PSYC 300 - Final Exam

Malingering

Intentionally feigning illness to achieve some external gain, such as financial compensation or deferment from military service

The Cognitive View of Conversion and Somatic Symptom Disorders

Propose that conversion and somatic symptom disorders are forms of communication, providing a means for people to express emotions that would otherwise be difficult to convey Hold that the emotions of people with the disorders are being converted into physical symptoms - they suggest that the purpose of the conversion is not to defend against anxiety but to communicate extreme feelings - anger, fear, depression, guilt, jealousy - in a "physical language" that is familiar and comfortable for the person with the disorder People who find it hard to recognize or express their emotions are candidates Children are less able to express their emotions verbally, they are particularly likely to develop physical symptoms as a form of communication

The Behavioural View of Conversion and Somatic Symptom Disorders

Propose that the physical symptoms of conversion and somatic symptom disorders bring rewards to sufferers Perhaps the symptoms remove those with the disorders from an unpleasant relationship or perhaps the symptoms bring attention from other people In response to such rewards, the sufferers learn to display the bodily symptoms more and more prominently Behaviourists also hold that people who are familiar with an illness will more readily adopt its physical symptoms - studies find that many sufferers develop their bodily symptoms after they or their close relatives or friends have had similar medical problems

Stimulant Use Disorder

Regular use of cocaine or amphetamines may lead to this May cause problems in short-term memory and attention Withdrawal symptoms: deep depression, fatigue, sleep problems, irritability, and anxiety

Negative Symptoms

Symptoms of schizophrenia that seem to be deficits in normal thought, emotions, or behaviours "Pathological deficits", characteristics that are lacking in a person Poverty of speech, blunted and flat affect, loss of volition, and social withdrawal are commonly found in schizophrenia

Positive Symptoms

Symptoms of schizophrenia that seem to be excesses of or bizarre additions to normal thoughts, emotions, or behaviours Delusions, disorganized thinking and speech, heightened perceptions and hallucinations, and inappropriate affect are the ones most often found in schizophrenia

Withdrawal

Unpleasant, sometimes dangerous reactions that may occur when people who use a drug regularly stop taking or reduce their dosage of the drug Ex. cramps, anxiety attacks, sweating, nausea

What Causes Conversion and Somatic Symptom Disorders?

For many years, conversion and somatic symptom disorders were referred to as hysterical disorders - meant to convey the belief that excessive and uncontrolled emotions underlie the bodily symptoms found in these disorders

Are Physical Illnesses Related to Stress?

Found that the LCU (Life Change Units) scores of sick people during the year before they fell ill were much higher than those of healthy people If a person's life changes totaled more than 300 LCUs over the course of a year, they were particularly likely to develop serious health problems

Psychodynamic Views of Substance Use Disorders

Believe that people with these disorders have powerful dependency needs that can be traced to their early years Suggest when parents fail to satisfy a young child's need for nurturance, the child is likely to grow up depending excessively on others for help and comfort, trying to find the nurturance that was lacking during their early years If this search for outside support includes experimentation with a drug, the person may well develop a dependent relationship with the substance Certain people respond to their early deprivations by developing a substance abuse personality that leaves them particularly prone to drug abuse Individuals who abuse drugs tend to be more dependent, antisocial, impulsive, novelty-seeking, risk-taking, and depressive than other individuals

Hypertension

Chronic high blood pressure Few outward signs, but it interferes with the proper functioning of the entire cardiovascular system, greatly increasing the likelihood of stroke, heart disease, and kidney problems Some of the leading psychosocial causes are constant stress, environmental danger, and general feelings of anger or depression Physiological factors include obesity, smoking, poor kidney function, and an unusually high proportion of the gluey protein collagen in a person's blood vessels

Stimulants

Substances that increase the activity of the central nervous system, resulting in increased blood pressure and heart rate, more alertness, and sped-up behaviour and thinking Ex. cocaine and amphetamines, caffeine and nicotine

Asthma

A medical problem marked by narrowing of the trachea and bronchi, which results in shortness of breath, wheezing, coughing, and a choking sensation

Substance Use Disorders

A pattern of long-term maladaptive behaviours and reactions brought about by repeated use of a substance May come to crave a particular substance and rely on it excessively, resulting in damage to their family and social relationships, poor functioning at work, and/or danger to themselves or others Many become physically dependent on it, developing a tolerance for it and experiencing withdrawal reactions

