories is most likely based on the of the stimulus. a. sound b. appearance c. meaning d. modality
a
3. Models designed to explain mental functioning are constantly refined and modified to explain new results. Which of the following exemplifies this concept based on the results presented in your text? a. Replacing the STM component of the modal model with working memory b. Replacing the sensory memory component of the modal model with the episodic buffer c. Replacing the STM component of the modal model with iconic memory d. Replacing the sensory memory component of the modal model with working memory
a
37. A task with the instructions "Read the following words while repeating 'the, the, the' out loud, look away, and then write down the words you remember" would most likely be studying a. articulatory suppression. b. the visuospatial sketch pad. c. echoic memory. d. the central executive.
a
39. Articulatory suppression causes a decrease in the word-length effect because a. saying "the, the, the" fills up the phonological loop. b. saying "la, la, la" forces participants to use visual encoding. c. talking makes the longer words seem even longer. d. elaborative rehearsal helps transfer information into LTM.
a
41. Which task should be easier: keeping a sentence like "John went to the store to buy some oranges" in your mind AND a. saying "yes" for each word that is a noun and "no" for each word that is not a noun? b. pointing to the word "yes" for each word that is a noun and "no" for each word that is not a noun? c. pointing to the word "no" for each word that is a noun and "yes" for each word that is not a noun? d. saying "no" for each word that is a noun and "yes" for each word that is not a noun?
a
42. Which task should be easier? Keeping an image of a block letter "F" in your mind AND a. saying "yes" for each corner that is an inside corner and "no" for each corner that is an outside corner? b. pointing to the letter "Y" for each inside corner and "N" for each outside corner? c. saying "no" for each corner that is an inside corner and "yes" for each corner that is an outside corner? d. pointing to the letter "N" for each inside corner and "Y" for each outside corner?
a
44. It is easier to perform two tasks at the same time if a. one is handled by the sketch pad and one is handled by the phonological loop. b. both are handled by the sketch pad. c. both are handled by the phonological loop. d. the central executive is deactivated during the dual task time period
a
7. Imagine you are driving to a friend's new house. In your mind, you say the address repeatedly until you arrive. Once you arrive, you stop thinking about the address and start to think about buying a housewarming gift for your friend. To remember the address, you used a(n) process in STM. a. control b. automatic c. coding d. iconic
a
Your book explains that brief episodes of retrograde amnesia (e.g., the traumatic disruption of newly formed memories when a football player takes a hit to the head and can't recall the last play before the hit) reflect
a failure of memory consolidation.
When cleaning her closet, Nadia finds her 20-year-old wedding photo album. As she flips through the pictures, she starts to cry joyful tears. Seeing the photos and rekindling the emotions of her wedding day most likely activated her
a. thalamus. b. medial temporal lobe. d. prefrontal cortex.
Some suggest that students should study in a variety of places. This suggestion is based on research showing that people remember material better if they learned it in a number of different locations, compared to studying the same amount of time in one location. The suggestion solves a problem raised by
a. the spacing effect. *b. levels of processing. d. the distributed practice effect.
Elaborative rehearsal of a word will LEAST likely be accomplished by
a. thinking of its synonyms and antonyms. c. linking the new word to a previously learned concept. d. using it in a sentence. over and over??
40. The magic number for the capacity of short-term memory seems to be_______, but this can be increased by using ___________. a. 7 +/- 2; chunking b. 7 +/- 2; retroactive inhibition c. Unlimited; chunking d. Unlimited; metamemory
a. 7 +/- 2; chunking
25. Cicero, an imperial Roman orator, endorsed a mnemonic strategy called the method of loci more than 2,000 years ago; the technique is still one of the most powerful know today. Method of loci involves a. Creating visual images associated list items with parts of a well-known place b. Using rhyming word-number lists as a base and associating list items with those c. Telling a story using all the items on the to-be-remembered list d. Repeating a list to yourself over and over until you remember it perfectly
a. Creating visual images associated list items with parts of a well-known place
19. You are driving down the street when you see a billboard displaying a phone number for a service you need. You keep repeating the number so you won't forget it until you get home, where you can write it down. You do this to prevent the process of _________ from causing you to forget the number. a. Decay b. Construction c. Deductive inhibition d. Proactive inhibition
a. Decay
21. Oliver was in an auto accident and now has difficulty remembering anything new. He can remember everything prior to his accident, but nothing since it. His doctors suspect that his ____________ has been damaged. a. Hippocampus b. Cerebral cortex c. Thalamus d. Amygdala
a. Hippocampus
Jana is unable to recognize everyday objects such as a hammer or a fork. However, she is able to report seeing objects, and can even draw pictures of them and mime how to interact with them. Which area of Jana's brain is most likely to be damaged?
a. INFEROTEMPORAL CORTEX b. ffa c. occipitoparietal cortex d. primary visual cortex
What do illusions reveal about the assumptions that the brain makes during perception?
a. PERCEPTION OFTEN DEPENDS ON GUESSES b. these assumptions are usually correct c. perception is not as useful as sensation d. our brains cannot be tricked
1. When you ask her, Kyung cannot remember the names of all fifty U.S. state capitals. However, when you the show her a list of U.S. city names, she can correctly point out all fifty capitals. Kyung originally had trouble remembering the state capitals because of poor a. Recall b. Recognition c. Elaborative rehearsal d. Maintenance rehearsal
a. Recall
7. The variable that largely determines whether information is moved from the sensory registers to short-term memory is a. Selective attention b. Rehearsal c. Chunking d. Serial search
a. Selective attention
35. Baxter suffers from a brain condition that causes him to see the world as a series of still images instead of the normal continuous flow the rest of us experience. One explanation for this condition is that he has a problem with his _______ memory. a. Sensory b. Short-term c. Long-term d. Procedural
a. Sensory
36. Tami lights a sparkler and hands it to her young son, Jacob. She tells Jacob to write his name in the air with the sparker. She can see this "writing" because the light from the sparkler is briefly held in her ________ memory. a. Sensory b. Working c. Short-term d. long-term
a. Sensory
5. Which of the following is most important when trying to memorize information? a. Thinking about new information in relation to existing knowledge b. The length of exposure to the information c. Shifting from medium to high-stimulus intensity d. Using a systematic scanning pattern
a. Thinking about new information in relation to existing knowledge
When interpreting visual input, the processing of edges, angles, motion, and color based on incoming signals from the retina is called ___ processing, but the interpretation of that input on the basis of expectations and prior experience with the world is a result of ___ processing.
a. bottom-up; feature-based b. gestalt; top-down c. top-down; bottom-up d. BOTTOM-UP; TOP-DOWN
Which of the following visual stimuli would lead to the greatest firing rate for a neuron in V1 (assuming that any orientation of the stimulus matches the neuron's preferred orientation and falls within its receptive field)?
a. dark region b. light region c. SUDDEN CHANGE FROM DARK TO LIGHT d. a gradual change from dark to light
One of the cues to depth is based on the fact that our two eyes have a different perspective of the world because they are in somewhat different positions on your head. This difference in position on the retina of each eye is called _________.
a. occlusion b. optic flow c. BINOCULAR DISPARITY d. motion parallax
Which Gestalt law describes the tendency to group together features of the image that have similar properties in some dimension, such as color or luminance?
a. proximity b. good continuation c. SIMILARITY d. symmetry
As a model of recognition processes, feature nets demonstrate that:
a. recognition can only be achieved when the stimulus exactly matches a stored image in memory b. recognition can be achieved through detection of features that are stable across viewpoints, even when input is degraded or ambiguous ***** c. recognition can only be achieved from some viewpoints but not others d. recognition can be achieved through detection of features, but only if the features are clear and unambiguous
Review the basics symptoms of AD (e.g. memory, agnosia, aphasia, apraxia, executive dysfunction) .
