PSYC 215

compliance

compliance: responding favourably to an explicit request by another person

confederates did specific movements frequently (for example rubbing their face), ...[Chartrand and Bargh]

confederates did specific movements frequently (for example rubbing their face), *participants mimicked those movements*[Chartrand and Bargh]

descriptive norms

descriptive norms: descriptions of what's usually done *shouldn't be placed in conflict with prescriptive norms

A chemical oxytocin, made in ___. In nonhumans, it promotes commitment (___). In humans its associated with experiences and expressions of ___ which promote commitment.

A chemical oxytocin, made in *hypothalamus*. In nonhumans, it promotes commitment (*pair bonding*). In humans its associated with experiences and expressions of *love* which promote commitment.

Independents vs. interdependents list 20 statements to describe who they are.

Americans: context-free referring to personality traits and preferences, interdependent participants referred to relationships and by context. Experimenters: Kuhn and McPartland

Emotional Amplification

An emotional reaction is more intense if the event almost didn't happen.

Phonemes

At birth, infants can make full range of possible sounds (phonemes) that exist in all languages spoken anywhere on Earth. Language acquisition = dropping all the phonemes not used in your language.

foot-in-the-door technique

foot-in-the-door technique: compliance approach that involves making an initial small request with which nearly everyone complies, followed by a larger request involving the real behaviour of interest

___ vary in the social selves they encourage, and these different conceptions shape our ___.

*Cultures* vary in the social selves they encourage, and these different conceptions shape our *emotions, motivations, and perceptions*. Hypothesized: Markus, Kitayama, and Triandis.

__ involved in processes that represent self-knowledge (particularly the ___).

*Frontal lobe* involved in processes that represent self-knowledge (particularly the *medial pre-frontal cortex*).

Milgram Experiment: Different Locations

*Milgram repeated the experiment at a storefront in Connecticut and a seedy office to see if it being at Yale mattered *obedience declined somewhat but remained high

Catholics on the way to confession finding and what it shows

*asked Catholics to donate on their way into confession and out *those solicited on the way in (before confessing, still full o' sin) gave more money than those solicited on the way out *shows that guilt increases compliance and the negative state relief hypothesis

exceptionalist thesis vs. normalist thesis and relation to Milgram experiment

*exceptionalist thesis*: only exceptional people perpetuate hate crimes *normalist thesis*: most people are capable of this as a result of obedience *most people think Milgram results are exceptionalist

Milgram Experiment: changes in experimenter and how they affected things

*experimenter left and gave orders over the telephone → lost a lot of influence *if an ordinary participant (or so they thought) gave orders, authority diminished *two experimenters, part way through they argue about whether it's right to continue *making it easier for participants to disobey was more effective than increasing their desire to disobey

free sample experiment (+ what does it show?)

*gave people free sample of stationary to put them in a positive mood *only 10% complied without the free sample *compliance rate shot up among participants who received request a few minutes after getting the gift, then declined gradually as the delay between the gift and the request increased *shows that positive mood affects life and that mood matters because it colours how we interpret events

*loose cultures* (+ who discovered?)

*loose cultures*: norms aren't as strong, members tolerate more deviance Michele Gelfand

roommate drinking study

*male students with a roommate who had a history of substantial drinking got ½ point lower grades than average *if the student had been a drinker before college, he got grades 1 point lower if his roommate had been a drinker *no effect on females *shows social influence

Milgram Experiment: Why didn't people disobey? (German soldiers parallels, why it happens)

*most participants tried to disobey but failed *parallels German soldiers asked to execute polish Jews *people tend not to act decisively when they lack a solid grasp of the events happening around them (why would they tell me to keep going this doesn't make sense??)

billboard experiment (findings? what does it show?)

*only 17% of people agreed to put a huge billboard sign on their lawn *another group were asked to put a little sticker of the sign in their window, almost all agreed *two weeks later, when they were asked to display the billboard, 76% agreed *shows foot-in-the-door technique

cookie mood experiment (and what it shows)

*some participants were first given cookies to put them in a good mood, then asked if they'd be a confederate *half told they'd be helping the participants, half told they'd be hindering them *having received a cookie increased compliance when task involved helping, but not hindering *shows that positive mood affects life because of mood maintenance: it feels good to feel good

Milgram Experiment: Step-By-Step Nature's Influences?

*step-by-step nature is part of the reason people continued (what harm will another 10 volts do??) *behaviour often creates its own momentum

national park tree theft rate study

*theft rate at national park was over 4 times lower when the sign emphasized how few people take wood samples than ones that emphasized the severity of the problem or how many people had taken samples *shows how to effectively use prescriptive norms

*tight cultures* (+who discovered?)

*tight cultures*: strong norms regarding how people should behave, don't tolerate departure from those norms Michele Gelfand

Milgram Experiment: learner couldn't be heard vs. voice feedback results and why

*when the learner couldn't be heard, 66% of people continued to maximum shock *in voice-feedback version, when they could hear the person, 62.5% continued *probably did it because they'd already agreed, been paid, because of normative social influence (desire to avoid disapproval from anyone in the study), to avoid upsetting and making a scene

Range of strength of relationship

-1 to +1 -1 = perfect negative relationship 0 = no relationship 0.2 = slight relationship 0.4 = moderately strong relationship 0.6 = very strong relationship +1 = perfect positive relationship

Used computer models to generate faces with relative combinations of the two dimensions (pos-neg and power). The ones that are trustworthy but not dominant have baby faces.

Baby-faced featured adults are assumed to possess characteristics of the very young. Experimenter: Leslie Zebrowitz

Functional MRI (fMRI)

Blood flows to active areas of the brain, takes a picture that detects this blood flow, showing which brain regions mediate various feelings and behaviours.

Physiological responses

Blush, goosebumps, etc. involved in emotions

Theory

Body of related propositions to describe some aspect of the world. Have support in the form of empirical data, make predictions that are surprising except in light of the theory. More general than hypotheses.

William James

Book: The Principles of Psychology. The self is a social entity through and through. Coined the term 'social me'.

Gave students feedback of the kind girls typically receive or the kind boys typically get to groups of both boys and girls.

Both boys and girls who got girl comments viewed failure as a reflection of ability, but boys and girls who got boy comments saw it as lack of effort. Experimenter: Carol Dweck

Emotions

Brief, specific, multidimensional responses to challenges or opportunities that are important to our goals, especially our social goals. Last seconds or minutes. Every one involves a distinct appraisal process. Involve physiological responses and activation of neurotransmitter systems in brain, as well as expressive behaviour and subjective feelings. Move us towards specific actions (action tendencies are a component of emotion). Prioritize what we should focus on. Motivate us to join groups, and help us to know or place in groups. We find this in face-to-face emotional exchanges, and rely heavily on emotional expressions to signal status. When we see people showing anger, we attribute higher status on them. Emotions are the primary drivers of moral judgment.

Schema

Generalized knowledge about the physical and social world. Lead us to have expectations so we don't have to invent the world anew all the time. Schemas can sometimes operate very subtly to influence judgements.

Negative feedback on girls' performance was all about intellectual inadequacies, whereas half of boys' was related to nonintellectual factors. Positive evaluation of girls' quality of work 80% of the time whereas for boys it was 94% of the time. Hypothesis...

Girls learn that criticism means they lack intellectual ability, whereas boys learn it means they haven't worked hard enough. Girls suspect praise unrelated to intellectual quality, boys vice versa. Hypothesis: Carol Dweck

Random Sampling

Give everyone in the population an equal chance of being chosen.

Global Cause vs. Specific Cause

Global Cause: affects many areas of life Specific Cause: affects only a few

Stanford Prison Experiment. He paid 24 undergrad men chosen for good character and mental health. Flipped a coin, half were guards, half were prisoners.

Guards turned to verbal abuse and physical humiliation, etc. Produced extreme stress reactions, experiment to be ended. Experimenter: Philip Zimbardo

Two monkeys trade tokens with experimenter. Both get cucumbers. Then, one gets grape and one gets cucumbers.

Half the monkeys refused to exchange tokens, some threw cucumbers.

Showed pictures with mismatch in emotional expressions of person at front and people in back, as well as ones with no mismatch, and had to judge individuals emotion.

Japanese more likely to take into account the emotions of others in the background.

Ideomotor Mimicry

Mirroring the changes someone makes with their body when we're having a conversation with them. Nonconscious.

Pluralistic Ignorance

Misperceptions that occurs whenever people act in ways that conflict their private beliefs because of concern for social consequences. This reinforces the erroneous group norm. Ex. prof asks are there any questions? no one raises hand cause they embarassed!!!!

Emotions Affect on Groups

Motivate us to join groups, and help us to know or place in groups. We find this in face-to-face emotional exchanges, and rely heavily on emotional expressions to signal status. When we see people showing anger, we attribute higher status on them

Müller-Lyer illusion

Müller-Lyer illusion: one line looks longer than the other because the arrows are pointing towards line instead of away

Self-Adaptors

Nervous, seemingly random behaviours we engage in when tense.

Neuroscience has revealed that later in life, the brain regions that mediate learning, notably the ____, decay ___ with increasing age.

Neuroscience has revealed that later in life, the brain regions that mediate learning, notably the *prefrontal cortex*, decay *particularly rapidly* with increasing age.

Nisbett and Cohen studied FBI reports of homicides and found that ___. They did this by studying evidence found in ___.

Nisbett and Cohen studied FBI reports of homicides and found that *homicides were more common in the US South than the North, and more common involved insult and that other kinds of homicide were less common in the South*. They did this by studying evidence found in *archives*.

Illustrators

Nonverbal behaviours we use to make our speech vivid, engaging, and easy to visualize.

Regulators

Nonverbal expressions to coordinate conversation.

Emblems

Nonverbal gestures that directly translate to words. Vary dramatically in their meaning in different cultures.

Mores

Norms

Gestalt psychology

Objects are perceived by active nonconscious interpretation of what the object represents.

Observers attribute actions to ___, actor attributes them to ___.

Observers attribute actions to *properties of actor*, actor attributes them to *situational factors*.

Participant Observation

Observing some phenomenon at close range.