Several factors influence whether stress will result in a slowdown of the system

1. Biochemical Activity - excessive activity of norepinephrine - if stress continues for an extended time, norepinephrine eventually travels to receptors on certain lymphocytes and gives them an inhibitory message to stop their activity, thus slowing down immune functioning - corticosteroids are released under stress; after long periods of stress send an inhibitory message - corticosteroids trigger an increase in the production of cytokines, proteins that bind to receptors throughout the body - at moderate levels of stress, the cytokines help combat infection - as stress continues and more corticosteroids are released, the growing production and spread of cytokines lead to chronic inflammation throughout the body, contributing at times to heart disease, stroke and other illnesses 2. Behavioural Changes - some people under stress may, for example, become anxious or depressed, perhaps even develop an anxiety or mood disorder - as a result, they may sleep badly, eat poorly, exercise less, or smoke or drink more - behaviours known to slow down the immune system 3. Personality Style - people who generally respond to life stress with optimism, constructive coping, and resilience experience better immune system functioning - men with a general sense of hopelessness die at above-average rates from heart disease and other causes - people who are spiritual tend to be healthier than people without spiritual beliefs 4. Degree of Social Support - people who have few social supports and feel lonely tend to have poorer immune functioning in the face of stress than people who do not feel lonely - social support and affiliation may actually help protect people from stress, poor immune system functioning and subsequent illness, or help speed up recovery from illness or surgery

What Factors Contribute to Psychophysiological Disorders?

1. Biological Factors - defects of the autonomic nervous system 2. Psychological Factors - certain needs, attitudes, emotions or coping styles may cause people to overreact repeatedly to stressors, and so increase their chances of developing psychophysiological disorders - men with a repressive coping style ( a reluctance to express discomfort, anger, or hostility) tend to have particularly sharp rise in blood pressure and heart rate when they are stressed - type A personality styles: interact with the world in a way that produces continual stress and often leads to coronary heart disease 3. Sociocultural Factors: The Multicultural Perspective - poverty - wealthy people have fewer psychophysiological disorders - poorer people typically experience higher rates of crime, unemployment, overcrowding, and other negative stressors , inferior medical care - African Americans have more health problems

Factitious Disorder Imposed on Self

1. False creation of physical or psychological symptoms, or deceptive production of injury or disease, even without external rewards for such ailments 2. Presentation of oneself as ill, damaged, or hurt

Biological Views of Substance Use Disorders

1. Genetic Predisposition - studies that have identified animals that prefer alcohol to other drinks and then mated them to one another; the offspring found to display an unusual preference for alcohol - twin studies: alcoholism concordance rate of 54% - fraternal twins only had 28% - adoption studies: individuals whose biological parents abuse alcohol typically show higher rates of alcoholism than those with nonalcoholic biological parents - genetic linkage: abnormal form of dopamine-2 receptor gene in majority of people with substance use disorders, but in less than 20% of those who do not have such disorders 2. Biochemical Factors - as drug intake increases, the body's production of the neurotransmitters continues to decrease, leaving the person in need of progressively more of the drug to achieve its effects - which neurotransmitter depends on the drug being used - perhaps all drugs activate a reward center in the brain

Psychodynamic Theorists Propose that Two Mechanisms are at Work in Conversion and Somatic Symptom Disorders

1. Primary Gain - people derive it when their bodily symptoms keep their internal conflicts out of awareness - during an argument, for example, a man who has underlying fears about expressing anger may develop a conversion paralysis of the arm, thus preventing his feeling of rage from reaching consciousness 2. Secondary Gain - people derive it when their bodily symptoms further enable them to avoid unpleasant activities or to receive sympathy from others - ex. a conversion paralysis allows a soldier to avoid combat duty or conversion blindness prevents the breakup of a relationship, secondary gain may be at work

Factitious disorder seems to be particularly common among people who...

1. Received extensive treatment for a medical problem as a child 2. Carry a grudge against the medical profession 3. Have worked as a nurse, laboratory technician, or medical aide A number have poor social support, few enduring social relationships, and little family life

Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders

1. Schizophrenia - most prevalent - various psychotic symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, restricted or inappropriate affect, and catatonia - 6 months or more 2. Brief Psychotic Disorder - less than 1 month - various psychotic symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, restricted or inappropriate affect, and catatonia 3. Schizophreniform Disorder - various psychotic symptoms: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, restricted or inappropriate affect, and catatonia - 1-6 months 4. Schizoaffective Disorder - Marked symptoms of both schizophrenia and a major depressive episode or a manic episode - 6 months or more 5. Delusional Disorder - persistent delusions that are not bizarre and are not due to schizophrenia - persecutory, jealous, grandiose, and somatic delusions are common - 1 month or more 6. Psychotic Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition - Hallucinations, delusions, or disorganized speech caused by a medical illness or brain damage 7. Substance/Medication-Induced Psychotic Disorder - hallucinations, delusions, or disorganized speech caused directly by a substance, such as an abused drug

Two patterns of somatic symptom disorder have received particular attention

1. Somatization pattern - individual experiences a large and varied number of bodily symptoms - most also feel anxious and depressed - pattern typically lasts for many years, fluctuating over time but rarely disappearing completely without therapy 2. Predominant pain pattern - the person's primary bodily problem is the experience of pain - source of pain may be known or unknown - either way, the concerns and disruption produced by the pain are disproportionate to its severity and seriousness

What are the Symptoms of Schizophrenia?