a.Memory loss: amnesia, learning and recall problems b.Disorientation of time and space c.Personality changes: childlike and aggressive d.Language problems: aphasia e.Inability to carry out motor activities despite intact motor function (apraxia) able to do things, but not if asked to do it. f.Inability to recognize objects and faces (agnosia) g.Impaired executive functioning: problem solving, planning and strategy problems h.Mood disturbances: depression and anxiety Symptoms must cause social/occupational dysfunction Course characterized by gradual onset and continual cognitive decline Rule out other causes of impairment
Which of these is a property of perspective projection?
a.When an object is closer to you the image on your retina decreases in size b.When an object is closer to you the image on your retina increases in size ****** c. Images stay the same size on your retina no matter how close or far they are from you d.The cornea bends the light while the pupil allows more or less light in
The medial temporal lobe (MTL), involved in memory consolidation, includes all of the following structures EXCEPT the A. perirhinal cortex. B. amygdala. C. parahippocampal cortex. D. entorhinal cortex.
amygdala.
blocking
an example of this specific "sin" from Schacter's seven memory sins would be someone having information on the tip of their tongue, but being unable to retrieve it
Bransford and Johnson's study had participants hear a passage which turned out to be about a man on the street serenading his girlfriend in a tall building. The wording of the passage made it difficult to understand, but looking at a picture made it easier to understand. The results of this study illustrated the importance of _______ in forming reliable long-term memories.
an organizational context during learning
Bransford and Johnson's study had participants hear a passage which turned out to be about a man on the street serenading his girlfriend in a tall building. The wording of the passage made it difficult to understand, but looking at a picture made it easier to understand. The results of this study illustrated the importance of _______ in forming reliable long-term memories. A. implicit memory during learning B. an organizational context during learning C. deep processing during retrieval D. imagery
an organizational context during learning
When TV announcers say something like: "How much would you pay? $200...how about $150...if you call now, we'll give it to you for the amazing price of just...." they are trying to get people to focus and rely on an initial piece of information (i.e., the price being $150-$200). This is related to which heuristic?
anchoring
hippocampus
animal research has revealed that cells in the ___ that are activated during initial learning are reactiviated during sleep
The inability to assimilate or retain new knowledge is known as
anterograde amnesia
Free recall of the stimulus list "apple, desk, shoe, sofa, plum, chair, cherry, coat, lamp, pants" will most likely yield which of these response patterns? A. "apple, desk, shoe, coat, lamp, pants" B. "apple, desk, shoe, sofa, plum, chair, cherry, coat, lamp, pants" C. "apple, cherry, plum, shoe, coat, lamp, chair, pants" D. "apple, chair, cherry, coat, desk, lamp, plum, shoe, sofa"
apple, cherry, plum, shoe, coat, lamp, chair, pants
Neuropsychological evidence indicates that STM and LTM probably
are caused by different mechanisms that act independently
A task with the instructions "Read the following words while repeating 'the, the, the' out loud, look away, and then write down the words you remember" would most likely be studying
articulatory suppression.
In the context of cognitive psychology and conceptual models, a tool would be classified as a(n) ________.
artifact
Participants saw a film in which a hammer was shown. Later, they heard a description of the film that substituted a screwdriver for the hammer. Participants were tested later by being asked whether they saw a hammer or a wrench in the original film. The result of this experiment
argued against the hypothesis that original memories are lost as they are replaced by later false information.
17. The effective duration of short-term memory, when rehearsal is prevented, is a. just under a fraction of a second. b. 15-20 seconds or less. c. 1-3 minutes or more. d. indefinite.
b
25. Which of the following sets of results shows evidence of proactive interference with a three-trial recall task? (Note: Read the selections as percent correct for Trial 1: Trial 2: Trial 3) a. 20% : 50 % : 70% correct b. 80% : 40% : 30% correct c. 30 % : 30% : 30% correct d. 70% : 40% : 60% correct
b
26. Lamar has just gotten a new job and is attending a company party where he will meet his colleagues for the first time. His boss escorts him around to small groups to introduce him. At the first group, Lamar meets four people and is told only their first names. The same thing happens with a second group and a third group. At the fourth group, Lamar is told their names and that one of the women in the group is the company accountant. A little while later, Lamar realizes that while remembers the names of the people in the fourth group, he can no longer recall the names of anyone he met earlier in the party. Lamar's experience demonstrates a. the phonological similarity effect. b. retroactive interference. c. the cocktail party phenomenon. d. a partial-report procedure.
b
30. Observations that people may actually process and manipulate information rather than simply store it for brief periods of time challenged the conceptualization of a. the phonological similarity effect. b. short-term memory. c. the persistence of vision. d. the physiological approach to coding.
b
32. The emphasis of the concept of working memory is on how information is a. permanently stored. b. manipulated. c. forgotten. d. perceived.
b
36. The word-length effect shows that it is more difficult to remember a. a long list of words than a short list of words. b. a list of long words than a list of short words. c. a list of words that are all the same length than a list of words that are of different lengths. d. a list of words that are of different lengths than a list of words that are all the same length.
b
40. Articulatory suppression does all but which of the following? a. It reduces memory span. b. It interferes with semantic coding. c. It reduces the phonological similarity effect for reading words. d. It eliminates the use of rehearsal.
b
47. The episodic buffer directly connects to which two components in Baddeley's model of memory? a. The phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad b. The central executive and long-term memory c. The central executive and the phonological loop d. The phonological loop and long-term memory
b
48. Funahashi et al.'s work on monkeys doing a delayed response task examined the role of neurons in the a. nucleus acumbens. b. prefrontal cortex. c. diencephalon. d. cingulate gyrus.
b
5. A property of control processes in the modal model of memory is that they a. do not require attention. b. may differ from one task to another. c. are performed without conscious awareness. d. are difficult to modify.
b
51. Funahashi and coworkers recorded neurons in the PF cortex of monkeys during a delayed response task. These neurons showed the most intense firing during a. stimulus presentation. b. delay. c. response. d. encoding.
b
52. Neural refers to a neural response, usually brain activation measured by fMRI, to determine what a person is perceiving or thinking. a. potentiation b. mind reading c. perseveration d. interference
b
In the famous obedience research conducted by Stanley Milgram, a participant was instructed to read a list of word pairs (e.g., "nice day," "blue dress," "fat neck") to another person. The participant would then read the list again but would only provide the first word. The other individual was to recall the word that went with this cueing word. This is an example of
b. mood-congruent memory. c. paired-associate learning. *d. maintenance rehearsal.