Often we don't do the discounting principle. Instead, we observe behaviour, identify what it is, and automatically characterize the person as have a disposition according to the behaviour we observed. Then we consider context. But its often too late: we made the dispositional inference, and revising it is effortful and insufficient. AKA:

Often situation is secondary and slighted with establishing a causal explanation. If we're prompted to reflect and consciously ponder what we know about situational constraints, we adjust our initial dispositional inference. When we're tired, unmotivated, or distracted, we're more likely to commit the fundamental attribution error because the adjustment stage is shortened or skipped. Hypothesis by: Dan Gilbert

Polygyny

One man with several wives

Polyandry

One wife with many husbands who are brothers.

One team in white shirts, another in black. Participants counted number of passes members of white team made. Then gorilla strolls in.

Only half the participants noticed the gorilla. Because their schemas of what's likely to happen directed their attention so intently they didn't notice it. Experimenters: Simons and Chabris.

Primogeniture

Only the firstborn male can inherit land, common rule in Western Europe.

Asked people to complete a questionnaire every year and submit medical records.

Optimistic explanatory style predicted health later in life. People's attributional style has a powerful effect on their long-term outcomes. Experimenters: Seligman and Peterson

"Looking Glass Self"

Other people's reactions to use serve as a mirror. (Can be hella meta: we think people see us as clumsy so we act clumsy so then people start to see us as clumsy. This shows that it may be more complicated than the looking-glass self hypothesis). Coined by Charles H. Cooley.

Reflected Self-Appraisals (+ how true they are + brain regions involved)

Our beliefs about others' reactions to us. We derive self-knowledge from it. Don't correlate highly with the way other people evaluate us. Internalize how we think others perceive us. (Can be hella meta: we think people see us as clumsy so we act clumsy so then people start to see us as clumsy. This shows that it may be more complicated than the looking-glass self hypothesis). Require social perception and thus brain regions that support perspective-taking are engaged (like the temporal-parietal junction).

Discounting Principle

Our confidence that a particular cause is responsible for a given outcome must be reduced (discounted) if there are other plausible causes that might have produced it. Weigh what we've seen about behaviour and the context to determine what kind of person we're dealing with (decide whether to draw a dispositional inference) which leads to causal explanation.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Our expectations lead us to behave in ways that elicit the very behaviour we expect from others.

Social Intuitionist Model of Moral Judgment

Our moral judgments are the product of fast, emotional intuitions, which influence how we reason about the issue in question. Reasoning serves only to justify the conviction we arrived at emotionally.

Downward Social Comparison

Our search for similar targets for comparison is biased towards slightly inferior people to feel good about ourselves.

P's read about Castro's Communist regime in Cuba, half read pro and half read anti. Told them the essayists stance was not freely chosen. Then they rated the essayists attitude toward Castro.

P's rated attitude as less extreme than those in control where they were told they were free to choose. However, they still drew inferences and said pro-Castro essay writers were pro, etc. This is the fundamental attribution error.

P's saw someone else acting in either extraverted or intraverted way during an interview. Half lead to believe the person was interviewing for job as submariner (and favoured extraverted personalities). Half thought they were interviewing for job as astronaut (need to be intraverted). So half saw behaviour that matched and the other half saw behaviour that didn't.

P's responded as if they'd learned nothing about the person's degree of extraversion if they behaved in role. Out of role behaviour prompted more extreme judgements. Shows use of discounting and augmentation principles.

P's had to determine if working out the day before a tennis match makes you more likely to win. Another group asked to determine if working out the day before a tennis match makes you more likely to lose. Both groups could examine 4 types of info, all were needed to make the right choice.

P's were interested in examining info that could potentially confirm the proposition they were investigating. Shows confirmation bias. Experimenter: Jennifer Crocker

Watched video of conversation. Some saw version where only one shown, others saw both people equally well. Had to assign responsibility to someone for setting the tone of the conversation.

P's who could only see one person assigned more responsibility to that person. Shows perceptual salience and causal attributions.

P's thought they were doing two different experiments. Half shown words adventurous, self-confident, etc. among set of traits. Other half shown words reckless, conceited, etc. among others. Then read about ambiguous Donald and rated him on trait scales.

P's who had seen words like adventurous, self-confident, etc. rated Donald more favourably. Shows that when we see ambiguous info we rely more heavily on top-down processes to compensate for inadequacies of bottom-up info. Experimenters: Higgins, Ronald and Jones, Trope

P's read story about robbery where man was injured. In some he had gone there for a change of pace, in others it was his usual store.

P's who read he went there for a change of pace thought he should be compensated more. Shows influences of exceptions vs. routines. (it's particularly memorable!)

P's watched tape of husband and wife having dinner. Half told she's a librarian, half told she's a waitress. Later took a quiz with questions more related to waitress stuff around/done and librarian stuff around/done.

P's who thought she was a librarian recalled librarian-consistent info more accurately than librarian-inconsistent info, and same but with waitress info for the others. Shows that information that fits a preexisting schema enjoys an advantage in recall. Experimenters: Cohen

Confirmation Bias

People more readily, reliably, and vigorously seek out evidence that would support a proposition rather than information that would contradict a proposition. Ask questions that shape the answers they get.

Augmentation Principle

People should assign greater weight to a particular cause of behaviour if other causes are present that normally would produce a different outcome.

Narrated Self

People weave full-fledged stories about themselves. We are continually telling a story about ourselves as we live. We do this to integrate our goals, make a sense of conflict, and explain how we change over time. Vivid and engaging self-narratives lead people to feel happy and fulfilled as they age. Coined by Dan McAdams.

Hypothesis

Prediction about what will happen under particular circumstances.

Pair Bonding

Preference for one made over desirable alternatives.

Pilot Studies

Preliminary versions of the experiment. Can make sure the experiment has internal validity by debriefing people during the pilot study. Participants told the purpose of the experiment and what investigators are expecting to find.

Priming

Procedures that momentarily activate a particular idea or schema.

Principle of Serviceable Associated Habits

Proposed by Darwin, maintains that expressions of human emotion were useful in evolutionary past. Reason why blind people display emotion the same as sighted people.

In each society they differ in being independent/interdependent (don't fit in a box). Example of the US:

US South is more interdependent (family connections are more important). However, the South is also more tolerant of character quirks and various kinds of social deviance.

Surveys

Use interviews or written questionnaires. Random sampling is important.

Convenience Sampling

Using the most convenient group of people to you, for example people as they enter a library. *Not random*. May be *biased*.

We are most likely to remember stimuli that ___.

We are most likely to remember stimuli that *captured our attention*.

We can be more certain that a person's actions reflect what they're really like if ___.

We can be more certain that a person's actions reflect what they're really like if *the circumstances would discourage such actions*.

Distinctiveness Hypothesis

We highlight what makes us unique in a given social situation. Proposed by: McGuire and Padawer-Singer.

Temporal Frame

We think about actions and events within a certain time perspective (temporal frame)

Consistency

What an individual does in a given situation on different occasions. The more it varies (low consistency) the harder it is to make a definite attribution to the person or the situation. Covariation information.

Distinctiveness

What an individual does in different situations. The more someones reaction is confined to a certain situation (high distinctiveness), the less it says about them and more about the situation. Covariation information.

Consensus

What most people would do in a given situation. The more an individuals reaction is shared, the less it says about that person and more about the situation. Covariation information.

negative state relief hypothesis

negative state relief hypothesis: the idea that people engage in certain actions, such as agreeing to a request, to relieve their negative feelings and feel better about themselves

norm of reciprocity

norm of reciprocity: a norm dictating that people should provide benefits to those who benefit them

normative social influence

normative social influence: desire to avoid being criticized, disapproved of, or shunned people who grow up in interdependent cultures are more susceptible to both informational social influence and normative social influence (and thus conform more)

obedience

obedience: occurs when a power relationship between two people is unequal and the more powerful person issues a demand which the less powerful person submits to

some participants earlier given a soda... (results? shows what?)

participants who were earlier given a soda by the confederate bought twice as many raffle tickets as those who weren't shows norm of reciprocity

Negative evaluations are stronger than

positive evaluations.

Negative stimuli generate greater brain activity than

positive or neutral stimuli.

prescriptive norms (injunctive norms)

prescriptive norms (injunctive norms): what one is supposed to do *shouldn't be placed in conflict with descriptive norms

reactance theory (+ Holocaust example)

reactance theory: people experience an unpleasant state of arousal when they believe their free will is threatened, and often act to reduce this discomfort by reasserting their prerogatives *the moment you feel your freedom is being taken away, it becomes more precious and your desire to maintain it increases *people who helped more Jewish people during the Holocaust were those who had more practice in reaching out and providing aid

reciprocal concessions technique (door-in-the-face technique)

reciprocal concessions technique (door-in-the-face technique): compliance approach that involves asking someone for a huge favour that they'll definitely refuse and then following that request with one for a smaller favour

Milgram Experiment: remote-feedback version voice-feedback version proximity version touch-proximity version

remote-feedback version: learner not in view voice-feedback version: could hear the person proximity version: they're in the same room touch-proximity version: participant has to force the learner's hand onto the shock plate as the learner becomes more real, the participant finds it harder and harder to do it

social influence

social influence: the many ways people affect one another, including changes in behaviour and/or attitudes that result from the comments, actions, or even the mere presence of others

homophily

tendency for people to associate disproportionately with people who are like them

that's-not-all technique

that's-not-all technique: compliance approach that involves adding something to an original offer, thus creating some pressure to reciprocate

People who are often in line of danger have rules against switching places with others because of...

the influence of exceptions vs. routines (it's particularly memorable!)

relationship between gender and conformity

-all cultures sex type to some degree -women tend to conform more than men (only a bit) -difference is greatest when situation involves face-to-face contact -difference strongly influenced by specific content of issue -women conform more in stereotypically male domains, men conform more in stereotypically female domains

Michele Gelfand experiment (what did they ask, findings?)