3 Categories: 1. Positive Symptoms - excesses of thought, emotion, and behaviour 2. Negative Symptoms - deficits of thought, emotion, and behaviour 3. Psychomotor Symptoms - unusual movement or gestures

Alcohol Use Disorder

6.8% in USA Drink large amounts regularly and rely on it to enable them to do things that would otherwise make them anxious MRI scans of chronic heavy drinkers have revealed damage in various regions of their brains and impairments in their memory, speed of thinking, attention skills, and balance For many, it includes symptoms of tolerance and withdrawal reactions Withdrawal symptoms: - hands, tongue, and eyelids begin to shake; they feel weak and nauseated; they sweat and vomit; their heart beats rapid; blood pressure rises; may become anxious, depressed, unable to sleep, or irritable A small percentage go through a withdrawal reaction of delirium tremens - may also have seizures, lose consciousness, suffer a stroke, or even die

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

A cluster of problems in a child, including low birth weight, irregularities in the head and face, and intellectual deficits, caused by excessive alcohol intake by the mother during pregnancy

Substance Intoxication

A cluster of temporary undesirable behavioural or psychological changes that develop during or shortly after the ingestion of a substance

Loose Associations

A common thinking disturbance in schizophrenia Characterized by rapid shifts from one topic of conversation to another AKA derailment

Factitious Disorder

A disorder in which a person feigns or induces physical symptoms, typically for the purpose of assuming the role of a sick person AKA Munchhausen syndrome - an officer who told fantastical stories about his supposed medical adventures Many give themselves medications secretly Research their supposed ailments and are impressively knowledgeable about medicine Many eagerly undergo painful testing or treatment, even surgery When confronted with evidence that their symptoms are factitious, they typically deny the charges and leave the hospital; they may enter another hospital the same day More common in woman than men Usually begins in early adulthood

Conversion Disorder

A disorder in which a person's bodily symptoms affect his or her voluntary motor and sensory functions, but the symptoms are inconsistent with known medical diseases Neurological-like symptoms - for example, blindness, paralysis, or loss of feeling - that have no neurological basis Hard to distinguish from a genuine medical problem Always possible that this diagnosis is a mistake The symptoms may be at odds with the way the nervous system is known to work - ex. a conversion symptom called glove anesthesia, numbness begins sharply at the wrist and extends evenly right to the fingertips - in real neurological damage, it is rarely as abrupt or evenly spread out Do not consciously want or purposely produce their symptoms Called "conversion" disorder because clinical theorists used to believe that individuals with the disorder are converting psychological needs or conflicts into their neurological-like symptoms

Illness Anxiety Disorder

A disorder in which people are chronically anxious about and preoccupied with the notion that they have or are developing a serious medical illness, despite the absence of somatic symptoms Repeatedly check their body for signs of illness and misinterpret various bodily events as signs of serious medical problems Most often starts in early adulthood Among men and women equally Between 1-5% of all people experience this disorder Their symptoms tend to rise and fall over the years

Somatic Symptom Disorder

A disorder in which people become excessively distressed, concerned, and anxious about bodily symptoms that they are experiencing, and their lives are greatly and disproportionately disrupted by the symptoms The symptoms last longer but are less dramatic than those found in conversion disorder In some cases, the somatic symptoms have no known cause; in others, the cause can be identified - either way the person's concerns are disproportionate to the seriousness of the bodily problems

Gambling Disorder

A disorder marked by persistent and recurrent gambling behaviour, leading to a range of life problems Defined more by the addictive nature of the behaviour Preoccupied with gambling and typically cannot walk away from a bet Usually gamble more when feeling distressed, and often lie to cover up the extent of their gambling Many people need to gamble with ever-larger amounts of money to reach the desired excitement, and they feel restless or irritable when they try to reduce or stop gambling - symptoms that are similar to tolerance and withdrawal reactions often associated with substance use disorder