39. When Frances went to work this morning, she checked her voice mail. Her boss had left her a message outlining twenty-six tasks she needed to complete. Unfortunately, the message was accidentally deleted after Frances listened to it once. Because she did not write down the tasks as she listened to the message, how may of the tasks will Frances most likely remember? a. One to four b. Five to nine c. Ten to fourteen d. Fifteen to nineteen
b. Five to nine
22. Xandra is learning rapidly and storing new memories all the time. For her brain to store these memories, her neurons will have to a. Become myelinated b. Form new synapses and change the function of existing synapses c. Send stronger signals to the amygdala and the hypothalamus d. Increase the release of the neurotransmitter dopamine
b. Form new synapses and change the function of existing synapses
32. Years after the initial incident was forgotten, Emily could still not look at miniature marshmallows without feeling some fear and trepidation. This phenomenon is best described as a. A semantic memory b. In implicit memory c. A feeling-of-knowing experience d. Retrograde amnesia
b. In implicit memory
37. The concept of selective attention is best demonstrated in which of the following examples? a. Remembering the names of your clients by creating clever mental associations b. Learning to play a song by listening to only the cello parts of a string quartet c. Recalling only fond memories of you sister when you are feeling happy d. Using a familiar location as a means to remember a ling list of groceries you need to buy
b. Learning to play a song by listening to only the cello parts of a string quartet
33. James is going to the store to by the following items: shampoo, ice cream, bananas, bread, juice, milk, toothpaste, and pretzels. Instead of making as list, he repeats the list over and over to himself and comes home with only the shampoo, ice cream, and bananas. James was using __________ rehearsal and remembered only the first few items on the list due to the ____________ effect. a. Elaborative; primacy b. Maintenance; primacy c. Maintenance; recency d. Elaborative; recency
b. Maintenance; primacy
12. The effectiveness of retrieval cues depends on the extent to which they a. Encourage the transfer of information from short-term to long-term memory b. Relate to information that was encoded at the time of original learning c. Invoke visual images d. Are context-specific
b. Relate to information that was encoded at the time of original learning
14. Josie is extremely unhappy while she studies for her midterm. When she actually goes to take it, however, she is in a very positive mood. Josie seems to have trouble recalling must of what she so diligently studied. This can be explained by a. Context-specific memory b. State-dependent memory c. Distraction during encoding d. Proactive inhibition
b. State-dependent memory
38. Warren is trying to remember the following list: table, rock, phone, apple. When recalling the list from his short-term memory, he makes a mistake and recalls the wrong word when trying to remember the word rock. Which of the following will most likely be the word that Warren recalls instead of rock? a. Clock b. Stone c. Hair d. Round
b. Stone
27. Jerry and Tommy both studied for exactly ten hours to get ready for the psychology midterm exam. Jerry studied for the ten hours immediately preceding the midterm. Tommy studied for one hour per day on each of the ten days immediately preceding the midterm. Based on this information only, how should Jerry and Tommy do on the exam? a. Jerry should do better than Tommy b. Tommy should do better than Jerry c. Jerry and Tommy should do about equally well d. There is not way to predict how they will do based on the information given
b. Tommy should do better than Jerry
According to Rosch, the ___________ level of categories reflects people's everyday experience.
basic
The purpose of the Little Albert experiment was to show that:
behavioral responses can be dramatically modified by conditioning
What is state-dependent learning? Describe Eich's experiment.
better mem when mood/state during encoding matches mood/state during retrieval part listened to happy or sad music at study and same at test. when mood matched at study and at test (i.e. happy music for both), part performed better
When evaluating syllogisms, people are generally ___________ at correctly identifying a syllogism as invalid and ___________ at establishing that they are valid, which demonstrates a type of confirmation bias.
better; worse
A Necker Cube is an example of a ______________.
bi-stable image
The memory mechanism Hebb proposed is associated with
both changes at the synapse and long-term potentiation.
Working memory is:
brief memory for information that a person is currently processing, involved in coordinating a person's cognitive activities, a term that is now used more often instead of a similar term—short-term
Baddeley's current model of working memory includes a feature called the episodic buffer. According to Baddeley's description, the episodic buffer
briefly holds material from the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory.
12. Brief sensory memory for sound is known as a. iconic memory. b. primary auditory memory. c. echoic memory. d. pre-perceptual auditory memory.
c
14. Peterson and Peterson studied how well participants can remember groups of three letters (like BRT, QSD) after various delays. They found that participants remembered an average of 80 percent of the groups after 3 seconds but only 10 percent after 18 seconds. They hypothesized that this decrease in performance was due to , but later research showed that it was actually due to . a. interference; decay b. priming; interference c. decay; interference d. decay; lack of rehearsal
c
20. The "magic number," according to Miller, is a. 7 and 11. b. 5 plus 2. c. 7 plus or minus 2. d. lucky 13.
c
34. Given what we know about the operation of the phonological loop, which of the following word lists would be most difficult for people to retain for 15 seconds? a. BIP, TEK, LIN, MOD, REY b. SAY, BET, PIN, COW, RUG c. MAC, CAN, CAP, MAN, MAP d. PIG, DOG, RAT, FOX, HEN
c
4. The three structural components of the modal model of memory are a. receptors, occipital lobe, temporal lobe. b. receptors, temporal lobe, frontal lobe. c. sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory. d. sensory memory, iconic memory, rehearsal.
c
43. According to the model of working memory, which of the following mental tasks should LEAST adversely affect people's driving performance while operating a car along an unfamiliar, winding road? a. Trying to imagine how many cabinets are in their kitchen b. Trying to remember a map of the area c. Trying to remember the definition of a word they just learned d. Trying to imagine a portrait from a recent museum exhibit
c
46. Shanta has frontal lobe damage. She is doing a problem solving task in which she has to choose the red object out of many choices. She can easily complete this repeatedly, but when the experimenter asks her to choose the blue object on a new trial of the task, she continues to choose the red one, even when the experimenter gives her feedback that she is incorrect. Shanta is displaying a. sensory memory. b. decay. c. perseveration. d. agnosia.
c
8. When light from a flashlight is moved quickly back and forth on a wall in a darkened room, it can appear to observers that there is a trail of light moving across the wall, even though physically the light is only in one place at any given time. This experience is an effect of memory that occurs because of a. a visual delay effect. b. echoic memory. c. persistence of vision. d. top-down processing.
c
9. When a sparkler is twirled rapidly, people perceive a circle of light. This occurs because a. the trail you see is caused by sparks left behind from the sparkler. b. due to its differing wavelengths, the light from the sparkler continues to radiate for about a second after it goes out. c. the length of iconic memory (the persistence of vision) is about a fraction of a second. d. Gestalt principles work to complete the circle in our minds.
c
24. Brian is trying to remember the colors of the visible spectrum: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. Brian decided to use the acronym ROYGBIV, which contains the first letter of each of the colors' names. Brian is using ________ to remember the colors. a. The method of loci b. Semantic coding c. A mnemonic strategy d. Decomposition
c. A mnemonic strategy
26. Using the acronym OCEAN (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism) to remember the factors of the five factor model of personality is an example of a. Method of loci b. Chunking c. A mnemonic strategy d. Semantic encoding
c. A mnemonic strategy
9. Marcie found that remembering her ATM card number and pin number was much easier when she grouped the twelve numbers into sets of three instead of trying to remember twelve separate numbers. What technique is Marcie using to extend her short-term memory capacity? a. Mnemonic strategies b. Stringing c. Chunking d. Method of loci
c. Chunking
15. When asked to describe an examination room at his doctor's office, John seemed to do an accurate job. However, he included a framed medical degree on the wall that in fact was not there. This is an illustration of a. Context specific memory b. Elaborative rehearsal c. Constructive memory d. A retrieval cue
c. Constructive memory
13. Professor LePeu arranged for his class to take their French 100 midterm exam in the classroom where they learning the material in the first place. Professor LePeu had read this would improve students' retrieval of information, a phenomenon known as a. Semantic memory networking b. Encoding specificity c. Context-specific memory d. State dependent memory
c. Context-specific memory
4. Jacques and Pierre are studying for their Spanish exam. Jacques is repeating vocabulary words over and over. Pierre is creating associations between vocabulary words and English words that sound similar. All else being equal, Pierre is more likely to do better on the Spanish exam because he is using ___________ rehearsal and Jacques is using ____________ rehearsal. a. Maintenance; elaborative b. Maintenance; transfer-appropriate c. Elaborative; maintenance d. Transfer-appropriate; maintenance
c. Elaborative; maintenance
2. The three basic processes of memory are a. Recognition, storage, and retrieval b. Encoding, storage, and forgetting c. Encoding, storage, and retrieval d. Encoding, storage, and maintenance
c. Encoding, storage, and retrieval
18. In one study, students studied nonsense syllables. Then some of these students carried on with normal waking activities and others took a nap. Those who took a nap recalled more syllables, thus illustrating the effect __________ has on learning. a. Decay b. Conservation c. Interference d. State-dependent learning
c. Interference
45. You decide that instead of writing down your grocery list, you want to try out one of the mnemonic strategies you read about in your textbook. To that end, you try to associate each item on the list with a different room in your house. Which mnemonic strategy is this? a. Acronym b. Pegging c. Method of loci d. Verbal
c. Method of loci
20. Luke does not like his roommate's girlfriend, and he keeps forgetting to tell his roommate when she calls. What best explains his actions? a. Interference b. Decay theory c. Motivated forgetting d. Disuse
c. Motivated forgetting
3. When and eyewitness to a robbery tries to identify the criminal from a lineup of suspects, he or she is engaging in which memory retrieval process? a. Recall b. Rehearsal c. Recognition d. Relearning
c. Recognition
23. Crystal was involved in a serious snowmobile accident. Immediately after the accident she could not remember the four days prior to the injury. As she recovered, she eventually remembered everything except the actual snowmobile ride that resulted in the injury. What did she suffer from? a. Anterograde amnesia b. Infantile amnesia c. Retrograde amnesia d. Decomposition
c. Retrograde amnesia
11. Alberto arrived at a party and was introduced in order to Sandra, Frank, Jake, and Helen. Later in the evening he could remember only Sandra's name. This is an example of ¬¬ a. Fixation b. Episodic memory c. The primacy effect d. Motivated forgetting
c. The primacy effect
How is cognitive economy represented in the following example? The property _____ is stored at the _____ node.