-examined many variables in 33 nations -tight nations are more likely to have autocratic or dictatorial governments, punish dissent, have sharp controls on what can be said in the media, more laws and higher monitoring, inflict more punishment -if nation was tight in any dimension, it tended to be tight on all -asked people in each of 33 countries about appropriateness of several behaviours in each of 15 different situations/places -the tighter, the fewer behaviours allowed in various situations -asked people if their country had many social norms -the tighter, the more its citizens pointed to tight constraints -tighter nations have higher population densities, fewer natural resources, unreliable food supplies, less access to safe water, more risk of natural disasters, more territorial threats, higher prevalence of pathogens -behavioural constraints are associated with ecological constraints

-participants played rounds of a gambling type game -whether people were altruistic or not was a result of ..., and how those people acted in that round was a result of ...

-participants played rounds of a gambling type game -whether people were altruistic or not was a result of *how the other people acted in the round before*, and how those people acted in that round was a result of *how people had acted the round before that, etc.*

Examples of common correlations and their strength

0.3: % fat and degree of incipient heart illness 0.5: height and weight 0.8: SAT on first testing and a year later (complex set of factors involving genetics and social variables cause both to be similar)

Physicians asked whether they'd recommend surgery or radiation for cancer patients. Some told 100 patients had had the surgery, 90 lived through, 68 still alive, etc. The others told 100 patients had surgery, 10 died during it, 32 had died since.

82% of physicians told the first way recommended, whereas only 56% told the second way did it. Shows that information framed in negative terms elicits a stronger response; people had losing things more than failing to have them in the first place.

Facial expressions last..

1-5 seconds

Five Components of Emotion

1. Appraisal Process 2. Physiological Responses 3. Expressive Behaviour 4. Subjective Feelings 5. Action Tendencies

Emotional Intelligence (EQ)

1. The ability to accurately perceive others' emotions 2. The ability to understand one's own emotions 3. The ability to use current feelings to aid in making good decisions 4. The ability to manage one's own emotions in ways that fit the current situation.

3 examples of norm-based appeals

1. showed people tags of their average daily residential energy use and their neighbours *people who used less become more wasteful, but a sign of approval could maintain their level 2. when people got a tag that said majority of past hotel guests had chosen to reuse their towels, a higher % complied *rate of compliance increased when the card said that a majority of guests who stayed in that very room had chosen 3. students think binge drinking is much more common than it actually is *students were less at ease with drinking than they thought most students were *corrected widespread misunderstanding, students reported drinking significantly less than control group

Self-Schemas

A cognitive structure, derived from past experience, that represents a person's beliefs and feelings about the self in general and in specific situations. Organize information. People vary in content and how elaborated these are. People who view themselves as high in _ include more instances of that in behaviour, with more elaborate beliefs about what it means.

Appraisal Process

A component of emotion, patterns of construal for evaluating events and objects in the environment based on their relation to current goals. Fast, automatic. Consistent with goals = pleasant. Can also be deliberate, and can transform initial pleasant or unpleasant feelings into more specific emotions.

Interdependent (Collectivistic) Cultures

A culture where people think of themselves as a part of a collective, tied to others in their group, and placing less importance on individual freedom or personal control over their lives. Being unique doesn't make them feel good, feeling good about themselves isn't as important. Likely to expect hierarchical relations to bee the rule. Believe in paying attention to particular circumstances of each case in regards to justice.

Independent (Individualistic) Cultures

A culture where people think of themselves as distinct social entities, tied together by voluntary bonds of affection and organizational memberships but essentially separate from others and having attributes that exist in the absence of any connection to others.

Natural Experiment

A naturally occurring event having somewhat different conditions can be compared with almost the same amount of exactness as in experiments where conditions are manipulated.

Explanatory Style

A person's habitual way of explaining events, assessed along three dimensions. Internal/External, Stable/Unstable, Global/Specific. A tendency to explain events in terms of internal, stable and global = pessimistic.

Why do adolescents take greater risks?

A region of the brain that alerts people to danger is poorly developed until early adulthood We know this because neuroscientists have been tracing physical changes in the brain.

Likert Scale

A set of possible answers with anchors on each extreme. Not good for complex attitudes.

Showed facial expression photos to people from many different countries, they picked emotions term that best matched feeling the person seemed to be having.

Across all the cultures, accuracy was 70-90%. Criticism: everyone had been exposed to Western media.

"Born-to-Rebel" Hypothesis

Across species, sibling conflict is frequent, widespread and occasionally deadly (Frank Sulloway). Siblings develop different personality traits, abilities, and preferences within the same family so they can peacefully occupy different niches. Older siblings larger, more powerful, surrogate parents, more achievement-oriented, conscientious, invested in status quo. Younger siblings challenge family status quo, more agreeable, more open to novel ideas and experiences.

Informed Consent

Agreement to participate in light of their knowledge about all the relevant aspects of the procedure. Governs the acceptability of medical research.

Korean and American participants offered a pen (several were one colour, one was another colour).

Americans chose the unique colour and Koreans the common colour. This shows that America is more independent and Korea is more interdependent. Being unique wasn't important for the Koreans to feel good about themselves, and feeling good itself wasn't as important as for Westerners. Experimenters: Kim and Markus

Attitude

An evaluation of an object along a positive-negative dimension. Involve affect (or emotion) and cognitions. Associated with behaviours (approach or avoid). When attitudes are primed, we act in ways consistent with the attitude. They active areas of the motor cortex that support specific actions. Most commonly determined through self report measures. Can be measured with physiological indicators.

Natural Selection

An evolutionary process that molds animals and plants so that traits that enhance the probability of survival and reproduction are passed to subsequent generations. Darwin assumed it operates for behavioural inclinations.

Implicit Attitude Measures

An indirect measure of attitudes (no self-report). Affective Priming and Implicit Association Test (IAT) are most common

Construal

An interpretation of or inference about the stimuli or situations people confront. Construals affect our perceptions of others actions, which in turn affect our behaviour.

Anger activates ___ of brain, leading to acts that ___.

Anger activates *left frontal lobes* of brain, leading to acts that *bring about social change*.

P's write about a memory that made them feel anger or disgust or sadness. Then they briefly see a photo of a man holding either a gun or something neutral.

Anger made P's more likely to identify the neutral object as a gun, but not misidentify the gun as a neutral object. Shows that we perceive events in ways that are consistent with emotions we're feeling.

Appraisals of harm, need, and vulnerability trigger experiences of ___, and activate ___ regions of brain (the ___) as well as ___, and support ___ behaviour and ___.

Appraisals of harm, need, and vulnerability trigger experiences of *sympathy*, and activate *old* regions of brain (the *periaqueductal gray*) as well as *the vagus nerve*, and support *caregiving* behaviour and *an urge to help*.

Some theorists believe the commonalities between humans and other animals can be accounted for...

As the result of humans' superior intelligence.

Asch's paradigm (results, shows what?, what about when there's an ally? why does knowing why change things?)

Asch's paradigm: participants had to pick which of three lines was the same as a target each person says on at a time, publicly only one true person in experiment, the other 7 were confederates who responded incorrectly ¾ of participants conformed to the erroneous majority at least once participants conformed on ⅓ of the critical trials this experiment has no ambiguity like Sherif's (it's clear what the answer is) shows normative social influence the conformity dropped to 5% when the true participant had an ally presence of ally weakens both informational social influence and normative social influence this ally didn't have to give the correct answer, just a different one from the group norm -had to confront that everyone else saw things differently, had no basis of understanding why that was -knowing why lessens both informational and normative social influence -informational reduced because explanation can diminish group's impact as source of information -normative reduced because we can assume those in majority are aware why we differ from them -people respond to subjective interpretations of objective situations they face -it may be a mistake to assume that Asch's participants would conform even more outside the psychology lab

Showed P's 5, 10, or 20 second clips of inmates, had to assess if they were a psychopath.

Assessments correlated sig. with trained assessments made after extensive interviews.

P's read about women who went to lunch with boss, he ordered, it contained wine, she died. Some saw that he was choosing between that dish and something else with wine, others saw he was choosing between that dish and something without wine.

Assigned more causal weight to boss if he was choosing between that and something without wine cause they can imagine a situation where she didn't die. Shows counterfactual thoughts.

Attention is ___. ____ we bring to a situation lets us direct attention to what's most important.

Attention is *selective*. *The knowledge* we bring to a situation lets us direct attention to what's most important.

Attributions for failure that imply controllability make it ___ to persevere.

Attributions for failure that imply controllability make it *easier to persevere (can try harder!)*

Looked at postgame attributions of athletes and coaches

Attributions to ones own team were more common for victories than defeats. Attributed to external elements for defeat far more than for victories. Shows self-serving attributional bias.

Authority/Subversion Moral Domain

Authority/subversion is about finding one's place in social hierarchies, leads to embarrassment, shame, fear, pride, and awe. 1/5 domains in the moral foundations theory.

Automatic Processing

Automatic and nonconscious, based on emotional factors. One of two ways the mind processes information. Occurs before controlled processing (so emotional reactions can occur without any special thought). Give rise to implicit attitudes and beliefs that can't be readily controlled. Faster than controlled processing and can operate in parallel.

Investigators told instructors that people benefit from positive feedback. Instructors said no because when they get praised they perform worse the next time, when they do badly and get shouted at, they do better the next time.

BUT: the instructor could say nothing and get the same results because of regression to the mean. Experimenters: Kahneman and Tversky

Why should research on human behaviour not depend on verbal reports?

Because of nonconscious processing.

Just World Hypothesis

Belief that people get what they deserve in life. So we can reassure ourselves that bad things won't happen to us.

Self-Negating Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Believe nothing bad can happen to you, drive more recklessly, u dead

Another name for Normal Distribution

Bell curve.

Burger: bakesale experiment, shows what?

Burger: *some people at bakesale told one cupcake and 2 medium-sized cookies cost $0.75 *others told each cupcake was $0.75 and then told that that included 2 medium-sized cookies *73% of that's-not-all purchased compared with 40% of all-at-once people *shows that's-not-all technique

Burger current replication of Milgram experiment

Burger: replicated Milgram's experiment now *found critical moment in Milgram's experiment (if people agreed to administer 150 volts, they would most likely go all the way) *70% willing to go to the next level of shock *men and women were equal *whether they went on or not was unrelated to how they scored on personality scales *measuring empathy or their desire to control events in their lives *people obey the same way today than they did at the time of Milgram's experiment

COME BACK TO CHAPTER 3

COME BACK TO CHAPTER 3

COME BACK TO CHAPTER 4

COME BACK TO CHAPTER 4

COME BACK TO CHAPTER 5

COME BACK TO CHAPTER 5

COME BACK TO CHAPTER 6

COME BACK TO CHAPTER 6

Dispositional Attribution

Called for when consensus and distinctiveness are low but consistency is high.