Internet Gaming Disorder

A disorder marked by persistent, recurrent, and excessive Internet gaming Not included as a disorder in the DSM

Formal Thought Disorder

A disturbance in the production and organization of thought

Reward Center

A dopamine-rich pathway in the brain that produces feelings of pleasure when activated

Delirium Tremens (DTs)

A dramatic withdrawal reaction that some people who are dependent on alcohol have It consists of confusion, clouded consciousness, and terrifying visual hallucinations Usually run their course in 2-3 days

Antigen

A foreign invader of the body, such as a bacterium or virus

LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide)

A hallucinogenic drug derived from ergot alkaloids Brings on a state of hallucinogen intoxication - marked by a general strengthening of perceptions, particularly visual perceptions, along with psychological changes and physical symptoms People may focus on small details - the pores of the skin, for example, or individual blades of grass Colors may seem enhanced or take on a shade of purple People may have illusions in which objects seem distorted and appear to move, breathe, or change shape May hallucinate - see people, objects, or forms that are not actually there Hallucinosis may also cause one to hear sounds more clearly, feel tingling or numbness in the limbs or confuse the sensations of hot and cold May cause synthesia= different senses cross Can induce strong emotions, from joy to anxiety or depression Long-forgotten thoughts and feelings may resurface Physical symptoms include sweating, palpitations, blurred vision, tremors, and poor coordination

Morphine

A highly addictive substance derived from opium that is particularly effective in relieving pain

Opium

A highly addictive substance made from the sap of the opium poppy Reduces both physical and emotional pain

Ulcers

A lesion that forms in the wall of the stomach or of the duodenum Resulting in burning sensations or pain in the stomach, occasional vomiting, and stomach bleeding

Methamphetamine

A powerful amphetamine drug that has surged in popularity in recent years, posing major health and law enforcement problems AKA crystal meth, crank Increases activity of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin It damages nerve endings, a problem called neurotoxicity Makes users feel hypersexual and uninhibited

Crack

A powerful, ready-to-smoke freebase cocaine Been boiled down into crystalline balls Smoked with a special pipe and makes a crackling sound as it is inhaled

Schizophrenia

A psychotic disorder in which personal, social, and occupational functioning deteriorate as a result of unusual perceptions, odd thoughts, disturbed emotions, and motor abnormalities People with schizophrenia, though they previously functioned well or at least acceptably, deteriorate

Amphetamines

A stimulant drug that is manufactured in the laboratory Was first produced to treat asthma Soon became popular among people trying to lose weight, athletes seeking an extra burst of energy, soldiers, truck drivers and pilots trying to stay awake Most often taken in pill or capsule form, although some people inject the drugs intravenously or smoke them for a quicker, more powerful effect Increase energy and alertness and reduce appetite when taken in small doses Produce a rush, intoxication, and psychosis in high doses Cause an emotional letdown when they leave the body Stimulate the CNS by increasing the release of dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin throughout the brain

Delusions

A strange false belief firmly held despite evidence to the contrary Ideas that they believe wholeheartedly but that have no basis in fact The deluded person may consider the ideas enlightening or may feel confused by them Some people hold a single delusion that dominates their lives and behaviour ; others have many delusions Delusions of persecution are the most common in schizophrenia - believe they are being plotted or discriminated against, spied on, slandered threatened, attacked, or deliberately victimized May have delusions of reference - they attach special and personal meaning to the actions of others or to various objects or events - ex. thought arrows on street signs as indictors of the direction they should take People with delusions of grandeur - believe themselves to be great inventors, religious saviors, or other specially empowered persons Delusions of control -believe their feelings, thoughts, and actions are being controlled by other people

Hallucinogens

A substance that causes powerful changes primarily in sensory perception, including strengthening perceptions and producing illusions and hallucinations "Trips" - may be exciting or frightening, depending on how a person's mind interacts with the drugs Also called psychedelic drugs Ex. LSD, MDMA (ecstasy)

Freebase

A technique for ingesting cocaine in which the pure cocaine basic alkaloid is chemically separated from processed cocaine, vaporized by heat from a flame, and inhaled with a pipe

Muscle Contraction Headache

A type of chronic headache Caused by narrowing of muscles surrounding the skull Also known as tension headaches

Barbiturates

Addictive sedative-hypnotic drugs that reduce anxiety and help people sleep Have been largely replaced by benzodiazepines, which are generally safer Usually taken in pill or capsule form In low doses, they reduce a person's level of excitement in the same way as alcohol, by attaching to receptors on the neurons that receive GABA and by helping GABA operate at those neurons Broken down in the liver At too high a level, the drugs can halt breathing, lower blood pressure, and lead to coma and death A major danger is that the lethal dose of the drug remains the same even while the body is building up a tolerance for its sedative effects - once the prescribed dose stops reducing anxiety or inducing sleep, the user is all too likely to increase it without medical supervision and eventually may ingest a dose that proves fatal Withdrawal symptoms: nausea, anxiety, and sleep problems - can cause convulsions