can fly; bird
Which of the choices best represents cognitive economy in the following sentence? The property _______is stored at the _______node.
can fly; bird
Attention is limited in..
capacity and timing
The prototype approach to categorization states that a standard representation of a category is based on
category members that have been encountered in the past.
If you want to make out fine details of an image, which would you want to utilize?
cones
This is the tendency people have to look for evidence that supports their current views rather than disprove them.
confirmation bias
Learning in the connectionist network is represented by adjustments to network
connection weights
Learning in the connectionist network is represented by adjustments to network
connection weights.
1. The process of back propagation is most closely associated with
connectionist networks
The process of back propagation is most closely associated with
connectionist networks.
Bartlett's experiment in which English participants were asked to recall the "War of the Ghosts" story that was taken from the French Indian culture illustrated the
constructive nature of memory. People from different cultures remembered different things based on their own cultures' myths
Describe how the standard model of consolidation explains systems consolidation. What evidence is there for this model?
cortex areas aren't yet connected but hippocampus coordinates activity in the different cortical areas and binds the memory representations together. during reactivation, hippo plays big role at first but as connections b/w cortical areas get stronger, eventually connections b/w hippo and cortex dissolve. the hippo is like glue that holds reps of memory from diff cortical areas together. HM and others could remember events prior to losing hippocampus which shows that hippo was no longer needed for long ago events (think: temporal gradient/graded amnesia)
prevent participants from rehearsing
counting backwards immediately after the last presentation of a stimulus and before recall of the stimulus is an example of a task designed to
Memory for a word will tend to be better if the word is used in a complex sentence (like "the bicycle was blue, with high handlebars and a racing seat") rather than a simple sentence (like "he rode the bicycle"). This probably occurs because the complex sentence
creates more connections.
The name of the language when children combine the pidgin of their parents with the language of their home country while creating a new grammar is
creole
It may be difficult for young Matthew, who is only 4 years of age, to understand the difference between the iPad that his mother uses, the Kindle that his brother uses, and the Galaxy tablet that his sister uses. After all, all of them are tablets, have touch screens, are electronic technology, and run "apps" that include games and educational programs. These similarities remind us of the concept of ___________, which refers to the fact that animals tend to share many different properties.
crowding
1. According to your text, when students are asked the top functions for which they use their memories, all but which of the following are commonly identified? a. their daily schedule b. learning material for exams c. remembering names and phone numbers d. labeling familiar objects
d
11. Using the partial report procedure in his "letter array" experiment, Sperling was able to infer that participants initially saw about percent of the 12 letters in the display. a. 12 b. 36 c. 65 d. 82
d
15. Jill's friends tell her they think she has a really good memory. She finds this interesting so she decides to purposefully test her memory. Jill receives a list of to-do tasks each day at work. Usually, she checks off each item as the day progresses, but this week, she is determined to memorize the to-do lists. On Monday, Jill is proud to find that she remembers 95 percent of the tasks without referring to the list. On Tuesday, her memory drops to 80 percent, and by Thursday, she is dismayed to see her performance has declined to 20 percent. Jill's memory is declining over the course of the week because other information she encounters is "competing" with that which she memorized on Monday. This process is called a. anterograde amnesia. b. episodic buffering. c. chunking. d. proactive interference.
d
22. Which of the following represents the most effective chunking of the digit sequence 14929111776? a. 14 929 111 776 b. 149 29111 776 c. 14 92 91 117 76 d. 1492 911 1776
d
23. The primary effect of chunking is to a. maximize the recency effect. b. increase memory for items by grouping them together based on sound. c. develop a visual code to supplement a phonological code for the information. d. increase the efficiency of short-term memory.
d
24. The research by Ericsson and colleagues (1980) examined the ability of a college student to achieve amazing feats of memory by having him remember strings of random digits that were recited to him. They found that this student used his experience with running times to help him retain these strings of numbers. The significance of this finding was that a. experts show larger primacy and recency effects than beginners. b. knowledge in an area of expertise increases a person's digit span. c. expertise with some material reduces susceptibility to proactive interference with that material. d. chunking requires knowledge of familiar patterns or concepts.
d
28. Conduct an experiment where participants see a number of target letters flashed briefly on a screen and are told to immediately write down the letters in the order they were presented. It is most likely that the target letter "P" will be misidentified as a. L. b. I. c. R. d. C.
d
33. Imagine yourself walking from your car, bus stop, or dorm to your first class. Your ability to form such a picture in your mind depends on which of the following components of working memory? a. the STM recency effect b. delayed response coding c. the phonological loop d. the visuospatial sketch pad
d
34. Bart tells Lisa about his new cat, Scratchy. Even thought Bart does not mention that Scratchy has fur, Lisa knows this because she makes the generalization from the facts she knows about cats. Lisa's generalization about Scratchy best demonstrates a. The relearning method b. A false memory c. The feeling-of -knowing experience d. A parallel distributed processing model of memory
d. A parallel distributed processing model of memory
10. Most older adults can remember exactly when and where the heard of President Kennedy's assassination. Such so-called ____________ memories are usually very detailed and vivid. a. Latent b. Emotion-dependent c. State-dependent d. Flashbulb
d. Flashbulb
41. Keri is forty years old and has had many experiences throughout her life. Which of the following would she be likely to remember most clearly? a. Being a student in third grade b. Participating is a psychology experiment c. Her favorite dress in high school d. Her wedding
d. Her wedding
44. Karim has brain surgery to alleviate his sever epilepsy, but during his recovery it is found that he can form no new explicit memories. Which brain structure has apparently been damaged? a. Cerebellum b. Hypothalamus c. Cerebral cortex d. Hippocampus
d. Hippocampus
28. Which of the following is not one of PQ4R suggestions for the most successful strategies for remembering textbook material? a. Preview the chapter before reading it b. Review the material at the end of the chapter c. Put the ideas into your own words d. Memorize definitions as you read the chapter
d. Memorize definitions as you read the chapter
42. Your friend is ordering pizza and wants to know what toppings you want. You say "pepperoni, sausage, green peppers, olives, mushrooms, onions, tomatoes, and pineapple." Your friend doesn't write this down but then dials the pizza place and places the order. Which of the following toppings is you friend most likely to forget? a. Pepperoni b. Pineapple c. Sausage d. Mushrooms
d. Mushrooms
31. Remembering what the word summer means requires __________ memory, while remembering what you did on July4, 1996, requires _________ memory. a. Episodic; semantic b. Episodic; procedural c. Procedural; episodic d. Semantic; episodic
d. Semantic; episodic
29. Seven-year-old Ben is riding his bike to the park to meet some friends. He stops at a stop sign and signals his intention to thurn left into the park. Ben's memory of the laws of the road is an example of _________ memory, whereas his ability to ride the bike shows _________ memory. a. Episodic; semantic b. Semantic; episodic c. Episodic; procedural d. Semantic; procedural
d. Semantic; procedural
8. You give your friend instructions about what to buy for a party by quickly rattling of fifteen unrelated grocery store items. They to check whether your friend got all the information, you ask him to repeat the grocery list back to you. You should expect that your friend will recall about ________ items. a. Two b. Fifteen c. Four d. Seven
d. Seven
43. Al is on the witness stand. He is asked if he can remember the name of the person who told him to place the bet. Al replied that he thinks the last name of the person starts with a C. Al's response is an example of a. Penultimate response b. Feeling-of-knowing experience c. Spontaneous generalization d. Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
d. Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
Connectionist neural network models are said to show the property of graceful degradation. If a system has this property, this means that
damage to the system doesn't completely disrupt its operation
Peterson and Peterson studied how well participants can remember groups of three letters (like BRT, QSD) after various delays. They found that participants remembered an average of 80 percent of the groups after 3 seconds but only 10 percent after 18 seconds. They hypothesized that this decrease in performance was due to _____, but later research showed that it was actually due to _____.