Canadian and Asian students tell stories about times they were centre of attention.

Canadians told it looking outward from their own perspective, looking at the world. Asians told it like an observer would, from social world looking back at themselves. Experimenters: Cohen and Gunz.

Care/Harm Moral Domain

Care/harm centres on suffering of others, is triggered by signs of weakness and pain , and elicits sympathy. 1/5 domains in the moral foundations theory.

Mentioning words that call to mind elderly people...

Cause college students to walk down a hall more slowly. Showed that behaviour can be nonconsciously influenced by social categories. Experimenters: Bargh, Chen, and Burrows.

Amygdala

Central to initial, core component of our attitudes. Receives sensory info from thalamus, provides information about the positive or negative valence (value). This evaluation occurs before the mind has categorized the object in question.

Christian Crandall's sorority findings (what did he find, how did these differ from sorority to sorority)

Christian Crandall: sorority women, the more bulimic a woman's friends were, the more bulimic she was likely to be when the women had only known each other for a short time, there was no association women in established friendship groups had similar levels of bulimia in one sorority, women who differed in level of bulimic activity from average were less likely to be popular there's an appropriate/normative level of bulimia, deviations in either direction lead to rejection in another, more binge eating was associated with more popularity

Cialdini: asked students if they'd counsel juvenile delinquents for 2 years ... (what was study, findings, shows what?)

Cialdini: *asked students if they'd counsel juvenile delinquents for 2 years (all refused), then asked about chaperoning the trip to the zoo (50% agreed, triple the other group who weren't ask to counsel) *this technique doesn't work when the two requests are made by different individuals *shows door-in-the-face technique

Different components of attitude don't always align. Different components that make this so?

Cognitive component (what I think of Justin Trudeau) and affective component (how I feel about Justin Trudeau) don't align so attitude doesn't predict behaviour.

Reliability

Degree to which a measure gives the same result on repeated occasions, or the degree to which two measuring instruments yield the same results. Measured by correlations between 0 and 1. Ability tests (like IQ) = 0.8 or higher, whereas personality tests have 0.8 or slightly lower. People's degree of agreement of kindness or charisma of someone else is at least 0.5.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

Committee that examines research proposals and makes judgments about their ethical appropriateness. Includes at least 1 scientist, 1 nonscientist, and 1 person not affiliated with the institution. Research is okay even if it makes people uncomfortable or embarrassed, or leads to physical pain as long as the research is likely enough to yield significantly valuable scientific information. Milgram studies conducted before IRBs existed. Informed consent governs the acceptability of medical research.

Control Condition

Comparable to the experimental condition in every way except it lacks the one ingredient hypothesized to produce the expected effect.

Motivated Confirmation Bias

Confirmation bias when people deliberately search for evidence that supports their preferences or expectations.

Controlled Processing

Conscious and systematic, controlled by careful thought. Comes after automatic processing. Give rise to explicit attitudes and beliefs of which we are aware, though they may become implicit/nonconscious over time. These processes are slow and run serially (one step at a time).

Counterfactual Thoughts

Considerations of what might have, could, have, or should have happened if only a few minor things had been done differently.

Causal Attribution

Construal process people use to explain both their own and others' behaviour.

Quiz-game competition. Half assigned questioner, half as contestant. Questioner thought of challenging general knowledge questions, obvi the contestants didn't know the random things the questioners pulled out of the top of their heads. Then rated each others abilities. Observers later watched and also rated.

Contestants came away impressed by questioners abilities, and when quiz game reenacted for observers, they rated the questioners' knowledge more highly. Shows fundamental attribution error and the perceptions of advantaged v. disadvantaged.

Measurement Validity

Correlation between some measure and some outcome the measure is supposed to predict. Validity coefficients (this measure of correlation) don't exceed 0.5. Personality tests correlated with behaviour about 0.3.

Watched 10 sec clips of people sitting in chair

Could tell if they were gay or not at beyond chance levels

People look at people on speed dates during a 10 second clip

Could tell if they were interested in seeing each other again.

Cultural differences extend to the level of ___ and to ___.

Cultural differences extend to the level of *fundamental forms of self-conception and social existence* and to *perceptual and cognitive processes people use to develop new thoughts and beliefs*.

Display Rules

Culturally specific rules that govern how, when, and to whom people can express emotion. Can deintensify, intensify, mask, or neutralize.

Customers had to evaluate the quality of four nightgowns in a row.

Customers were more likely to rate the last nightgown they examined as the best. But when asked if the order had caused this rating, they were like UH NO!! This experiment showed that much of our cognitive activity is hidden from us (nonconscious [automatic] processing). Experimenters: Nisbett and Wilson

Ideological Agenda

Desire to foster certain beliefs or behaviours

Correlational Research

Determine whether a relationship exists between two or more variables. Doesn't equal causation and thus usually requires further exploration. Third variable problem. Self-selection problem. Investigators can only look at the degree of relationship between the variables. Can be best option when an experimental study would be too hard, unethical, or when researchers can't randomly assign people to levels of certain variables (gender, socioeconomic status, intelligence, etc) or when one condition has serious long-term risks

Videotaped posed expressions of Fore as they imagined being person in stories. Showed clips to American uni students who picked term that best matched Fore's pose.

Did it with above-chance accuracy, except fear.

Interventions

Efforts to chance certain behaviours. Basic science can give rise to theories that lead to interventions

Embarrassment resembles __ displays in other animals, resulting in ___ conflict and triggering ___. In humans, when they see someone who shows embarrassment, they ___ the stranger more and think they have a more ___ character.

Embarrassment resembles *appeasement* displays in other animals, resulting in *ending* the conflict and triggering *affiliation*. In humans, when they see someone who shows embarrassment, they *trust* the stranger more and think they have a more *upstanding* character.

Why were silver medalists less happy than bronze medalists?

Emotional amplification! Bronze medalists almost won nothing; silver medalists almost won the gold.

Affective Displays

Emotional expressions

Focal Emotions

Emotions that are relatively common in the everyday lives of the members of a culture, and are expressed with greater frequency and intensity. Anger is more focal in honour-based culture. Self-conscious emotions are more focal in the Chinese, shame and embarrassment more focal in interdependent countries.

Affect Valuation Theory

Emotions that promote important cultural ideals are valued and will play a more prominent role in the social lives of individuals. East-West differences in value placed on emotions mirror emotional distinctions between old and young.

Experimental Research

Enables investigators to make strong inferences about how different situations or conditions affect people's behaviour. One step further than correlational research.

Eskimos never observed to express ___. Tribe in Africa could identify ___ from static photos.

Eskimos never observed to express *anger*. Tribe in Africa could identify *pride* from static photos.

Many human behaviours and institutions are universal. This is consistent with...

Evolutionary theory. Facial expressions, dominance and submission, food sharing, group living, greater aggressiveness of males, preference for own kin, and wariness of snakes are all things we share with other animals. We are a certain kind of creature, different from any other, with adaptations so effective they're wired into our biology.

P's interview someone to determine if they're an extravert. In other group to determine if they're introverted. Selected interview questions from list provided. *** Then investigators played responses to uninformed people without questions.

Extravert task people asked questions about sociability, introvert task people asked questions related to social withdrawal. *** Uninformed P's rated those who'd been interviewed by an extravert task person as more outgoing than the others.

Examined values and beliefs and the differences between individualist and collectivist cultures.

Geert Hofstede.

Fundamental Attribution Error

Failure to recognize the importance of situational influences on behaviour, and the tendency to overemphasize the important or dispositions. Coined by Lee Ross. Comes into play with Milgram experiment, which probably says more about the situation than the people, though people still think they would never do such a thing.

Fairness/Cheating Moral Domain

Fairness/cheating focuses on concerns that others act in a just fashion, is triggered by unfair acts, and elicits anger. 1/5 domains in the moral foundations theory.

Felt vs. False Smiles

Felt smiles accompany real happiness, false smiles hide negative emotions, aren't genuine. Coined by Paul Ekman.

Social Neuroscience

Field focusing on the neural underpinnings of social behaviour.

Encoding

Filing away of information in memory. Schemas affect this by affecting what people pay attention to and how they initially interpret and store that info.

Top-Down Processes

Filtering and interpreting bottom-up stimuli in light of preexisting knowledge and expectations. The meaning of stimuli is actively construed. Perceiving the world requires simultaneous operation of both bottom-up and top-down.

Roger Barker and Herbert Wright studied how US Midwestern kids interacted with surroundings. What did it reveal?

Followed kids around. Revealed how young people interact with environments, opportunities and constraints that came with those environments, and the factors that molded their characters.

Chinese and Western Europeans rated applicability of traits to themselves, their mums, and an unrelated person.

For both, considering the traits to themselves activated medial pre-frontal cortex. But for Chinese, when they characterized their mums it also activated this area. For Westerners, slight deactivation of the area when they thought about their mums. Suggests that for interdependents, the same region of the brain represents yourself and mum. Experimenter: Zhu

Presented Fore tribe in Papua New Guinea with photos of three different expressions, and a story that matched one.

Fore adults got accuracy ranging from 68-92% and kids were accurate 81-98%

Asked P's questions about initiating conversation with people of other ethnic groups

Found that people attributed their own failure to initiate contact to fear of rejection, but assumed other person didn't initiate because of lack of interest in establishing friendships across ethnic lines. Experimenters: Shelton and Richeson.

Kurt Lewin

Founder of modern social psychology, believes that the behaviour of people is a function of the field of forces in which they find themselves. These forces are psychological as well as physical. People's attributes interact with the situation to produce the resulting behaviour. The main situational influences on our behaviour are other people.

Pure framing effect

Frame of reference is changed but the content is the same.

Modern Western culture gender roles

Gender-egalitarian, especially northwestern European countries.

Emotion Accents

Highly stylized, culturally specific ways of expressing particular emotions.