Sedative-Hypnotic Drugs

Aka anxiolytics Drugs used in low doses to reduce anxiety and in higher doses to help people sleep Include barbiturates and benzodiazepines

Cocaine

An addictive stimulant obtained from the coca plant It is the most powerful natural stimulant known It brings on a euphoric rush of well-being and confidence Given a high enough dose, this rush can be almost orgasmic, like the one produced by heroin At first, it stimulates the higher centers of the CNS, making users feel excited, energetic, talkative, and even euphoric As more is taken, it stimulates other centers of the CNS, producing a faster pulse, higher blood pressure, faster and deeper breathing, and further arousal and wakefulness Produces these effects by increasing supplies of dopamine Excessive amounts of dopamine travel to receiving neurons throughout the CNS and overstimulate them Appears to increase the activity of norepinephrine and serotonin in some areas of the brain Cocaine intoxication: poor muscle coordination, grandiosity, bad judgement, anger, aggression, compulsive behaviour, anxiety, and confusion - some people have hallucinations, delusions, or both As the effects subside, the user goes through a depressionlike letdown called crashing - includes headaches, dizziness, and fainting

Korsakoff's Syndrome

An alcohol-related disorder marked by extreme confusion, memory impairment, and other neurological symptoms Cannot remember the past or learn new information and may make up for their memory losses by confabulating - reciting made-up events to fill in the gaps

Alcohol

Any beverage containing ethyl alcohol - a chemical that is quickly absorbed into the blood through the lining of the stomach and the intestine - it immediately takes effect as it is carried in the bloodstream to the CNS, where it acts to depress, or slow, functioning by binding to various neurons - binds to receptors that normally receive GABA - helps GABA to shut down the neurons, thus relaxing the drinker Including beer, wine, and liquor It first depresses the areas of the brain that control judgement and inhibition; people become looser, more talkative, and often more friendly As their inner control breaks down, they may feel relaxed, confident and happy When more alcohol is absorbed, it slows down additional areas in the CNS, leaving the drinkers less able to make sound judgements, their speech less careful and less coherent, and their memory weaker Many people become highly emotional and perhaps loud and aggressive Motor difficulties increase and reaction times slow - unsteady, clumsy

Drug

Any substance other than food that affects our bodies or minds It need not be a medicine or be illegal "Substance" is a better word because alcohol, tobacco, and caffeine are drugs too

Opioid Use Disorder

At first the withdrawal symptoms are anxiety, restlessness, sweating, and rapid breathing Later they include severe twitching, aches, fever, vomiting, diarrhea, loss of appetite, high blood pressure, and weight loss of up to 15 pounds 1% of adults in the USA

Insomnia

Difficulty falling or staying asleep Often very sleepy during the day and may have difficulty functioning Problems may be caused by a combination of psychosocial factors, such as high levels of anxiety or depression, and physiological problems such as an overactive arousal system or certain medical ailments

What are the personal and social impacts of alcoholism?

Disorder destroys families Home life for the children includes more conflict and perhaps sexual or other forms of abuse - children have higher rates of psychological problems; many have low self-esteem, poor communication skills, poor sociability, and marital problems Plays a role in more than 1/3 of all suicides, homicides, assaults, rapes, and accidental deaths, including 30% of all fatal automobile accidents in the USA Can cause damage to a person's physical health - may develop cirrhosis ( the liver becomes scarred and dysfunctional) May damage the heart and lower immune system's ability to fight off cancer, bacterial infections, AIDS Alcohol-related deficiency of Vitamin B (thiamine) may lead to Korsakoff's syndrome Women who drink during pregnancy place their fetuses at risk of fetal alcohol syndrome

Psychophysiological Disorders

Disorders in which biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors interact to cause or worsen a physical illness

Inappropriate Affect

Displays of emotions that are unsuited to the situation A symptom of schizophrenia They may smile when making a somber statement or upon being told terrible news Or they may become upset in situations that should make them happy May undergo inappropriate shifts in mood - ex. during a tender conversation with his wife, a man may start yelling and swearing at her