decay; interference
Explicit memory is to________as implicit memory is to _________
declarative; nondeclarative
Release from PI is __________.
decline in memory with a switch in content
When investigating the serial position curve, delaying the memory test for 30 seconds
decreases the recency effect information is still in STM; if you delay the memory test it's no longer in the 15-20 second duration of STM
A fundamental distinction between deductive and inductive reasoning is that:
deduction starts with rules and induction infers rules from observations.
People often report an annoying memory failure when they walk from one end of the house to the other for something and then forgetting what they went to retrieve when they reach their destination. As soon as they return to the first room, they are reminded of what they wanted in the first place. This common experience best illustrates the principle of A. the self-reference effect. B. maintenance rehearsal. C. levels of processing theory. D. encoding specificity.
encoding specificity
People often report an annoying memory failure when they walk from one end of the house to the other for something and then forget what they went to retrieve when they reach their destination. As soon as they return to the first room, they are reminded of what they wanted in the first place. This common experience best illustrates the principle of
encoding specificity.
Every day in psychology class, Riley sits next to a student that brings a strong cup of coffee. The smell is very noticeable to Riley. When it comes time to take the test, Riley notices that the student with coffee is late. While taking the test, Riley struggles remembering a difficult term but is pleasantly surprised when the coffee student shows up with her usual cup of coffee. After smelling the coffee, the answer suddenly returns to her. Having the coffee smell present during both encoding and testing may have helped due to:
encoding specificty
What is encoding? Retrieval? Why is each necessary for successful memory?
encoding: acquiring info and transforming it into mem retrieval: getting info from LTM back into WM we must encode things well (i.e. w/ elaborative rehearsal) to be able to retrieve them accurately later and do things with them (in WM)
a memory's emotional intensity
enhanced vividness and perceptual detail of our recollections has been associated with
The first short-term memory experiments used backward counting by threes, or asimilar task, in order to:
ensure that a person is not able to rehearse during the delay.
Which type of memory specifically involves the experience of 'mental time travel'?
episodic
The component of the working-memory system that combines information from the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory, which is involved in interpreting earlier experiences, solving new problems, and planning future activities, is called the:
episodic buffer
Two types of declarative memory are _____ and _____ memory.
episodic; semantic
Learning takes place in a connectionist network through a process of _____ in which an error signal is transmitted starting from the property units.
error back propagation-
Typicality effect
ex: demo with fruit list, apple is more of a member -Typical items are judged category members more often -Speed of categorization is faster for typical items -Typical members are learned before atypical examples are provided -In language comprehension, references to typical members are understood more easily -In language production, people tend to say typical items before atypical ones (e.g., apples and lemons) rather than (lemons and apples) -Typicality also influences judgments about attractiveness
An example of a dissociation is evidenced by a brain-injured patient who
exhibits a recency effect but no primacy effect.
Priming occurs when presentation of one stimulus
facilitates the response to another stimulus that usually follows closely in time.
In modus tollens, or denying the consequent, when we observe that the consequent is false we can conclude that the antecedent is ________________.
false
True or False: cognitive psychologists only measure responses to questions that have an objectively correct answer
false
What is a confabulation?
false memories (not lies or delusions) invented to fill in the gaps in memory.
In Wason's card task, the key to testing a rule is to check cases that have the potential to _____________ the rule.
falsify
The principle illustrated when most people are able to recognize a variety of examples of chairs even though no one category member may have all of the characteristic properties of "chairs" (e.g., most chairs have four legs but not all do) is
family resemblance.
children
from which of the following groups is the validity of eyewitness testimony particularly suspect
The region of the brain that it most strongly activated when a person works on tasks that require the central executive component of working memory is the:
frontal lobe
In Slameka and Graf's (1978) study, some participants read word pairs, while other participants had to fill in the blank letters of the second word in a pair with a word related to the first word. The latter group performed better on a later memory task, illustrating the A. spacing effect. B. generation effect. C. cued recall effect. D. multiple trace hypothesis.
generation effect
In Slameka and Graf's (1978) study, some participants read word pairs, while other participants had to fill in the blank letters of the second word in a pair with a word related to the first word. The latter group performed better on a later memory task, illustrating the
generation effect.
the same; regardless of where in the list it is located
in an exhaustive serial processing search of short-term memory, people generally take ___ amount(s) of time to find a target ____
'Latent learning' refers to learning that occurs:
in the absence of reinforcement
A finding in Tolman's maze experiments was that when rats were placed in a different starting point of the maze then the one they had been trained on, they went:
in the correct direction to get the food but only if they had previously explored the maze
maintenance rehearsal
in this type of rehearsal, the individual simply repeats the information to be learned over and over again. This method is not an affective way to put information into long term memory
It is very likely that the brain has gyri and sulci because they:
increase the surface area that can fit in the skull.
Sperling's delayed partial report procedure provided evidence that
information in sensory memory fades within 1 or 2 seconds
The best summary of the conclusions of Baddely's diving experiment is that memory is best:
initially learned on land and then tested on land or initially learned on water and then tested on water
At this point, it seems that the most likely explanation for forgetting in short-term memory is __________.
interference
To say two functions are doubly dissociated indicates that those two functions:
involve different mechanisms.
Kahneman and Tversky demonstrated that people are often predictably ____________________.
irrational
Lourdes and Kim have been studying for two hours for their chemistry exam. Both girls are tired of studying. Lourdes decides to watch a two-hour movie on DVD, while Kim decides to go to bed. What would you predict about their performance on the chemistry exam? A. lourdes performs better because of reactivation B. kim performs better because of reactivation C. lourdes performs better because of encoding specificity D. kim performs better because of encoding specificity
kim performs better because of reactivation
Hebb's idea of long-term potentiation, which provides a physiological mechanism for the long-term storage of memories, includes the idea of
larger electrical impulses in the synapse.
Compared to people with smaller working memory spans, people with higher working memory spans show a(n)
larger fan effect, recognition time or error rate for a particular concept increases as more information about he concept is acquired. the number of associations correlated with the concept.
One-shot learning refers to:
learning a concept from a single example.
From the behavior of H.M., who experienced memory problems after a brain operation, we can conclude that the hippocampus is important in A. procedural memory. B. long-term memory storage. C. working memory. D. long-term memory acquisition.
long-term memory acquisition.