Moods last..

Hours or days

Retrieval

How information is extracted from memory.

Response Latency

How long it takes for someone to respond to an attitude question

Affect

How much someone likes or dislikes an object

Salience

How much something stands out perceptually.

What determines how much a cause springs to mind?

How salient it is. Features of the environment that more readily capture our attention are more likely to be seen as potential causes of an observed effect. This is why people capture our attention.

Covariation Principle

Idea that behaviour should be attributed to potential causes that occur along with observed behaviour. Consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency most significant.

Working Self-Concept

Idea that only a subset of a person's vast pool of self-knowledge is brought to mind in any given context, usually the subset that's most relevant or appropriate in the current situation. Coined by Markus and Wurf.

Debriefing

In *pilot studies*: may involve directly asking participants whether they understand the instructions or whether they find the setup to be reasonable. In *regular studies*: educate participants, let them know what's being studied, how the research addresses those questions, why the results may have social value, etc.

Self-Selection

In correlational research, a problem that arises when the participant selects his or her level on each variable, bringing with this value unknown other properties that make causal interpretation of a relationship difficult. For example, in a study of married couples, the investigator didn't assign people to be married or not, they either were or they weren't. And the investigators didn't know what other qualities each participant brought along with their marital status: happy or sad disposition, good or bad health, etc.

Third Variable

In correlational research, a variable that exerts a causal influence on both variable 1 and variable 2 (it's not that variable 1 causes variable 2, it's that there's a third variable that operates on both).

In more salient situations, we focus on the ___ when making causal attributions, and Gilbert's attributional sequence is ___.

In more salient situations, we focus on the *context* when making causal attributions, and Gilbert's attributional sequence is *reversed*.

Autism

Inability to adequately communicate with others and interact with them. Seem not to have a theory of mind (most people with genetic defects or trauma at a v young age don't). Can have normal or superior intellectual functioning by less comprehension of peoples beliefs and desires.

Biased Sample (+ Examples)

Includes too many of some kinds of people and too few of others. Happens with convenience sampling. People who take time to respond to polls are likely to be different from those who don't respond and don't represent the population. Example: Survey by Literary Digest, biased because it was from telephone directories and car registrations, and wealthy people were more likely to own phones and cars, as well as to be Republicans. Rasmussen Poll inaccurate because it called only landlines.

P's looked at two expressions of embarrassment. In one, both US and Indian people could tell it was embarrassment. In other, person was biting tongue, an emotion accent in India.

Indian students could tell it was embarrassment but US students couldn't.

External Validity

Indication of how well the results of a study generalize to contexts besides those of the study itself. If it can't be generalized, there is poor external validity. (If its about watching TV, what they watch should be similar to real TV). Poor validity does not always mean bad experiment (ex. Milgram), for example if the purpose is to clarify a general idea or theory.

Dispositional Inference

Inference about someone's disposition

Primacy Effect

Information first exerts the most influence. Most often occur when information is ambiguous so what is first influences how info that comes after is interpreted.

Information is organized in ___. They affect judgment by ___, ___, and ___. They affect ___ by affecting what people pay attention to and how they initially ___ and ___ that info.

Information is organized in *schemas*. Schemas affect judgment by *directing our attention*, *structuring our memories*, and *influencing our interpretations*. Schemas affect *encoding* by affecting what people pay attention to and how they initially *interpret* and *store* that info.

Recency Effect

Information presented last have the most impact. Come into effect when the last items come more readily to mind.

Internal Cause vs. External Cause

Internal Cause: implicates the self External Cause: doesn't

Dispositions

Internal factors, aka beliefs, values, personality traits and abilities. Have much less influence than most people think (this is fundamental attribution error)

Students commit mock crime, others visit the scene. Then questioned by student interrogators who were lead to believe they were likely to be guilty or innocent.

Interrogators who thought suspect was guilty asked more incriminating questions, conducted more aggressive interrogations, which lead suspect to act more defensively, made them look guilty to group of uninformed observers who listened to tapes with only suspects' replies. Shows self-fulfilling prophecy. Experimenters: Kassin, Goldstein, Savitsky

Duchenne Smile (+ what is it + what kind of smile + where in brain activated)

Involves action of orbicularis oculi, a felt smile. Last 1-5 seconds, lip corners turn up equally on both sides. Associated with activity in left anterior part of brain, consistent with studies showing that positive emotions are more strongly associated with left side of brain. Coined by Paul Ekman.

Gave Who Am I test to American uni students and four groups of students from Kenya (uni students, workers in capital, traditional herding peoples from two tribes), which used to be a colony of Great Britain.

Kenyan uni students only differed slightly from American uni students. Workers were between tribespeople and uni students. Suggests that modernization doesn't produce substantial differences in self-conceptions. It's Western orientation that does that. Experimenters: Ma and Schoeneman

Language Developmental Stages

Kids learn language at developmental stages that are nearly identical between cultures. At birth, infants can make full range of possible sounds (phonemes) that exist in all languages spoken anywhere on Earth. Language acquisition = dropping all the phonemes not used in your language. Twins can develop their own unique language that follows grammar rules, people can learn to speak their native language perfectly even with deaf parents.

How to measure EQ?

Label emotional expressions with appropriate emotion words. Scores high = high EQ individuals, who have strong relationships.

What are two things that allow humans to live in groups?

Language and infants' prewired brains for language.

Spin Framing

Less pure form of framing, varies the content of what's presented. Ex. companies will frame an issue as one of _ if that's where their competitive edge is.

Business owners in Northern and Southern US got letter from job applicant, saying he killed a man. Investigators measures the degree to which potential employers responded to the applicant's inquiry for a job. Had a control condition where the letter was about a theft.

Letters from Southern employers were warmer and more sympathetic, Northerners were not. No difference in reactions of Southerners and Northerners to the theft letter. Field experiment. External validity higher as field experiment than it would've been in lab because they thought it was a real person and they were real employers. Experimenters: Cohen and Nisbett.

Life challenges resulted in ____, which are tools that can be applied ____ or ____, and are ____ by culture.

Life challenges resulted in *evolution of prewired inclinations toward certain behaviours and ways of thinking*, which are tools that can be applied *flexibly* or *not at all*, and are *highly modifiable* by culture.

Life in different ___ subcultures in the US promotes ___. Living in higher class environments (with better education, security, resources, etc.) affords people the opportunity to reflect ___. This gives them an advantage. People in lower classes develop selves that are ___, ___, and their ___, promoting a more ___ type of self-construal. Hypothesized by: Markus

Life in different *social-class* subcultures in the US promotes *the elaboration of distinct self-construals*. Living in higher class environments (with better education, security, resources, etc.) affords people the opportunity to reflect *independence*. This gives them an advantage. People in lower classes develop selves that are *more sensitive to the social context*, *constraints in environment*, and their *dependence on others*, promoting a more *socially responsive, interdependent* type of self-construal. Hypothesized by: Markus

Who Am I test

List 20 statements to describe who you are.

Commitment Problem

Long-term relationships require that we sacrifice for others and trust that others will do the same.

Loyalty/Betrayal Moral Domain

Loyalty/betrayal pertains to the commitments we make to groups, leads to group pride or rage. 1/5 domains in the moral foundations theory.

Anthony Greenwald

Majority of white people take longer to associate black faces with pleasant stimuli than to classify white faces with pleasant stimuli, even for participants who showed no overt prejudice.

Preliterate Peoples

Male role = hunt, female role = gather, by these societies are relatively egalitarian. Their social structures are characterized by weak hierarchies (leaders have little power).

Middle managers from many countries. Presented them with dilemmas in which individualistic values were pitted against collectivistic values.

Managers from East Asia, South Asia, and Latin America held collectivistic values, managers from British and former British colonies valued individualism, managers from continental European nations valued a mix (northwestern Europe = more individualistic than southern European nations). Experimenters: Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars.

Participants all saw random procedure where some where chosen to be managers and others as clerks. Then had to go about office life for two hours. At the end of the period managers and clerks rated themselves and each other on role-related traits.

Managers rated fellow managers more highly than they rated clerks. For all but hardworkingness, clerks rated their managers more highly than fellow clerks. Shows fundamental attribution error and the perceptions of advantaged v. disadvantaged.

Statistical Significance

Measure of the probability a given result could've occurred by chance. Usually 0.05. Due to the size of the difference between groups or size of relationship between variables, and number of cases the finding is based on. The larger the difference/relationship and the larger the number of cases, the greater the statistical significance.

Dependent Variable (+ how it can be measured)

Measured, hypothesized to be affected by manipulation of the IV. Can be measured by verbal reports, behaviour, physiological measures, neural measures, etc.

Areas with Cultures of Honour

Mediterranean countries incl. Greece (as evidenced in mythology) and the US South (because they were originally herding peoples from the edges of Great Britain).

Sixth-graders describe themselves in 12 statements.

Mentioned things that made them unique/distinct. Evidence for Distinctiveness Hypothesis. Experimenters: McGuire and Padawer-Singer

Shirley Brice Heath used *participant observation* to study preparation for schooling by middle-class and working-class families in North Carolina.

Middle-class families read to their kids, included them in dinner-table conversations, used printed word to guide their behaviour, taught them how to categorize objects, how to answer 'why' questions, and how to evaluate/make judgements about things. Ao though working-class families' kids were reasonably prepared for early grades of school, their lack of prep showed up in later grades when they had to do more complex tasks involving categorization and evaluation.

Asked people how they'd feel if friend bought a car just like the one they had.

Middle-class people: disappointed (also liked an object they chose better than one they were given). Working-class people: happy to share similarity (also liked an object they were given better than one they chose). Experimenter: Stephens

P's perform sentence completion task. Given 30 sets of 5 words each, had to make grammatical English sentence using 4 of the words. For half the people, in those words were words stereotypically associated with old people.

P's with old people words took 13% longer to walk to the elevator. This shows that certain behaviour are elicited automatically when exposed to stimuli that bring to mind a certain schema. Experimenters: Bargh, Chen, and Burrows

Random Assignment

Participants are as likely to be assigned to one condition as another. Leads to no differences across experimental groups and thus rules out the possibility of self-selection biases. Can flip a coin or consult a random number table.