Cannabis Drugs

Drugs produced from the varieties of the hemp plant Cannabis sativa They cause a mixture of hallucinogenic, depressant, and stimulant effects Each drug is found in various strengths because the potency of a cannabis drug is greatly affected by the climate in which the plant is grown, the way it was prepared, and the manner and duration of its storage At low doses, smoker typically feels joy and relaxation and may become either quiet or talkative Some smokers become anxious, suspicious, or irritated Many report sharpened perceptions and fascination with the intensified sounds and sights around them Physical changes include reddening of the eyes, fast heartbeat, increases in blood pressure and appetite, dryness in the mouth, and dizziness High doses, produces odd visual experiences, changes in body image, and hallucinations -may be confused or impulsive

The Psychodynamic View of Conversion and Somatic Symptom Disorders

Freud's theory of psychoanalysis began with his efforts to explain hysterical symptoms Freud came to believe that hysterical disorders represented a conversion of underlying emotional conflicts into physical symptoms and concerns Freud centered his explanation of such disorders on the needs of girls during their phallic stage (ages 3-5) - believed all girls develop a pattern of desires called the Electra Complex: each girl experiences sexual feelings for her father and at the same time recognizes that she must compete with her mother for his affection - aware of her mother's more powerful position and of cultural taboos, the child typically represses her sexual feelings and rejects these early desires for her father - Freud concluded that some women hide their sexual feelings by unconsciously converting them into physical symptoms and concerns Today's psychodynamic theorists continue to believe that sufferers of the disorders have unconscious conflicts carried forth from childhood, which arouse anxiety, and that they convert this anxiety into "more tolerable" physical symptoms

What are the dangers of cocaine?

Harmful effects on behaviour, cognition, and emotion Poses serious physical dangers Linked to many suicides The greatest danger is an overdose - excessive doses have a strong effect on the respiratory center of the brain, at first stimulating it and then depressing it to the point where breathing may stop Can also create major, even fatal, heart irregularities or brain seizures that bring breathing or heart functioning to a sudden stop Pregnant women who use cocaine run the risk of having a miscarriage and of having children with predispositions to alter drug use and with abnormalities in immune functioning, attention and learning, thyroid size, and dopamine and serotonin activity in the brain

Coronary Heart Disease

Illness of the heart caused by a blockage in the coronary arteries Majority of all cases are related to an interaction of psychosocial factors, such as job stress or high levels of anger or depression, and physiological factors, such as high cholesterol, obesity, hypertension, smoking, or lack of exercise

Synergistic Effects

In pharmacology, an increase of effects that occurs when more than one substance is acting on the body at the same time When different drugs are in the body at the same time, they may multiply, or potentiate, each other's effects Often greater than the sum of the effects of each drug taken alone : a small dose of one drug mixed with a small dose of another can produce an enormous change in body chemistry Can occur when two or more drugs have similar actions - ex. alcohol, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and opioids are all depressants that may severely depress the CNS when mixed A different kind of effect is when drugs have opposite or antagonistic actions - ex. stimulant drugs interfere with the liver's usual disposal of barbiturates and alcohol = build up toxic levels of depressant drugs in their systems

Secondary Gain

In psychodynamic theory, the gain people derive when their somatic symptoms elicit kindness from others or provide an excuse to avoid unpleasant activities

Primary Gain

In psychodynamic theory, the gain people derive when their somatic symptoms keep their internal conflicts out of awareness

Psychosis

In schizophrenia A state in which a person loses contact with reality in key ways Their ability to perceive and respond to the environment becomes so disturbed that they may not be able to function at home, with friends, in school, or at work They may have hallucinations (false sensory perceptions) or delusions (false beliefs), or they may withdraw into a private world Can also be brought on by taking LSD, abusing amphetamines or cocaine - as well as, injuries or diseases of the brain

Is Marijuana Dangerous?

It occasionally causes panic reactions similar to the ones caused by hallucinogens, and some smokers may fear they are losing their minds It can interfere with the performances of complex sensorimotor tasks and with cognitive functioning, it has caused many automobile accidents Often fail to remember information, disadvantage at school or work After one month of absitence from smoking marijuana, chronic users continued to have higher blood flow than nonusers May lead to long-term heath problems - may contribute to lung disease - reduces the ability to expel air from the lungs - lower sperm counts in men who are chronic smokers and abnormal ovulation in women who are chronic smokers

Dangers of Schizophrenia

Its financial cost is enormous Emotional cost is even greater Increased risk of physical - often fatal - illness On average, they live 20 years less than other people Much more likely to attempt suicide

Cannabis Use Disorder

Many regular users develop a tolerance and may feel restless and irritable and have flulike symptoms when they stop smoking Average THC content is 4x higher and more powerful nowadays

The Multicultural View of Conversion and Somatic Symptom Disorders

Most Western clinicians believe that it is inappropriate to produce or focus excessively on somatic symptoms in response to personal distress - Western bias - a bias that sees somatic reactions as an inferior way of dealing with emotions The transformation of personal distress into somatic complaints is the norm in many non-Western cultures - in such cultures, the formation of such complaints is viewed as a socially and medically correct - and less stigmatizing - reaction to life's stressors Both bodily and psychological reactions to life events are often influenced by one's culture

What are the dangers of opioid use?