Why is it that most people will not take a bet unless the amount they can win is almost double what they could lose?
loss aversion
When reading a text that is accompanied by pictures, people with __________ are more likely to be led astray and distracted by irrelevant pictures.
low memory spans
Experiments that argue against a special flashbulb memory mechanism find that as time increases since the occurrence of the flashbulb event, participants
make more errors in their recollections.
A property of control processes in the modal model of memory is that they
may differ from one task to another
STM's capacity is best estimated as seven (plus or minus two)
meaningful units
A ___________________ model is the generation of visualizations of the sentences in a syllogism in which people mentally explore the sentences to see whether the model breaks down.
mental
Mental manipulation of a visual short-term memory code that reorients the imagined object in space is __________.
mental rotation
People with larger working memory spans are more likely to make __________ choices
moral
Jorge and Bob are neighbors. Jorge loves birds and his father works for the zoo. He has been to a dozen bird sanctuaries, and he and his dad go on bird watching hikes once a month. In contrast, Bob doesn't think much about birds. His only contact with them is in his backyard. It would be correct to say that Jorge's standard probably involves
more exemplars than Bob's.
parallel
one model proposes that three processes are involved in searching short-term memory. if the processes occur simultaneously (at the same time), the model uses which type of processing
The story in the text about the balloons that were used to suspend a speaker in mid air was used to illustrate the role of _____ in memory.
organization
Research reveals that people scores on working-memory tasks are correlated with:
overall intelligence and grades in school, verbal fluency and reasoning ability, reading ability.
organization of information
participants in a study using multiple trial learning and lists containing several different categories (animals, minerals) will spontaneously cluster their recall of items by these categories. even when there appears to be no apparent relation (categories), participants still cluster items during recall. These consistent patterns in teh order of recall are called what
ADHD populations exhibit differences in working memory, relative to a control group, in which components of the working memory system:
phonological loop deficit, central-executive functioning, visuospatial sketchpad deficit.
What are the two components of the phonological loop?
phonological store and articulatory loop
Which task should be easier: keeping a sentence like "John went to the store to buy some oranges" in your mind AND
pointing to the word "yes" for each word that is a noun and "no" for each word that is not a noun?
Estimates about whether certain facts about the world are true are called:
premises
On a short-term (working) memory task, release from proactive interference (PI) on the final trial occurred when:
previous trials required a person to remember words from a different semantic category.
Short-term memory is also called __________.
primary memory, that encompasses events over a period anywhere from 30 seconds to several days.
Spreading activation in the Semantic Network model
primes associated concepts spreading activation is a method for searching semantic networks
Performance on the Brown-Peterson task is generally very good on the first few trials, but then begins to rapidly decay across the continued trials. This illustrates __________.
proactive interference
before; after
proactive interference occurs when the interfering material occurs ___ rather than ___ learning of the to-be-remembered material
Suppose that you have been studying some terms related to your course in biopsychology. After you have been studying for about 15 minutes, you find that you are having more trouble learning and remembering new terms. This problem is an example of
proactive interference.
Jill's friends tell her they think she has a really good memory. She finds this interesting so she decides to purposefully test her memory. Jill receives a list of to-do tasks each day at work. Usually, she checks off each item as the day progresses, but this week, she is determined to memorize the to-do lists. On Monday, Jill is proud to find that she remembers 95 percent of the tasks without referring to the list. On Tuesday, her memory drops to 80 percent, and by Thursday, she is dismayed to see her performance has declined to 20 percent. Jill's memory is declining over the course of the week because other information she encounters is "competing" with that which she memorized on Monday. This process is called
proactive interference. refers to how information from earlier days makes it more difficult to remember info from newer days
Any statement that can be true or false and can refer to properties of the external world or experiences that allow us to draw new conclusions from available information.
propositions
Reasoning begins with ______________, which can be thought of as statements that can be true or false and can refer to properties of the external world.
propositions
What sort of secondary task in a dual-task study would most likely disrupt the central executive?
random number generation
Saccades
rapid movements of the eyes from one place to another
The behavioral measure of how long it takes a participant to produce a response to a stimulus is called (answer is 2 words):
reaction time
People often do better in a Wason-card-like task if the rule they are checking involve:
real-life examples
Before we can make a decision, we need to determine what information we can bring to bear on the situation based on the information we currently have. This is referred to as:
reasoning
The primacy effect is attributed to
recall of info stored in LTM
Experimental evidence suggesting that the standard model of consolidation needs to be revised are data that show that the hippocampus was activated during retrieval of ____ memories.
recent and remote episodic
Another was to think of chunking in short-term memory is as __________.
recoding
Another way to think of chunking in short-term memory is as __________.
recoding
This multiple choice question is an example of a ____ test.
recognition
Prosopagnosia is a deficit characterized by the inability to
recognize faces
Treatment of PTSD has benefitted from recent research on
reconsolidation.
If people are presented a series of items (such as words), their percent recalled typicallyshows a U-shaped function across serial positions. The recency effect seen insuch data is usually attributed to information that:
remains in short-term memory at the time of recall.
On a working memory span test, people are asked to _________ some items, while ___________ others.
retain; processing
Examples from your book describing real experiences of how memories, even ones from a long time ago, can be stimulated by locations, songs, and smells highlight the importance of ____ in LTM. A. long-term potentiation B. retrieval cues C. elaborative rehearsal D. mass practice
retrieval cues
The cost to memory because of more recently encountered information is called __________.
retroactive interference
Loss of memory for things that have happened in the past is known as
retrograde amnesia
flashbulb memory
reyna won an Olympic gold medal many years old. yet, she can still recall with great detail and vividness standing on the podium, medal in hand. this is an example of what type of memory
The part of the brain that it most strongly activated when a person performs visual and spatial tasks is the:
right cerebral hemisphere, especially the frontal and parietal lobes, but including the occipital lobe.
Articulatory suppression causes a decrease in the word-length effect because
saying "the, the, the" fills up the phonological loop.
What is levels of processing theory? What would levels of processing theory say about the difference btwn maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal? What experiment led to this?
says that mem depends on depth of processing (deep vs. shallow) maintenance = shallow, worse mem, little attn to meaning elaborative = deep, better mem, close attn to meaning and relation to other things Craik and Tulving: presented words and asked ?s about them (shallow=phys. feature, medium=rhyming, deep=fill in blank) and then asked to recall. higher accuracy for deeper processed items (asked to fill in blank)
A person who has been diagnosed with ________ dementia has difficulty recognizing both living things and artifacts.
semantic
According to the ___________ approach, there are certain types of concepts that have specific neural circuits in the brain.
semantic category
According to the sensory-functional hypothesis, our ability to differentiate living things and artifacts depends on a semantic memory system that distinguishes _____ and one that distinguishes _____.
sensory attributes; function
The three structural components of the modal model of memory are
sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory.
"Recall the items in their original order." This best describes which type of recall?
serial
Suppose that your professor makes a graph that shows the relationship between the order in which a topic was covered in the course and the class's accuracy on test items for that topic. This graph would be called as a
serial position curve.
Better memory for items at the beginning and end of a list is called the __________.
serial position effect
prevent subjects from rehearsal
seth participated in a memory experiment. he has been instructed to count backwards between the last presentation of a stimulus and recall of the stimulus. this procedure was probably designed to
distributed learning
shantell has a cumulative final exam in physics coming up. to ensure a good grade, she has been studying throughout the semester, at least one hour each day. shantell's studying schedule illustrates what type of learning
According to Atkinson and Shiffrin's classic theory,
short-term memory and long-term memory are distinctly different processes.
acoustically; semantically
short-term memory is usually encoded ____ and long-term memory is usually encoded_____
Observations that people may actually process and manipulate information rather than simply store it for brief periods of time challenged the conceptualization of
short-term memory.