Words on a computer screen for 1/10 of a second, then a masking stimulus (line of Xs) where the word had been. Some participants saw hostile words, some saw neutral words. Then participants read about Donald whose behaviour was ambiguous about whether it was hostile or not.

Participants exposed to hostility-related words rated Donald as being more hostile. However, participants weren't able to distinguish words they'd seen from those they hadn't seen, and didn't know that words had been flashed at all! This demonstrates that much of our cognitive activity is hidden from us (nonconscious [automatic] processing). Experimenters: John Bargh and Paula Pietromonaco

Two groups ranked professions in terms of prestige (one was politician). In one group, before they gave ratings, they were told that fellow students had ranked politicians near the top in prestige, the other group was told that fellow students had ranked politicians near the bottom in prestige.

Participants in the first group took the label politician to refer to statesmen like Thomas Jefferson and FDR. People in the second group were rating corrupt political hacks. It was the different schemas activated by their peers rating that defined what they were supposed to be judging. This experiment shows that schemas can sometimes operate very subtly to influence judgements. Experimenter: Solomon Asch

Participants rate how accurate they think people are at assessing how much they themselves perform 25 different behaviours, and how accurate they think people are at predicting how often other people they know well do these behaviours. In a subsequent study, they recruited informants (people who knew the original people well) to report on the participants enactments of behaviours. Then they had participants wear device for four days that could record the frequency of the behaviours.

Participants rated accuracy of self-predictions greater than those about behaviour of others. Reports of close others were as accurate as their own in anticipating behaviour. Experimenters: Vazire and Mehl

Whites read words reminiscent of African-Americans and then read a description of someone who's race wasn't specified.

Participants were more likely to report that the individual was hostile than people who hadn't read such words. This experiment shows how automatic and controlled processing can result in different attitudes in the same person towards members of outgroups. People with low expressed prejudice may reveal feelings towards people in the outgroup that are almost as prejudiced as people who admit to disliking the group. Experimenter: Patricia Devine

Social Me

Parts of self knowledge that are derived from social relationships. Coined by William James

People are ___ by consensus info. Focus more on ___.

People are *sometimes only modestly* influenced by consensus info. Focus more on *info about the person*.

Self-Serving Attributional Bias

People attribute their own failure and other bad events to external circumstances, but attribute their successes and other good events to themselves. Success is due to our efforts, so we warrant taking some of the credit. Failure is despite our efforts and therefore requires looking elsewhere for its cause.

People can be trained to adopt more productive attributional tendencies, has ___ effects.

People can be trained to adopt more productive attributional tendencies, has *beneficial* effects.

Socialization and interdependent vs. independent cultures (and 1 influence).

People can have an independent orientation in some situations and an interdependent orientation in others. Gender can be an influence that makes people more independent or more interdependent.

People can possess ___ of self-insight. This is because ___.

People can possess *a startling lack* of self-insight. This is because *we don't have access to certain mental processes*.

Induced positive emotion in P's with trivial events (got candy). When given one word, asked to make a related word. *** Also had to categorize objects.

People feeling positive emotions came up with novel associations than neutral people. They also categorized objects in more inclusive ways. Shows how emotions influence reasoning.

People from ___ cultures more likely to suppress positive emotional expression and temper positive emotions with negative ones.

People from *interdependent* cultures more likely to suppress positive emotional expression and temper positive emotions with negative ones.

People who believe intelligence is about hard work ___ and ___. Designed an intervention in junior highs. Told some of them that intelligence was under their control and gave them info.

People who believe intelligence is about hard work *study harder* and *get better grades*. These students worked harder and got better grades than those who didn't get this info. Experimenter: Carol Dweck, replicated by Joshua Aronson

Proponents and opponents of capital punishment read about studies of its effectiveness as a deterrent to crime. Some P's shown state-by-state comparisons that made death penalty look effective and before-and-after comparisons that made it look ineffective, and some shown the reverse.

People who favoured death penalty interpreted evidence as strongly supporting their position, those opposed also interpreted evidence as strongly supporting their position. Both jumped on problems with studies that contradicted their opinions, but embraced ones that supported them. Shows motivated confirmation bias.

P's see faces and rate them. Some had as much time as they wanted, some could only see the face for 1000 ms, some for 500 ms, and some for 100 ms.

People who only saw it for a teeny bit had judgments that corresponded really well with the ones who had infinite time. Suggests that what we conclude about people based on faces is determined almost instantaneously. Experimenters: Willis and Todorov

After 9/11 people had to write about how the attacks made them angry or scared.

People who wrote about being scared judged future attacks more likely and they they themselves were more likely to be victimized by random other threats. Shows that we perceive events in ways that are consistent with emotions we're feeling.

Participants imagine 6 good events that might happen to and 6 bad events and a cause for each. Combined three dimensions to make an overall explanatory style index, which is correlated with an outcome variable of interest. A tendency to explain events in terms of internal, stable and global = pessimistic.

Pessimistic explanatory style is related to undesirable life outcomes. People's attributional style has a powerful effect on their long-term outcomes. Experimenters: Seligman and Peterson

Farmers in Nepal and Tibet

Polyandrous, serves economic goal of keeping scarce agricultural land in one family and makes one set of related heirs per generation.

___ are the most common among world's cultures.

Polygyny and serial monogamy (the US' lifetime monogamy is rare. This is consistered prudish by Western Europeans who have common extramarital affairs).

Positive correlation between time spent watching TV and ___, mostly among those ___.

Positive correlation between time spent watching TV and *fear of victimization*, mostly among those *living in high-crime areas*.

Broaden-and-Build Hypothesis

Positive emotions broaden our thoughts and actions to help us develop emotional and intellectual resources which build our social resources (friends :] )

Providing a schema after P's have encountered relevant information ___, but sometimes schemas provided after the info's been encountered to have an effect. So, though schemas influence memory through their effect on both ___, encoding is much ____.

Providing a schema after P's have encountered relevant information *doesn't affect memory as much*, but sometimes schemas provided after the info's been encountered to have an effect. So, though schemas influence memory through their effect on both *encoding and retrieval*, *encoding* is much stronger.

Purity/Degradation Moral Domain

Purity/degradation centres on avoiding dangerous diseases and contaminants and socially impure ideas or actions, leads to disgust. 1/5 domains in the moral foundations theory.

Situational Attribution

Putting three types (consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency) of covariation information together. Called for when consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency are high.

Subjective Feelings

Qualities that define what the experience of a certain emotion is like.

Questioner reads series of questions over an intercom to responder, who answers with one of two scripted responses (their responses are not their own). The questioners indicate to the responder which of the two they want them to make. Then questioners rated responder on personality traits

Questioners drew inferences about responders even though they themselves directed the responders to answer the way they did. This occurred even though and if the responders tried to distance themselves from the responses. Shows fundamental attribution bias.

Reality is ___, a product of ___.

Reality is *subjective*, a product of *our construal of the social world*.

Mentalizing Network

Regions involved in reading other people's mental states. This region is less active when powerful people attempt to interpret emotions.

Replication

Reproducing of research results by the original investigator or by someone else.

Internal Validity

Requires only the manipulated variable and no external influence could've produced the results. Use random assignment. Setup must seem realistic, participants must understand instructions.

Deception Research

Research in which the participants are misled about the purpose of the research or the meaning of something done to them. Not possible for informed consent in these studies. When asked about what they went through, participants usually understand the reasons and often say they learned more, liked it more than subjects who weren't deceived or made uncomfortable.

Social psychologists often observe social situations in a ___ way by ___ and ____. Then, they usually ___ because observations are ___.

Social psychologists often observe social situations in a *semiformal* way by *taking notes* and *interviewing participants*. Then, they usually *design additional formal studies* because observations are *often misleading*.

Social Psychology

The scientific study of the feelings, thoughts, and behaviours of individuals in social situations.

Sanchez- Burks, Bartel, and Blount: when interviewer mirrored a Hispanic participant, the participant reported --- and was rated --- by observers

Sanchez- Burks, Bartel, and Blount: when interviewer mirrored a Hispanic participant, the participant reported *less anxiety* and was rated *more highly* by observers made no difference for Anglo-American participants example of mimicry

Stereotypes

Schemas we have for people of various kinds. Personal features trigger stereotypes people use to form judgments about others, even when they're unaware it's happened.

Got people who labeled themselves as v dependent or v independent (schematic). Also got people who rated themselves moderately on this dimension, wasn't important to self-definition (aschematic). Everyone rated how well traits described them. (+ what this says about self-schemas)

Schematic people rated schema-relevant traits more quickly than others. This suggests that a person who has a self-schema in a certain domain processes info in that domain more quickly because they're very attuned to that info, retrieves evidence consistent with the self-schema more rapidly, and readily rejects information that contradicts it. They also generate behaviours consistent with schema-relevant traits which suggests that past actions and experiences supporting the self-schema are abundant in memory and come readily to mind. Theorized by: Hazel Markus

Applied Science

Science or research concerned with solving important real-world problems. Can produce results that feed back into basic science (ex. research on how to make effective propaganda [applied science] lead to research on attitude change [basic science], which gave rise to theories [basic science], and generated new techniques of changing attitudes in real world contexts [applied science]).

Basic Science

Science or research concerned with trying to understand some phenomenon in its own right, with a view toward using that understanding to build valid theories about the nature of some aspect of the world. Can lead to interventions.

Independent Variable

Scientist manipulates, presumed to be the cause of some particular outcome (the DV)

Independent Self-Construal

Self is an autonomous entity thats distinct and separate from others.

Interdependent Self-Construal

Self is fundamentally connected to other people. Recognition of shifting demands of situations on behaviour. Outwards focus on social situation.

Serge Moscovici colour experiment (what happened, what does this show?)