Most immediate danger is an overdoses, which closes down the respiratory center in the brain, almost paralyzing breathing and in many cases causing death - death is particularly likely during sleep People who resume heroin use after having avoided it for some time often make the fatal mistake of taking the same dose they had built up to before - but their bodies can no longer tolerate this high level Drug dealers often mix heroin with a cheaper drug or even a deadly substance such as cyanide or battery acid In addition, dirty needles and other unsterilized equipment spread infections such as AIDS, hepatitis C, and skin abcesses

Sociocultural Views on Substance Use Disorders

Most likely to develop them when they live under stressful soioeconomic conditions People are more likely to develop them if they are part of a family or social environment in which substance use is valued or at least accepted - problem drinking is more common among teenagers whose parents and peers drink, as well as among teens whose family environments are stressful and unsupportive

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters that help relieve pain and reduce emotional tension Sometimes referred to as the body's own opioids

Causes of Factitious Disorder

Not understood Clinical reports have pointed to factors such as depression, unsupportive parental relationships during childhood, and an extreme need for social support that is not otherwise available

Cognitive-Behavioural Views of Substance Use Disorders

Operant conditioning may play a key role - the temporary reduction of tension or raising of spirits produced by a drug has a rewarding effect, thus increasing the likelihood that the user will seek this reaction again The rewarding effects may eventually lead users to try higher dosages or more powerful methods of ingestion Such rewards eventually produce an expectancy that substances will be rewarding, and this expectation helps motivate people to increase drug use at times of tension People do drink more alcohol or seek heroin when they feel tense At least 19% of all adults who suffer from psychological disorders also display substance use disorders Classical conditioning may also play a role - cues or objects present in the environment at the time a person takes a drug may act as classically conditioned stimuli and come to produce some of the same pleasure brought on by the drugs themselves Same thing with cues or objects present during withdrawal distress may produce withdrawal-like symptoms

Disorganized Thinking and Speech

People with schizophrenia may not be able to think logically and may speak in peculiar ways These formal thought disorders can cause the sufferer great confusion and make communication extremely difficult Often they take the form of positive symptoms (pathological excesses), as in loose associations, neologisms, perseveration, and clang

Marijuana

One of the cannabis drugs, derived from the buds, leaves, and flowering tops of the hemp plant, Cannabis sativa

Heroin

One of the most addictive substances derived from opium Was used as a cough medicine and for other medical purposes - eventually made it illegal except for medical purposes

Opioids

Opium or any of the drugs derived from opium, including morphine, heroin, and codeine All opioid drugs - natural and synthetic - are known collectively as narcotics Most are smoked, inhaled, snorted, injected During a high the user feels relaxed, happy, and unconcerned about food, sex, or other bodily needs Create these effects by depressing the central nervous system, particularly the centers that help control emotion The drugs attach to brain receptor sites that ordinarily receive endorphins

LSD Dangers

People do not usually develop tolerance to LSD or have withdrawal symptoms, the drug poses dangers for both one-time and longterm users It is so powerful that any dose, no matter how small, is likely to produce enormous perceptual, emotional, and behavioural reactions Long-term effect LSD may have - some users eventually develop a psychosis or a mood or anxiety disorder - a number have flashbacks - a recurrence of the sensory and emotional changes after the LSD has left the body (may occur days or even months after the last LSD experience)

Polysubstance Use

People often take more than one drug at a time

Explanations for Gambling Disorder

People with gambling disorder may: 1. Inherit a genetic predisposition to develop the disorder 2. Experience heightened dopamine activity and operation of the brain's reward center when they gamble 3. Have impulsive, novelty-seeking, and other personality styles that leave them prone to gambling disorder 4. Make repeated and cognitive mistakes such as inaccurate expectations and misinterpretations of their emotions and bodily states

Depressants

Slow the activity of the central nervous system They reduce tension and inhibitions and may interfere with a person's judgement, motor activity, and concentration The three most widely used groups of depressants are: - alcohol - sedative-hypnotic drugs - opioids

Neologisms

Some people with schizophrenia use these Made-up words that typically have meaning only to the person using them