The propaganda effect demonstrates that we evaluate familiar statements as being true
simply because we have been exposed to them before.
Describe the connection between sleep and consolidation. Be sure you understand the Gais and Wilhelm exps.
sleep consolidates memory! it eliminates enviro. stim that might interfere w/ consolidation and consolidation can be enhanced during sleep. Gais: HS students learned vocal words and either slept w/i 3 hrs or after 10 hrs. asleep grp remembered more than awake grp. Wilhelm: selective consolidation based on what we expect to be important info. part learned a task and told they would be tested on either that task or another one. then they slept and then were tested. expected grp performed better bc they knew that task would be important later.
According to Kahneman, there are two reasoning systems: a _______ system that engages in the serial, analytical processing of information and a _______system that relies on heuristics.
slow; fast
As compared to EEG, fMRI has good ------------ resolution.
spatial
Collins and Quillian explained the results of priming experiments by introducing the concept of ___________ into their network model.
spreading activation
Compare the multiple trace model to the standard model. (systems consolidation)
standard: hippo is really only used at first, when it is connecting activity in cortical areas, but once those connections are strong, the connection b/w hippo and cortex fades away. aka hippo not used for long ago mems (thats why HM could still remember long ago events) multiple trace: hippo is used for long ago mems too standard model can account for Viskontas' study by saying that 1 wk isn't enough time for mems to be stored solely in the cortex, therefore hippo would still be activated when remembering Viskontas could account for HM's LTM by saying his long ago mems were semanticized, therefore required less hippo activity (HM didn't have hippo after surgery)
You wake up in a sad mood. This persists all day, and you realize that it is very easy for you to think of several negative experiences that have happened to you in the last month, which also created a sad mood. Your ability to more easily recall those sad events while you are in sad mood exemplifies _________.
state dependent memory
Environment
static scenes with few objects
Based on the information your textbook provided about different category types, jumping from ___________ categories results in the largest gain in information.
superordinate level to basic level
A categorical _________________________ occurs when a conclusion can be derived from two or more propositional statements.
syllogism
The most basic form of deductive reasoning which involves drawing conclusions from two or more propositional statements.
syllogism
What is the idea behind the statement "Memories are stored at synapses"? What evidence supports this idea?
synaptic consolidation theory, the idea that structural changes at the synapse level due to XP are how memories are consolidated Hebb: repeated activity causes structural changes, increased release of NT and firing which strengthens the synapse. also proposed that changes that occur in the synapses that are activated around the same time by a particular XP provide a neural record of the XP. this has to do with long term potentiation (LTP), where more firing of neurons strengthens synaptic transmission bc it causes structural changes
What is synaptic consolidation? Systems consolidation? How are they related?
synaptic: XP causes change @ synapse; rapid systems: gradual reorganization of larger neural circuits in brain they occur simultaneously
Jenkins and Russell (1952) presented a list of words like "chair, apple, dish, shoe, cherry, sofa" to participants. In a test, participants recalled the words in a different order than the order in which they were originally presented. This result occurred because of the
tendency of objects in the same category to become organized.
Data from the 'Greebles' study challenge the idea that ______________.
the FFA is specialized to process faces
The author of your text makes a suggestion that students should study in a variety of places. This suggestion is based on research showing that people remember material better if they learned it in a number of different locations, compared to studying the same amount of time in one location. The suggestion solves a problem raised by A. the encoding specificity principle. B. the spacing effect. C. levels of processing. D. the distributed practice effect.
the encoding specificity principle
The connectionist network has learned the correct pattern for a concept when
the error signals are reduced to nearly none and the correct properties are assigned.
constructive memory
the process of taking new information and integrating it with stored information in long term memory is called
Collins and Quillian's semantic network model predicts that the reaction time to verify "a canary is a bird" is ___________ the reaction time to verify "an ostrich is a bird."
the same as
Jeannie loves to dance, having taken ballet for many years. She is now learning salsa dancing. Although the movements are very different from the dances she is familiar with, she has found a successful memory strategy of linking the new dance information to her previous experiences as a dancer and to her own affection for dance. This strategy suggests reliance on
the self-reference effect.
Memory enhancement due to repetition priming is a result of
the test stimulus being the same or resembling the priming stimulus.
While studying for her environmental science class, Shirley tries to make connections with the material and apply it to other contexts. Conversely, Marla is studying the same material by simply re-reading her notes. The two study techniques differ by:
their levels of processing
Why can we say that memory performance is better when you use a word in a sentence, create an image, or relate it to yourself, all techniques involving retrieval cues?
these techniques are all deeper processing/elaborative rehearsal. we actually give meaning to the words which helps us remember retrieval cues are words or other stim that help us remember info stored in LTM
elaborative rehearsal
this type of rehearsal, in which one tries to make the information more meaningful and/or connects the information to other information already learned, is a more effective method for moving information into long term memory
persistence
tony keeps mentally reliving the time that he was hit in the head with a Frisbee. this reoccurrence of this memory is an example of what
Memory performance is enhanced if the type of task at encoding matches the type of task at retrieval. This is called A. transfer-appropriate processing. B. episodic-based processing. C. elaborative rehearsal. D. personal semantic memory.
transfer-appropriate processing
Memory performance is enhanced if the type of task at encoding matches the type of task at retrieval. This is called
transfer-appropriate processing.
prospective memory
tying a string around your finger, keeping a list of things to do, and asking someone to remind you of something are all examples of strategies to improve
One of the defining characteristics of implicit memory is that
we are not conscious we are using it.
The defining characteristic of implicit memory is that
we are not conscious we are using it.
Both overt and covert attention
we can consciously attend to information but some information grabs our attention.
In a conditional syllogism, all that deduction tells you is what follows from ____________.
what
The reason for doing a dual-task study is to assess __________.
what happens when working memory resources are drained
retrieval
what refers to how you gain access to information stored in memory
massed practice
what refers to learning in which sessions are crammed together all at once
distributed practice
what refers to learning in which various sessions are spaced over time
Mishkin and Ungerleider (1982) concluded that the ventral stream is for processing ______________ while the dorsal stream is for processing ______________.
what; where
The perception pathway corresponds to the ______________ pathway, while the action pathway corresponds to the ______________ pathway.
what; where
The ventral pathway is to ______ as the dorsal pathway is to ________
what; where
Recent research on memory, based largely on fear conditioning in rats, indicates that A. fear conditioning is the most effective kind of conditioning B. memories are not susceptible to disruption once consolidation has occurred C. when a memory is reactivated, it becomes fragile, just as it was immediately after it was formed D. memory consolidation does not occur when the animal is afraid
when a memory is reactivated, it becomes fragile, just as it was immediately after it was formed
pick an individual who looks most like the perpetrator
when the perpetrator (person who committed a crime) is not present in a line-up, eyewitnesses tend to what
What is reconsolidation? What are the implications of the results of experiments that demonstrate reconsolidation?
when we retrieve memories, they become fragile again and need to be reconsolidated. this means when they go back into fragile state, they are susceptible to being changed/forgotten. Nader exp w/ rats injecting drug that prevented creation of new mems either before consolidation, after consolidation, or during reactivation. shows reconsolidation was prevented by drug. Hupbach exp w/ part learning list 1 of words then some learned list 2 and some were reminded of list 1 then learned list 2. tested on list 2. those who were reminded mixed more of list 1 into their recall bc the reminder reactivated mem for list 1 which caused it to get mixed up w/ list 2. implications: PTSD-can recall traumatic events (mem is now in fragile state) and then get drug that blocks activation of stress hormone receptors so that when they recall traumatic event later, they don't have as big of an emotional rxn
Presenting a list of words at a faster rate on a list learning task __________.
will increase the recency effect
beginning
words at the what of a list in a free-recall task are most subject to retroactive interference
According to the discussion at the beginning of the chapter on working memory (Chapter 4),
working memory allows you to keep information accessible so that you can use it on a variety of current tasks.