Serge Moscovici: -participants in group setting had to call out whether a colour was green or blue -when tested alone, they nearly always thought blue -experimenter showed participants these stimuli in presence of minority of people (confederates) who responded green -when minority varied responses randomly between green and blue, participants said green only 1% of time (same as when they were alone) -when minority consistently said green, participants said green 8% of the time -when participants thought study was over, experimenter introduced them to second investigator also doing colour vision -they showed participants series of blue-green colours and recorded where each participant individually thought blue left off and green began -those exposed to consistent minority identified more of stimuli as green (sense of border shifted) -consistent minority opinion had latent effect on subsequent, private judgments shows that: *minorities have their effect primarily through informational social influence *people in the majority wonder why minority keeps stating its divergent opinion, consider stimulus more carefully, produce genuine change in attitudes and beliefs *minorities typically influence fewer people, but nature of influence is deeper and results in true private acceptance

Sexual mores that characterize different cultures may be ___ or may be because of ____.

Sexual mores that characterize different cultures may be arbitrary or may be because of economic or practical roots. An example of this is the farmers in Nepal and Tibet.

Principle of Diversification

Siblings develop different personality traits, abilities, and preferences within the same family so they can peacefully occupy different niches.

Channel Factors

Situational circumstances that appear unimportant on the surface but have great consequences for behaviour- facilitating it, blocking it, or guiding it in a certain direction. Coined by Kurt Lewin.

Slight variations in presentation of info: ___ and ___, has profound effects on people's judgements.

Slight variations in presentation of info: *how it's presented* and *when*, has profound effects on people's judgements.

Investigators looked a national surveys of attitudes toward violence and found few regional differences between North and South. However: Southerners more likely to favour violence ___ and approve of violence in response to ___ and approving of violence in ___. This is because the South has a ____. What difference does this make?

Southerners more likely to favour violence *in response to insults* and approve of violence in response to *threats to home and family* and approving of violence in *socializing children*. This is because the South has a *culture of honour*. Parents teach kids not to fear violence. Experimenters: Nisbett and Cohen.

Middle-class Southerners and Northerners, who believed they were participating in a study on the effects of time constraints on judgements. Filled out a questionnaire, took it down a long, narrow hallway lined with filing cabinets. For some, another student was in their way, and once they had to pass by him a second time, slammed a drawer, pushed into their shoulder, and said '*******'. Students in the control did not encounter this person. In the second part, they read a story about a man who made a pass at someone else's fiance and had to provide an ending. As the participant walked back down the hall, the tall and muscular assistant walked down the middle of the hall, forcing the participant to dodge out of his way.

Southerners showed a flash of anger, Northerners were more likely to shrug their shoulders or seem amused. Southerners who were insulted were more likely to provide a violent ending to the story than control Southerners, but the endings from the Northerners were unaffected by the insult. Southerners who had been insulted had a rise in testosterone, but non-insulted Southerners and Northerners of both types didn't. Northerners of both types served aside about 5 feet away. Southerners stood aside at 9 feet if not insulted but pushed ahead until 3 feet if they'd been insulted. This study was correlational because only one of the IV was created by random assignment (whether they were insulted or not), doesn't indicated what the causally relevant aspect of Southernness is. Experimenter: Cohen

Stable Cause vs. Unstable Cause

Stable Cause: things will never change Unstable cause: things may improve

Stanley Milgram: used Asch's paradigm in Norway and France (findings? shows what?)

Stanley Milgram: used Asch's paradigm in Norway and France Norwegians emphasize group cohesiveness and politeness --> conformed more French enjoy conversational debate and don't shrink from disagreements shows that people who grow up in interdependent cultures are more susceptible to both informational social influence and normative social influence (and thus conform more)

Duchenne de Boulogne

Stimulated facial muscles with electrical currents, found that the zygomaticus major pulls the lip corners upward and the orbicularis oculi (surrounds the eye), contracts and caues crows-feet, the upper cheek to raise, and a pouch to form under lower eyelid.

Stimuli influence people's behaviour ___.

Stimuli influence people's behaviour *indirectly*.

Students think of climbing a tree as ___ when the climbing was to take place 3 miles away, but as ___ when it's to take place 3000 miles away.

Students think of climbing a tree as *"holding onto branches"* when the climbing was to take place 3 miles away, but as *"getting a good view"* when it's to take place 3000 miles away. Shows Construal Level Theory.

Social Cognition

Study of how people think about the social world and arrive at judgments that help them interpret the past, understand the present, and predict the future.

Attribution Theory

Study of how people understand the causes of events.

Field Experiment

Takes place in the real world, usually with participants who are unaware. Can have higher external validity than lab experiment (ex. Northern and Southern employer study).

Bottom-Up Processes

Taking in relevant stimuli from outside world. Perceiving the world requires simultaneous operation of both bottom-up and top-down.

P's tutor student, assessed, he did badly, tutor more, assessed again. For half, the second time he did better. For the other half, he doesn't.

Teachers took credit if the student improved but blamed him if he didn't. But, could be because they helped him. This is not necessarily unjustified. Shows that self-serving attribution bias could be purely rational analysis or to make someone feel good.

Regression to the Mean

Tendency for extreme scores to be followed by/accompany less extreme scores. Extreme scores are further from the mean, and scores close to the mean are more common, leads to normal distribution. Most types of variables distributed this way. Cool example: go to the doctor when symptoms are at their peak, so you feel better after going because they've got nowhere to go but down.

Hindsight Bias

Tendency to believe that you could've predicted some outcome which in fact you couldn't have predicted accurately. Hear a fact, think or reasons it may be expected to be true.

Thought Experiment

Testing how you would test a given idea. Can lead to new hypotheses.

Theory of Mind (+ What can children tell by age 2? By ages 3-4? What is different about theory of mind with autistic people + people with trauma?)

The ability to recognize that other people have beliefs and desires. Probably comes prewired (as shown by the lack in people with trauma and its necessity). Children by the age of 2 and know that the way to understand other's behaviour is to understand their beliefs and desires. By 3 and 4 children can tell when others' beliefs are false. Autistic people/most people with genetic defects or trauma at a v young age don't have a theory of mind.

Naïve Realism

The belief we have that we see the world directly, without any complicated perceptual or cognitive machinery.

Naturalistic Fallacy

The claim that the way things are is the way they should be.

The cuteness of the young triggers ___ that makes sure they ___.

The cuteness of the young triggers *a hardwired, auto reaction* that makes sure they *receive care*. Hypothesized by: Konrad Lorenz

Parental Investment

The evolutionary principle that costs and benefits are associated with reproduction and the nurturing of offspring. Costs and benefits are different for males and females, so one gender normally values and invests more in each child than the other.

P's evaluate a hypothetical person described by terms. One group has a list with intelligent and industrious coming first, the other has a list with stubborn and envious coming first.

The group with intelligent first rated the person way more favourably.

The huge range of behaviours of people is tied to the fact that humans (and rats) are the most successful of all mammals in ability to live in ____.

The huge range of behaviours of people is tied to the fact that humans (and rats) are the most successful of all mammals in ability to live in *every type of ecosystem*.

People had to give shocks to others (who were actually confederates) each time they made a mistake. Any time the experimentee balked, the experimenter asked them to continue.

The majority of people went all the way to the 450-volt level. The experimenters didn't expect so many to continue. Poor external validity, yet has occasionally happened and will happen again so it's still useful. Experimenter: Stanley Milgram.

Fictitious Turkish words and fake Chinese characters shown to Americans. Present some many times and some only a few.

The more times the participant saw a stimulus, the more they thought it referred to something good. Example of an experiment where investigators deliberately strip down a situation to its bare essentials to make a theoretical point that would be hard to make irl. Shows doesn't always need to have good external validity. Experimenter: Robert Zajonc

Order Effects

The order in which items are presented can have a powerful influence on judgement. Includes primacy effect and recency effect. A type of pure framing effect.

Scientists tell people a fact and ask if they could've predicted it, then not tell others the fact and ask for predictions.

The people kept in ignorance usually make incorrect predictions but those told the fact are confident they could've predicted it. This illustrates hindsight bias.

Had some students read scary materials about tetanus and showed them pictures of people with extreme tetanus. Then told them they could get a vaccine to prevent it. The other half of participants were given a map of campus that showed where the health centre was. They had to map out when they could go and get the shot and how they'd get there.

The people who had to plan it out were much more likely to get the vaccination. This experiment is about channel factors; the channel factor was the requirement to shape a vague intention into a concrete plan. Experimenter: Howard Leventhal

Balance Theory

The theory that people like their thoughts to be consistent with one another, and will do substantial mental work to achieve such cognitive consistency. (Ex. Person A likes Person B, who doesn't like Person C. Person A eventually comes to dislike either Person C or Person B).

Incoming first-gens and others. Listened to one of two panels: In one they discussed how their social class backgrounds influenced their college experience in the other they didn't. (+ what does this show?)

The typical academic achievement gap was eliminated among those exposed to the difference-education panel. Study done by: Stephens, Hamedani, and Destin. This shows that life in different social-class subcultures in the US promotes the elaboration of distinct self-construals. Living in higher class environments (with better education, security, resources, etc.) affords people the opportunity to reflect independence. This gives them an advantage. People in lower classes develop selves that are more sensitive to the social context, constraints in environment, and their dependence on others, promoting a more socially responsive, interdependent type of self-construal. Hypothesized by: Markus

Framing Effect

The way information is presented can frame the way its processed and understood. Order effects are a type.

P's shown three 10 sec silent videos, rated profs in videos on variety of dimensions.

Their ratings correlated significantly with student evals of their profs at the end of the semester.

Construal Level Theory

Theory about the relationship between psychological distance and abstract or concrete thinking; psychologically distant actions and events are thought about in abstract terms; actions and events that are close at hand are thought about in concrete terms. Doesn't have to be far apart in time; can be far or near in space (at McGill vs. in England) or far or near socially (something that happens to me vs. something that happens to Aagnik)

There are certain aspects of a person that are uniquely known to the self and certain aspects uniquely known to others. We're better judges of ___, others better judges of ___. ___ forces are at play: people want to think highly of themselves, so when it comes to ___, other people know us ___ because we're ___.