Traditional Psychophysiological Disorders

The best known and most common were ulcers, asthma, insomnia, chronic headaches, high blood pressure, and coronary heart disease

Immune System

The body's network of activities and cells that identify and destroy antigens and cancer cells

Tolerance

The brain and body's need for ever larger doses of a drug to produce earlier effects

Hallucinations

The experiencing of sights, sounds, or other perceptions in the absence of external stimuli Auditory hallucinations are the most common in schizophrenia - hear sounds and voices that seem to come from outside their heads - the voices may talk directly to the person, perhaps giving them commands or warning of dangers, or they may be experienced as overheard Research suggests that people with auditory hallucinations actually produce the nerve signals of sound in their brains, "hear" them, and then believe that external sources are responsible - more blood flow in Broca's area while patients were having auditory hallucinations Tactile hallucinations - tingling, burning, or electric-shock sensations Somatic hallucinations - feel as if something is happening inside the body, such as a snake crawling inside one's stomach Visual hallucinations - may produce vague perceptions of colours or clouds or distinct visions of people or objects Gustatory Hallucinations - find that their food or drink tastes strange Olfactory Hallucinations - smell odors that no one else does, such as the smell of poison or smoke

THC (tetrahydrocannabinol)

The main active ingredient of cannabis substances

Benzodiazepines

The most common group of antianxiety drugs Includes Valium and Xanax They calm people by binding to the receptors on the neurons that receive GABA and by increasing GABA activity at those neurons Relieve anxiety without making people as drowsy as other kinds of sedative-hypnotics Less likely to slow a person's breathing, so less likely to cause death in the event of an overdose

Heightened Perceptions

The perceptions and attention of some people with schizophrenia seem to intensify The persons may feel that their senses are being flooded by all the sights and sounds that surround them Problems of perception and attention

Psychoneuroimmunology

The study of the connections between stress, the body's immune system, and illness Researchers now believe that stress can interfere with the activity of lymphocytes, slowing them down and thus increasing a person's susceptibility to viral and bacterial infections One study of widows showed that their lymphocyte functioning was much lower in the bereaved people than controls Other studies have shown slow immune functioning in people who are exposed to long-term stress

Caffeine

The world's most widely used stimulant, most often consumed in coffee Around 99% of ingested caffeine is absorbed by the body and reaches its peak concentration within an hour Acts as a stimulant of the CNS, producing a release of dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine in the brain Raises a person's arousal and motor activity and reduces fatigue Can also disrupt mood, fine motor movement, and reaction time and may interfere with sleep At high doses, it increases gastric acid secretions in the stomach and the rate of breathing More than 2-3 cups of brewed coffee can produce caffeine intoxication, which may include symptoms such as restlessness, nervousness, anxiety, stomach disturbances, twitching and a faster heart rate Doses larger than 10 grams of caffeine (about 100 cups) can cause grand mal seizures and fatal respiratory failure Withdrawal symptoms: headaches, depression, anxiety, fatigue - use more unauthorized medications Not in the DSM

Cross-Tolerance

Tolerance for a substance one has not taken before as a result of using another substance similar to it Users who display this, can reduce the symptoms of withdrawal of one drug by taking the other Alcohol and antianxiety drugs are cross-tolerant

Migraine Headaches

Type of chronic headache A very severe headache that occurs on one side of the head, often preceded by a warning sensation and sometimes accompanied by dizziness, nausea, or vomiting Thought to develop in 2 phases: 1. Blood vessels in the brain narrow so that the flow of blood to parts of the brain is reduced 2. The same blood vessels later expand, so that blood flows through them rapidly, stimulating many neuron endings and causing pain Research suggests that chronic headaches are caused by an interaction of stress factors, such as environmental pressures or general feelings of helplessness, anger, anxiety, or depression, and physiological factors, such as abnormal activity of the neurotransmitter serotonin, vascular problems, or muscle weakness

Ingesting Cocaine

Usually snorted, less powerful effects People now ingest cocaine by freebasing Millions more people use crack

Binge Drinking Episode

When people consume 5+ drinks on a single occasion Doing this at least 5 times each month is considered heavy drinking

Lymphocytes

White blood cells that circulate through the lymph system and bloodstream, helping the body identify and destroy antigens and cancer cells One group called helper T-cells, identifies antigens and then multiplies and triggers the production of other kinds of immune cells Another group, natural killer T-cells, seeks out and destroys body cells that have already been infected by viruses, thus helping to stop the spread of a viral infection A third group, B-cells, produces antibodies, protein molecules that recognize and bind to antigens, mark them for destruction, and prevent them from causing infection