Christopher and MacDonald compared the working memory capacities of people with and without major depression. They found that, in general, depressed people performed
worse on tasks involving either the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, or central executive.
What is encoding specificity? Describe Baddeley and Godden's "diving" experiment and Grant's studying exp.
you recall mem better when retrieval context matches encoding context Baddeley and Godden: had part study words underwater or on land. when underwater part were tested on land, they did worse than when tested underwater (match context) and vice versa for on land part. Grant: study w/ or w/o noise and test in each condition. same result as diving experiment
The effects of proactive interference are decreased if
you shift to a different category of items to learn.
The effects of proactive interference are decreased if:
you shift to a different category of items to learn.
You've learned about the serial position curve. Much of the relevant research we discussed describes this curve using a free recall task (participants are free to recall words in any order they choose). Imagine that you conducted a "remembering a list" experiment using a serial recall task (participants must recall words in the same order they were presented). What would you predict for the results?
a diminished recency effect, relative to free recall
According to the S-F (Sensory Function) hypothesis, the brain stores living things concepts and non-living things concepts
in overlapping networks consisting of sensory and functional attributes.
When Keppel and Underwood tested Peterson and Peterson's claim that forgetting in short term memory is only due to decay they looked at the data from only 3 trials and discovered that the longer they waited to ask the subject to recall the information
the worse the subject performed but only on the second and third trials, thus showing an interference effect.
Broadbent's Filter Model
• Early-selection model • Sensory memory • Filter • Detector • Short-term memory
Attention can be based on the
• Environment • Specific object
Filter
• Identifies attended message based on physical characteristics • Only attended message is passed on to the next stage
McKay (1973)
• In attending ear, participants heard ambiguous sentences • "They were throwing stones at the bank." • In unattended ear, participants heard either "river" or "money" • In test, participants had to choose which was closest to the meaning of attended message: • They threw stones toward the side of the river yesterday. • They threw stones at the savings and loan association yesterday. • Results: -The meaning of the biasing word affected participants choice. -Participants were unaware of the presentation of the biasing words
Treisman's Attenuation Theory
• Intermediate-selection model • Attenuator • Dictionary unit
Object-Based Visual Attention
• Location-based • Object-based
Research Method: Dichotic Listening
• One message is presented to the left ear and another to the right ear • Participant "shadows" one message to ensure he is attending to that message -Knew that there was a message -Knew gender of speaker
Results of Dichotic Listening:
• Participants could not report the content of the message in unattended ear -Cocktail party effect -Change in gender is noticed -Change to a tone is noticed • However unattended ear is being processed at some level
Top-Down Determinants of Eye Movements
• Scene schema • Eye movements are determined by task
Late Selection Models
• Selection of stimuli for final processing does not occur until after information has been analyzed for meaning
Eye movements are determined by task
-Eyes movements produced motor actions by a fraction of a second
Recommendations to Avoid Groupthink- Group Leaders Should:
-Break the group into two subgroups from time to time. -Have more than one group work on the same problem if time and resources allow it. This makes sense for highly critical decisions. -Remain impartial and refrain from stating preferences at the outset of decisions. -Set a tone of encouraging critical evaluations throughout deliberations. -Create an anonymous feedback channel where all group members can contribute to if desired.
Programmed Decisions
-Decisions that occur with enough frequency that our response is almost automatic. -The automatic response we use is called the decision rule.
Strategic Decisions
-Decisions that set the course of the organization. -Typically made by top management teams, C-level executives and Board of Directors. (Top Management Teams, CEO's)
Category hierarchies -Basic level categories
-Default -Intermediate level of specificity (e.g., chair, rather than desk chair) -Easy-to-explain commonalities -Evidence that these categories are privileged: -preferred level for naming objects -objects at basic level are recognized faster -easier to state commonalities -first learned (labels and categories) by children -Cross cultural and individual differences exist, NOT UNIVERSAL
Which of the following is NOT an attribute of the prototype theory?
-Defining features
Recommendations to Avoid Groupthink- Groups Should:
-Discuss the symptoms of groupthink and how to avoid them. -Assign a rotating devil's advocate to every meeting -Invite experts or qualified colleagues who are not part of the core decision-making group to attend meetings, and get reactions from outsiders on a regular basis and share these with the group. -Encourage a culture of difference where different ideas are valued. -Debate the ethical implications of the decisions and potential solutions being considered.
Where does the attention filter occur?
-Early in processing -Later in processing
Scene schema
-top down Knowledge about what is contained in typical scenes -Help guide fixations from one area of scene to another
Keil, 1986: Preschool kids
Raccoon does not mean skunk, essence is essential for them. Toaster means tea kettle. *Only willing to accept the change if it was artificial, because it does not have the essence of the skunk (no skunk parents) *Children are willing to make suggestions about how to turn a toaster into a coffee pot but deny the possibility of turning a raccoon.
Sheri is 65 and finds that she struggles to remember information from her early 30s, but is surprised that she can still remember her high school years quite well. Sheri is experiencing the:
Reminiscence bump
Problems with semantic network: Typicality effect
Results: A robin is a bird < an ostrich is a bird -Model would've predicted: Robin and ostrich sentences are equally as fast. (Both moving 1 level up)
Problems with semantic network: Nonredundancy may not hold
Results: A shark can move = A fish can move = An animal can move -Model would've predicted: Animal can move is fastest, then fish can move, then shark is slowest
The recency effect occurs when participants are asked to recall a list of words. One way to get rid of the recency effect is to
have participants count backwards for 30 seconds after hearing the last word of the list.
Describe Morris's experiment. What aspect of encoding and retrieval was Morris studying? What implications do the results of this experiment have for matching encoding and retrieval? For levels of processing theory?
he was studying how items are encoded and retrieved (the type of task/processing). he did the experiment with the list of words and then a rhyming or meaning task, then tested everyone with a rhyming task. participants who matched (rhyming for both) did better than those who encoded w/ meaning and tested w/ rhyming. so matching = better memory this goes against levels of processing theory bc that would say processing meaning would lead to better memory, but when you encode with meaning and do not retrieve with meaning, it's harder to remember.
Students, beware! Research shows that _____ does not improve reading comprehension because it does not encourage elaborative processing of the material.
highlighting
The formation of very durable long-term memories specifically involves which brain structure?
hippocampus
What is the multiple trace model of consolidation? What evidence is there for this model?
hippocampus is still involved even when retrieving old memories Gilboa et al: part had to recall recent/long ago episodic mems and measured brain activity w/ fMRI. showed hippo activation for both. Viskontas et al: remember/know/dont know procedure for pairs of pictures-test included previously seen pics and new ones. after 10 mins, part who responded that they remembered pics were more accurate than those who said they knew them. after 1 wk, know did better than remember. (semanticization of remote mems). after 10 mins, part who said R at first and R at 1wk had slightly more hippocampus activity than those who said R then K, but much more hippo activity at 1 wk. conclusion: hippo activity decreased for RK bc less activity in hippo as mems go from episodic (R) to semantic (K) but still active for RR bc active for episodic mems. hippo isn't as active for mems that are semanticized
Cohen and Squire ran a study in which they showed that amnesiac patients could improve their speed of reading mirror-reversed words with practice, even though the same patients could not remember any word they had just read. This supports a distinction between:
implicit and explicit memory while these patients couldn't necessarily successfully store implicit memories, it appears they were capable of encoding and remembering explicit memories
Knowing how to ride a bike is an example of ___ memory, but remembering your dad teaching you to ride a bike is an example of ____ memory.
implicit, episodic