There are certain aspects of a person that are uniquely known to the self and certain aspects uniquely known to others. We're better judges of *internal traits*, others better judges of *external traits*. *Motivational* forces are at play: people want to think highly of themselves, so when it comes to *value traits*, other people know us *better* because *we're biased to think well of ourselves*. Argued by: Vazire

Moral Foundations Theory

There are five evolved, universal moral domains where specific emotions guide moral judgments. Care/harm centres on suffering of others, is triggered by signs of weakness and pain , and elicits sympathy. Fairness/cheating focuses on concerns that others act in a just fashion, is triggered by unfair acts, and elicits anger. Loyalty/betrayal pertains to the commitments we make to groups, leads to group pride or rage. Authority/subversion is about finding one's place in social hierarchies, leads to embarrassment, shame, fear, pride, and awe. Purity/degradation centres on avoiding dangerous diseases and contaminants and socially impure ideas or actions, leads to disgust. When we encounter people acting in ways the violate the rules in these moral domains, emotions arise and guid our initial judgments of right and wrong. After the initial gut feeling people rely on more deliberative processes to arrive at a final moral judgment of right and wrong, but emotions are the primary drivers of moral judgment.

Twins can develop their own unique language that follows grammar rules, people can learn to speak their native language perfectly even with deaf parents. What does this show?

There are general, inherited, propensities to develop grammatical language.

Touchee and toucher sat at table with black curtain between them, preventing all communication but touch. Toucher tried to convey different emotions by touching touchee for 1 second. Touchee selected which emotion.

They could reliably communicate with just touch.

Reverse Causation

Think that variable A leads to variable B, but really variable B leads to variable A.

Students exposed to stimulus to bring to mind schema for profs or for soccer hooligans. *** Exposed to extreme example (Einstein or Karlie Kloss)

Those exposed to prof cues did better on test. Priming stereotype of prof led them to perform consistent with that stereotype, but activating extreme example lead them to perform in a way inconsistent with stereotype (Einstein or Karlie Kloss). Shows that individual examples serve as standards of judgment.

P's shown for 1 sec pics of candidates in elections, asked which look more competent.

Those judged as more competent won 69% of the races. Shows that everyone judges similarly, they may not actually be more competent.

Researchers told elementary school teachers that certain of their students would bloom in coming year (which students was chosen randomly).

Those students scored higher on IQ tests because this set in motion a pattern of student-teacher interaction. Shows self-fulfilling prophecy. Experimenters: Rosenthal and Jacobson

P's asked how much compensation they'd recommend for person in plane crash that tried to hike to safety. Some told he made it within 75 miles, others that he made it a quarter mile from safety.

Those who thought he died closer recommended way more money in compensation because his death seems more tragic and thus worth more compensation. Shows emotional amplification.

Though working self-concept varies, there are ___, leading to the feeling ___. A person's overall pool of self-knowledge ___, leading to feelings of ___ even as different pieces come to the fore in different contexts. Shifts in a person's sense of self ___.

Though working self-concept varies, there are *core aspects of self-knowledge that are top of the mind whenever the person thinks about themself*, leading to the feeling *we have a stable, core self*. A person's overall pool of self-knowledge *stays stable*, leading to feelings of *continuity* even as different pieces come to the fore in different contexts. Shifts in a person's sense of self *conform to a predictable, stable pattern*.

Cognitions

Thoughts that usually reinforce a persons feelings

Torrance: members of navy bombing crews reasoning problems crew had to give one answer for the group findings? shows what?

Torrance: members of navy bombing crews reasoning problems crew had to give one answer for the group if the pilot (highest status) came up with answer, they gave it 91% of time navigator: 80% lowly gunner: 63% shows that expertise and status influence rate of conformity

Teachers touched students in a friendly way but didn't do this for others. *** Coded touches in NBA games.

Touched students more likely to go solve blackboard problem. *** Teams that touched more early in the season played better later.

P's rate photos of faces with neutral expressions on personality dimensions people usually spontaneously mention when looking at faces.

Two dimensions stood out . One is a positive-negative dimension (tells people whether to approach or avoid), the other centres around power (whether their top dog or under dog). Used computer models to generate faces with relative combinations of the two dimensions (pos-neg and power). The ones that are trustworthy but not dominant have baby faces.Experimenter: Todorov

P's watched a video with no sound of anxious person in convo. He told half P's that she was responding to anxiety-inducing questions, and others it was innocuous topics. In another two groups, he gave them the same information but they had to memorize words while watching the tape (this would make them less able to carry out the deliberative stage of the attribution process).

When P's were memorizing lists of words they didn't have the cognitive resources to adjust their initial impression, so they rated her as being just as anxious when they thought she was discussing anxiety-producing topics as innocuous ones.

P's listen to uplifting Mozart or depressing Mahler. Then do a lexical decision task (if strings of lettres are words or not).

When feeling happy, people were quicker to identify happy words than sad words or positive words unrelated to happiness. Shows that we perceive events in ways that are consistent with emotions we're feeling.

Social Comparison Theory

When people have no other objective standard, people compare themselves to other people to obtain an accurate assessment of their own opinions, abilities, and internal states. We search for similar targets, though this is biased towards slightly inferior people (downward social comparison). For example, you wouldn't compare yourself with Serena Williams to figure out how good you are at tennis. Hypothesized by: Leon Festinger

Moral Dumbfounding

When people respond to incest for example with firm but inarticulate conviction the act is wrong.

When thinking of self we activate ___ region of the brain.

When thinking of self we activate *medial prefrontal cortex* region of the brain.

When we encounter people acting in ways the violate the rules in the ___, ___ arise and guide our initial judgments of right and wrong. After the initial gut feeling people rely on more ___ to arrive at a final moral judgment of right and wrong, but ___ are the primary drivers of moral judgment.

When we encounter people acting in ways the violate the rules in the *5 moral domains*, *emotions* arise and guide our initial judgments of right and wrong. After the initial gut feeling people rely on more *deliberative processes* to arrive at a final moral judgment of right and wrong, but *emotions* are the primary drivers of moral judgment.

When we see ambiguous info we rely more heavily on ___ to compensate for inadequacies of ___.

When we see ambiguous info we rely more heavily on *top-down processes* to compensate for inadequacies of *bottom-up info*.

When we're ___, we're ___ to commit the fundamental attribution error because ___.

When we're *tired, unmotivated, or distracted*, we're *more likely* to commit the fundamental attribution error because *the adjustment stage is shortened or skipped*.

Picked students concerned with religion. Asked them to go somewhere else to give a sermon. Some were told to hurry, some weren't. On the way, they passed a person clearly in need of help.

Whether good samaritans were in a hurry or not was the biggest predictor of whether or not they helped a person they passed in the street (far more than how religious they were). Randomly assigned people in the two conditions so they're the same kind of people which demonstrates that something related to being late is what caused it. Deception study. Experimenters: Darley and Batson.

Women in US construe self in more ___ terms than men do. This is also found among the ___. In social interactions, women are more ___ and better judges of ___. Men are more attuned to ___. Women are more attuned to ___. ___ (including ___, ___, ___, and ___) guide women and men into different self-construals.

Women in US construe self in more *interdependent* terms than men do. This is also found among the *Japanese*. In social interactions, women are more *empathetic* and better judges of *personalities and emotion*. Men are more attuned to *their own internal responses*. Women are more attuned to *situational clues*. *Agents of socialization* (including *the media*, *the way parents raise girls and boys differently*, *their friend groups*, and *evolution*) guide women and men into different self-construals.

Social class differences as telling of interdependent vs. independent cultures

Working-class people are more interdependent (more interactions with families, parenting emphasizes conformity and obedience, value personal uniqueness less).

Hannah Arendt

Wrote Eichmann in Jerusalem, concluded that anyone is capable of performing acts of brutality.

Young adolescents exhibit ___ activity than adults in neural systems relevant to ___. Adolescents rely on ___ when reporting self-views, which suggests that their sense of self is especially based on ___.

Young adolescents exhibit *greater* activity than adults in neural systems relevant to *both self-perception and perspective taking*. Adolescents rely on *reflected appraisals* when reporting self-views, which suggests that their sense of self is especially based on *beliefs of how others view them*. Found by: Pfeifer.

Attitudes are bad predictors of

behaviour (just because i have a positive attitude about bowling doesn't mean I ever bowl..). This happens because attitudes don't always win over other determinants of behaviour. One determinant of people's actions that can weaken the relationship between attitudes and behaviour is that person's understanding of the prevailing norms of appropriate behaviour (I want to text in the movie theatre but i don't).

conformity (definition, types, relationship to group size, relationship to status and expertise)

conformity: changing one's behaviour or beliefs in response to some real (or imagined) pressure from others can be implicit or explicit (when very explicit it blends with compliance) conformity increases as group size increases, but this effect levels of pretty quickly validity of a consensus opinion increases only if the opinions are independent of one another (the more people there are, the less likely their views are independent) the larger the group, the more you could displease (this also goes only to a certain point) expertise and status influence rate of conformity expertise affects informational social influence status affects normative social influence

ideomotor action (+ based off what, coined by who)

ideomotor action: merely thinking about a behaviour makes its actual performance more likely based off the fact that the brain regions responsible for perception overlap with those responsible for action coined by William James

parole judges finding (and what it shows)

if parole judges had just finished a meal before hearing a plea for release, they were far more likely to vote for parole *example of how negative emotions influence things

informational social influence

informational social influence: reliance on other people's comments and actions as an indication of what's likely to be correct, proper, effective more pronounced when we're uncertain leads to internalization: private acceptance of the position advanced by the majority people who grow up in interdependent cultures are more susceptible to both informational social influence and normative social influence (and thus conform more)

internalization

internalization: private acceptance of the position advanced by the majority caused by informational social influence

To measure attitude centrality

measure variety of attitudes within a domain and calculate how strongly each one is linked to the others. If it's important it highly correlates.

used autokinetic illusion (sense that a stationary point of light in completely dark environment is moving), no other stimuli to help you figure out where light is individual participants in room, had to say how far light moved brought several participants into a room together, had them call out their estimates the estimates --- over time came back for individual testing up to 1 year later, --- this behaviour is the result of ---

used autokinetic illusion (sense that a stationary point of light in completely dark environment is moving), no other stimuli to help you figure out where light is individual participants in room, had to say how far light moved brought several participants into a room together, had them call out their estimates the estimates *converged over time* everyone's individual guesses fused into a group norm came back for individual testing up to 1 year later, *still showed group influence* this behaviour is the result of *informational social influence*